2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Geometricdesignofroads
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Thegeometricdesignofroadsisthebranchofhighway
engineeringconcernedwiththepositioningofthephysical
elementsoftheroadwayaccordingtostandardsandconstraints.
Thebasicobjectivesingeometricdesignaretooptimize
efficiencyandsafetywhileminimizingcostandenvironmental
damage.Geometricdesignalsoaffectsanemergingfifth
objectivecalled"livability,"whichisdefinedasdesigning
roadstofosterbroadercommunitygoals,includingproviding
accesstoemployment,schools,businessesandresidences,
accommodatearangeoftravelmodessuchaswalking,
bicycling,transit,andautomobiles,andminimizingfueluse,
emissionsandenvironmentaldamage.[1]
Geometricroadwaydesigncanbebrokenintothreemainparts:
alignment,profile,andcrosssection.Combined,theyprovidea
threedimensionallayoutforaroadway.

TheAutovadelOlivarwhichunites
bedawithEstepainAndaluciain
southernSpain.Ageometricdesign
savedonconstructioncostsand
improvedvisibilitywiththeintention
toreducethelikelihoodoftraffic
incidents

Thealignmentistherouteoftheroad,definedasaseriesof
horizontaltangentsandcurves.
Theprofileistheverticalaspectoftheroad,includingcrestandsagcurves,andthestraightgradelines
connectingthem.
Thecrosssectionshowsthepositionandnumberofvehicleandbicyclelanesandsidewalks,alongwith
theircrossslopeorbanking.Crosssectionsalsoshowdrainagefeatures,pavementstructureandother
itemsoutsidethecategoryofgeometricdesign.

Contents
1Designstandards
2Profile
2.1Terminology
2.2SagCurves
2.3CrestCurves
3Alignment
3.1Terminology
3.2Geometry
3.3CurvesightDistance
4Crosssection
4.1Lanewidth
4.2Crossslope
5Safetyeffectsofroadgeometry
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

1/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

5.1Designconsistency
5.2Safetyeffectsofalignment
5.3Safetyeffectsofcrosssection
6Sightdistance
6.1Stoppingsightdistance
6.2Decisionsightdistance
6.3Intersectionsightdistance
6.3.1Cornersightdistance
6.3.1.1Uncontrolledandyieldcontrolledintersections
6.3.1.2Twowaystopcontrol
6.3.1.3Allwaystopcontrolandsignalizedintersections
6.4Effectsofinsufficientsightdistance
7Seealso
7.1Roadstandardssettingbodies
8Notes
9References
9.1LawReviews

Designstandards
Roadsaredesignedinconjunctionwithdesignguidelinesandstandards.Theseareadoptedbystateand
nationalauthorities.Designguidelinestakeintoaccountspeed,vehicletype,roadgrade(slope),view
obstructions,andstoppingdistance.Withproperapplicationofguidelines,alongwithgoodengineering
judgement,anengineercandesignaroadwaythatiscomfortable,safe,andappealingtotheeye.
TheprimaryUSguidanceisfoundintheAPolicyonGeometricDesignofHighwaysandStreets
publishedbytheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(AASHTO).[2]
OtherstandardsincludetheAustralianGuidetoRoadDesign
(http://www.austroads.com.au/interest_design.html),andtheBritishDesignManualforRoads.
(http://www.dft.gov.uk/ha/standards/dmrb/index.htm)Anopensourceversionofthegreenbookis
publishedonlinebyTheCouncilforScientificandIndustrialResearch(CSIR)(http://www.csir.co.za/)
officeinZimbabwe.[3]

Profile
Theprofileofaroadconsistsofroadslopes,calledgrades,connectedbyparabolicverticalcurves.
Verticalcurvesareusedtoprovideagradualchangefromoneroadslopetoanother,sothatvehicles
maysmoothlynavigategradechangesastheytravel.
Sagverticalcurvesarethosethathaveatangentslopeattheendofthecurvethatishigherthanthatof
thebeginningofthecurve.Whendrivingonaroad,asagcurvewouldappearasavalley,withthe
vehiclefirstgoingdownhillbeforereachingthebottomofthecurveandcontinuinguphillorlevel.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

2/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Crestverticalcurvesarethosethathaveatangentslopeattheendofthecurvethatislowerthanthatof
thebeginningofthecurve.Whendrivingonacrestcurve,theroadappearsasahill,withthevehicle
firstgoinguphillbeforereachingthetopofthecurveandcontinuingdownhill.
Theprofilealsoaffectsroaddrainage.Veryflatroadsandsagcurvesmayhavepoordrainage,andsteep
roadshavehighvelocityflows.

Terminology
BVC=BeginningofVerticalCurve
EVC=EndofVerticalCurve
=initialroadwaygrade,expressedinpercent
=finalroadwaygrade,expressedinpercent
A=absolutevalueofthedifferenceingrades(initialminusfinal),expressedinpercent
=Heightofeyeaboveroadway,measuredinmetersorfeet
=Heightofobjectaboveroadway,measuredinmetersorfeet
L=curvelength(alongthexaxis)
PVI=pointofverticalinterception(intersectionofinitialandfinalgrades)
tangentelevation=elevationofapointalongtheinitialtangent
x=horizontaldistancefromBVC
Y(offset)=verticaldistancefromtheinitialtangenttoapointonthecurve
Y=curveelevation=tangentelevationoffset[2]

SagCurves
Sagverticalcurvesarecurveswhich,whenviewedfromtheside,areconcaveupwards.Thisincludes
verticalcurvesatvalleybottoms,butitalsoincludeslocationswhereanuphillgradebecomessteeper,or
adownhillgradebecomeslesssteep.
Themostimportantdesigncriterionforthesecurvesisheadlightsightdistance.[2]Whenadriveris
drivingonasagcurveatnight,thesightdistanceislimitedbythehighergradeinfrontofthevehicle.
Thisdistancemustbelongenoughthatthedrivercanseeanyobstructionontheroadandstopthe
vehiclewithintheheadlightsightdistance.Theheadlightsightdistance(S)isdeterminedbytheangleof
theheadlightandangleofthetangentslopeattheendofthecurve.Byfirstfindingtheheadlightsight
distance(S)andthensolvingforthecurvelength(L)ineachoftheequationsbelow,thecorrectcurve
lengthcanbedetermined.IftheS<Lcurvelengthisgreaterthantheheadlightsightdistance,thenthis
numbercanbeused.Ifitissmaller,thisvaluecannotbeused.Similarly,iftheS>Lcurvelengthis
smallerthantheheadlightsightdistance,thenthisnumbercanbeused.Ifitislarger,thisvaluecannot
beused.[4]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

3/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Units

SightDistance<CurveLength(S<L) SightDistance>CurveLength(S>L)

Metric
USCustomary
Theseequationsassumethattheheadlightsare600millimetres(2.0ft)abovetheground,andthe
headlightbeamdiverges1degreeabovethelongitudinalaxisofthevehicle.[5]

CrestCurves
Crestverticalcurvesarecurveswhich,whenviewedfromtheside,areconvexupwards.Thisincludes
verticalcurvesathillcrests,butitalsoincludeslocationswhereanuphillgradebecomeslesssteep,ora
downhillgradebecomessteeper.
Themostimportantdesigncriterionforthesecurvesisstoppingsightdistance.[2]Thisisthedistancea
drivercanseeoverthecrestofthecurve.Ifthedrivercannotseeanyobstructionsintheroadway,such
asastalledvehicleoranimal,thedrivermaynotbeabletostopthevehicleintimetoavoidacrash.The
desiredstoppingsightdistance(S)isdeterminedbythespeedoftrafficonaroad.Byfirstfindingthe
stoppingsightdistance(S)andthensolvingforthecurvelength(L)ineachoftheequationsbelow,the
correctcurvelengthcanbedetermined.Theproperequationdependsonwhethertheverticalcurveis
shorterorlongerthantheavailablesightdistance.Normally,bothequationsaresolved,thentheresults
arecomparedtothecurvelength.[4][5]
SightDistance>CurveLength(S>L)

SightDistance<CurveLength(S<L)

USstandardsspecifytheheightofthedriverseyeisdefinedas1080mm(3.5ft)abovethepavement,
andtheheightoftheobjectthedriverneedstoseeas600mm(2.0ft),whichisequivalenttothetaillight
heightofmostpassengercars.[6]
Forbicyclefacilities,thecyclist'seyeheightisassumedtobeat1.4m(4.5ft),andtheobjectheightis0
inches,sinceapavementdefectcancauseacyclisttofallorlosecontrol.[7]

Alignment
Horizontalalignmentinroaddesignconsistsofstraightsectionsofroad,knownastangents,connected
bycircularhorizontalcurves.[2]Circularcurvesaredefinedbyradius(tightness)anddeflectionangle
(extent).Thedesignofahorizontalcurveentailsthedeterminationofaminimumradius(basedonspeed
limit),curvelength,andobjectsobstructingtheviewofthedriver.[4]
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

4/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

UsingAASHTOstandards,anengineerworkstodesignaroadthatissafeandcomfortable.Ifa
horizontalcurvehasahighspeedandasmallradius,anincreasedsuperelevation(bank)isneededin
ordertoassuresafety.Ifthereisanobjectobstructingtheviewaroundacornerorcurve,theengineer
mustworktoensurethatdriverscanseefarenoughtostoptoavoidanaccidentoracceleratetojoin
traffic.

Terminology
R=Radius
PC=PointofCurvature(pointatwhichthecurvebegins)
PT=PointofTangent(pointatwhichthecurveends)
PI=PointofIntersection(pointatwhichthetwotangents
intersect)
T=TangentLength
C=LongChordLength(straightlinebetweenPCandPT)
L=CurveLength
M=MiddleOrdinate,nowknownasHSOHorizontalSightlineOffset(distancefromsightobstructing
objecttothemiddleoftheoutsidelane)
E=ExternalDistance
=CoefficientofSideFriction
u=VehicleSpeed
=DeflectionAngle[2]

Geometry

[2]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

5/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

CurvesightDistance

Crosssection
Thecrosssectionofaroadwaycanbeconsideredarepresentationofwhatonewouldseeifanexcavator
dugatrenchacrossaroadway,showingthenumberoflanes,theirwidthsandcrossslopes,aswellasthe
presenceorabsenceofshoulders,curbs,sidewalks,drains,ditches,andotherroadwayfeatures.

Lanewidth
Theselectionoflanewidthaffectsthecostandperformanceofahighway.Typicallanewidthsrange
from3metres(9.8ft)to3.6metres(12ft).Widerlanesandshouldersareusuallyusedonroadswith
higherspeedandhighervolumetraffic,andsignificantnumbersoftrucksandotherlargevehicles.
Narrowerlanesmaybeusedonroadswithlowerspeedorlowervolumetraffic.
Narrowlanescostlesstobuildandmaintain,butalsoreducethecapacityofaroadtoconveytraffic.On
ruralroads,narrowlanesarelikelytoexperiencehigherratesofrunoffroadandheadoncollisions.
Widerroadsincreasethetimeneededtowalkacross,andincreasestormwaterrunoff.

Crossslope
Crossslopedescribestheslopeofaroadwayperpendiculartothecenterline.Ifaroadwerecompletely
level,waterwoulddrainoffitveryslowly.Thiswouldcreateproblemswithhydroplaning,andice
accumulationincoldweather.
Intangent(straight)sections,theroadsurfacecrossslopeiscommonly12%toenablewatertodrain
fromtheroadway.Crossslopesofthissize,especiallywhenappliedinbothdirectionsoftravelwitha
crownpointalongthecenterlineofaroadwayarecommonlyreferredtoas"normalcrown"andare
generallyimperceptibletotravelingmotorists.
Incurvedsections,theoutsideedgeoftheroadissuperelevatedabovethecenterline.Sincetheroadis
slopeddowntotheinsideofthecurve,gravitypullsthevehicledowntowardstheinsideofthecurve.
Thisallowsgravitytohelpprovidesomeofthecentripetalforceneededtogoaroundthecurve.
Superelevationslopesofupto4to10%areappliedinordertoaidmotoristsinsafelytraversingthese
sectionswhilemaintainingentryspeedofthevehiclealongthelengthofthecurve.Anupperboundof
12%waschosentoreflecttheeffectsofconstructionandmaintenancepractices,aswellasthedifficulty
ofdrivingasteepcrossslopeatlowspeeds.Inareasthatreceivesignificantsnowandice,mostagencies
useamaximumcrossslopeof6to8%.Steepercrossslopesmakeitdifficulttotraversetheslopeatlow
speedwhenthesurfaceisicy,nottomentionacceleratingfromzerowithwarmtyresontheice.Lower
crossslopeincreasetheriskforlossofcontrolathighspeedwhenthesurfaceisicy.Sincethe
consequenceofhighspeedskiddingismuchworsethanfromslidingatlowspeed,thenetsafetyin
sharpcurvesgainsfromselectingupto8%superelevationinsteadof4%.Thelowerslopeof4%is
mostlyusedonurbanroadwayswherespeedsarelower,andwheresteeperslopeswouldraisethe
outsideroadedgeaboveadjacentproperties.[5]

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

6/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Theequationforthedesiredradiusofacurveisfoundfromtheequationbelowwhichtakesintoaccount
factorsforspeedandsuperelevationrate(e).Thisequationcanberearrangedalgebraicallytoobtain
desiredratesofsuperelevationbasedonthedesignspeedofaroadwayandtheradius.

TheAmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationofficials(AASHTO)providesatable
fromwhichdesiredsuperelevationratescanbeeasilyinterpolatedbasedonthedesignspeedandradius
ofacurvedsectionofroadway.Thistablecanalsobeseenreprintedinmanystateroadwaydesign
guidesandmanualsintheU.S.

Safetyeffectsofroadgeometry
Thegeometryofaroadinfluencesitssafetyperformance.Whilestudiesofcontributingfactorstoroad
accidentsshowthathumanfactorspredominate,roadwayfactorsarethesecondmostcommoncategory,
withvehiclefactorslast.

Designconsistency
Collisionstendtobemorefrequentinlocationswhereasuddenchangeinroadcharacterviolatesthe
driver'sexpectations.Acommonexampleisasharpcurveattheendofalongtangentsectionofroad.
Theconceptofdesignconsistencyaddressesthisbycomparingadjacentroadsegmentsandidentifying
siteswithchangesthedrivermightfindsuddenorunexpected.Locationswithlargechangesinthe
predictedoperatingspeedarelikelytobenefitfromadditionaldesigneffort.Ahorizontalcurvewitha
significantlysmallerradiusthanthosebeforeitmayneedenhancedcurvesigns.[8]Thisisan
improvementontheconceptofdesignspeed,whichonlysetsalowerlimitforgeometricdesign.Inthe
examplegivenabove,alongtangentfollowedbyasharpcurvewouldbeacceptableifa30mphdesign
speedwaschosen.Designconsistencyanalysiswouldflagthedecreaseinoperatingspeedatthecurve.

Safetyeffectsofalignment
Thesafetyofahorizontalcurveisaffectedbythelengthofthecurve,thecurveradius,whetherspiral
transitioncurvesareused,andthesuperelevationoftheroadway.Foragivencurvedeflection,crashes
aremorelikelyoncurveswithasmallerradius.Spiraltransitionsdecreasecrashes,andinsufficient
superelevationincreasescrashes.
Asafetyperformancefunctiontomodelcurveperformanceontwolaneroadsis:[9]

where
AMF=Accidentmodificationfactor,amultiplierthatdescribeshowmanymorecrashesare
likelytooccuronthecurvecomparedtoastraightroad
Lc=Lengthofthehorizontalcurveinmiles.
R=Radiusofthecurveinfeet.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

7/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

S=1ifspiraltransitioncurvesarepresent
=0ifspiraltransitioncurvesareabsent

Safetyeffectsofcrosssection
Crossslopeandlanewidthaffectthesafetyperformanceofaroad.
Certaintypesofcrashes,termed"lanedeparturecrashes",aremorelikelyonroadswithnarrowlanes.
Theseincluderunoffroadcollisions,sideswipes,andheadoncollisions.Fortwolaneruralroads
carryingover2000vehiclesperday,theexpectedincreaseincrashesis:
Lanewidth

Expectedincreaseincrashes

12feet(3.7m) 0%
11feet(3.4m) 5%
10feet(3.0m) 30%
9feet(2.7m) 50%
Theeffectoflanewidthisreducedonurbanandsuburbanroads[10]andlowvolumeroads.[9]
Insufficientsuperelevationwillalsoresultinanincreaseincrashrate.Theexpectedincreaseisshown
below:[9]
Superelevation
deficiency

Expectedincreaseincrashes
forcars

Expectedincreaseincrashesforheavy
trucks[11]

<0.01

0%

<5%

0.02

6%

10%

0.03

9%

15%

0.04

12%

20%

0.05

15%

25%

Sightdistance
Roadgeometryaffectsthesightdistanceavailabletothedriver.Sightdistance,inthecontextofroad
design,isdefinedas"thelengthofroadwayaheadvisibletothedriver."[1]Sightdistanceishowfara
roaduser(usuallyavehicledriver)canseebeforethelineofsightisblockedbyahillcrest,oran
obstacleontheinsideofahorizontalcurveorintersection.Insufficientsightdistancecanadversely
affectthesafetyoroperationsofaroadwayorintersection.
Thesightdistanceneededforagivensituationisthedistancetravelledduringthetwophasesofa
drivingmaneuver:perceptionreactiontime(PRT),andmaneuvertime(MT).Perceptionreactiontimeis
thetimeittakesforaroadusertorealizethatareactionisneededtoaroadcondition,decidedwhat
maneuverisappropriate,andstartthemaneuver.Maneuvertimeisthetimeittakestocompletethe
maneuver.Thedistancedrivenduringperceptionreactiontimeandmaneuvertimeisthesightdistance
needed.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

8/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Duringhighwaydesignandtrafficsafetyinvestigations,highwayengineerscomparetheavailablesight
distancetohowmuchsightdistanceisneededforthesituation.Dependingonthesituation,oneofthree
typesofsightdistanceswillbeused:

Stoppingsightdistance
Stoppingsightdistanceisthedistancetraveledduringperceptionreactiontime(whilethevehicledriver
perceivesasituationrequiringastop,realizesthatstoppingisnecessary,andappliesthebrake),and
maneuvertime(whilethedriverdeceleratesandcomestoastop).Actualstoppingdistancesarealso
affectedbyroadconditions,themassofthecar,theinclineoftheroad,andnumerousotherfactors.For
design,aconservativedistanceisneededtoallowavehicletravelingatdesignspeedtostopbefore
reachingastationaryobjectinitspath.Typicallythedesignsightdistanceallowsabelowaveragedriver
tostopintimetoavoidacollision.[12][13]

Decisionsightdistance
Decisionsightdistanceisusedwhendriversmustmakedecisionsmorecomplexthanstopordon'tstop.
Itislongerthanstoppingsightdistancetoallowforthedistancetraveledwhilemakingamorecomplex
decision.Thedecisionsightdistanceis"distancerequiredforadrivertodetectanunexpectedor
otherwisedifficulttoperceiveinformationsourceorhazardinaroadwayenvironmentthatmaybe
visuallycluttered,recognizethehazardoritsthreatpotential,selectanappropriatespeedandpath,and
initiateandcompletetherequiredmaneuversafelyandefficiently.[14]Ideally,roadsaredesignedforthe
decisionsightdistance,using6to10secondsforperceptionreactiontimeand4to5secondstoperform
therightmaneuver.

Intersectionsightdistance
Intersectionsightdistanceisthesightdistanceneededtosafelyproceedthroughanintersection.The
distanceneededdependsonthetypeoftrafficcontrolattheintersection(uncontrolled,yieldsign,stop
signorsignal),andthemaneuver(leftturn,rightturn,orproceedingstraight).Allwaystopintersections
needtheleast,anduncontrolledintersectionsrequirethemost.Intersectionsightdistanceisakeyfactor
inwhethernocontroloryieldcontrolcanbesafelyused,otmorerestrictivecontrolinneeded.[15]
Cornersightdistance
Cornersightdistance(CSD)istheroadalignmentspecificationwhichprovidesasubstantiallyclearline
ofsightsothatthedriverofavehicle,bicyclistorpedestrianwaitingatthecrossroadmaysafely
anticipatethedriverofanapproachingvehicle.Cornersightprovidesanadequatetimeforthewaiting
usertoeithercrossalllanesofthroughtraffic,crossthenearlanesandturnleft,orturnright,without
requiringthroughtraffictoradicallyaltertheirspeed.
Uncontrolledandyieldcontrolledintersections

Uncontrolledandyield(giveway)controlledintersectionsrequirelargesighttrianglesclearof
obstructionsinordertooperatesafely.Atuncontrolledintersections,thebasicrightofwayrulesapply
(eitheryieldtothevehicleontheright,ortheboulevardrule,dependingonthelocation).Vehicledrivers
mustbeabletoseetrafficapproachingontheintersectingroadatapointwheretheycanadjusttheir
speed,orstopifneedbe,toyieldtotheothertrafficbeforereachingtheintersection.Itisn'ttheonly
criterionforallowingthesetypesofintersectioncontrol.Changinganintersectiontostopcontrolisa
commonresponsetopoorsafetyperformance.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

9/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Twowaystopcontrol

Whendeterminingcornersightdistance,asetbackdistanceforthevehiclewaitingatthecrossroadmust
beassumed.Setbackforthedriverofthevehicleonthecrossroadhasbeenstandardizedbysomestate
MUTCDsanddesignmanualstobeuptoaminimumof10feetplustheshoulderwidthofthemajor
roadbutnotlessthan15feet.[16]However,theFederalMUTCDrequiresthatastopline,ifused,shall
beatleast4feetfromthenearesttravellane.[17]Lineofsightforcornersightdistanceistobe
determinedfroma3and1/2footeyeheightatthevehicledriver'slocationontheminorroadtoa4and
1/4footobjectheightinthecenteroftheapproachinglaneofthemajorroad.[18][19]Cornersight
distance,
,isequivalenttoaspecifiedtimegap, ,atthedesignspeed,
,requiredfora
stoppedvehicletoturnrightorleft:

Forpassengervehiclesattwolaneintersections,thistimegapequivalenceiscommonlyadistance7.5
secondsawayatthedesignspeed.Longergapsarerequiredfortrucksandbuses,andformultilane
roads.[20]Generally,thepublicrightofwayshouldincludeandmaintainthislineofsight.
Allwaystopcontrolandsignalizedintersections

Driversatintersectionswithallwaystopcontrolortrafficsignalsneedtheleastsightdistance.Atall
waystops,driversneedtobeabletoseevehiclesstoppedatotherapproaches.Atsignals,drivers
approachingtheintersectionsneedtoseethesignalheads.Injurisdictionsthatallowrightturnonred,
driversintherightlanestopcontrolneedthesamesightdistanceastwowaystopcontrol.Althoughnot
neededduringnormaloperations,additionalsightdistanceshouldbeprovidedforsignalmalfunctions
andpoweroutages.

Effectsofinsufficientsightdistance
Manyroadswerecreatedlongbeforethecurrentsightdistancestandardswereadopted,andthefinancial
burdenonmanyjurisdictionswouldbeformidableto:acquireandmaintainadditionalrightofway
redesignroadbedsonallofthemorimplementfutureprojectsonroughterrain,orenvironmentally
sensitiveareas.Insuchcases,thebareminimumcornersightdistanceshouldbeequaltothestopping
sightdistance.[21]Whileacornersightdistancewhichfarexceedthebrakingdistanceatthedesign
speedshouldbeaffordedtothedriver,heorsheisstillgenerallyrequiredtomaintainsuchcontroland
operatingspeedastobeabletostopwithintheAssuredClearDistanceAhead(ACDA),[22]andthebasic
speedrulealwaysapplies.Jurisdictionsoftenprovidesomelevelofdesignimmunityagainst
governmentclaimsactions,insuchcases.[Note1]
Warningsignsareoftenusedwheresightdistanceisinsufficient.TheUSMUTCDrequiresStopAhead,
YieldAheadorSignalAheadsignsatintersectionswherethetrafficcontroldeviceisnotvisiblefroma
distanceequaltothestoppingsightdistanceatspeedofapproachingtraffic.HillBlocksViewsignscan
beusedwherecrestverticalcurvesrestrictsightdistance.[23]However,manyjurisdictionsstillexpect
driverstouseordinarycareregardingconditionsreadilyapparenttoadriver,withoutthepromptingofa
sign.[Note2]Thecareandfocusordinarilyrequiredofadriveragainstcertaintypesofhazardsmaybe
somewhatamplifiedonroadswithlowerfunctionalclassification.[24][25]Theprobabilityofspontaneous
trafficincreasesproportionallytothedensityofaccesspoints,andthisdensityshouldbereadily

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

10/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

apparenttoadriverevenwhenaspecificaccesspointisnot.[26]Forthisreason,fullcornersight
distanceisalmostneverrequiredforindividualdrivewaysinurbanhighdensityresidentialareas,and
streetparkingiscommonlypermittedwithintherightofway.

Seealso
Cognitiveergonomics
Degreeofcurvature
Designspeed
Humanfactors
Roadtrafficsafety
Stoppingsightdistance
Trafficpsychology
Transitioncurve

Roadstandardssettingbodies
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials
NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram
TransportationResearchBoard

Notes
1. ^Forexample,seeCaliforniaGovernmentClaimsAct(http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgibin/displaycode?
section=gov&group=0000101000&file=815818.9)andVehicleCodeSection22358.5
(http://www.dmv.ca.gov/pubs/vctop/d11/vc22358_5.htm)
2. ^Forexample,theCaliforniaGovernmentClaimsAct'sCGC830.4
(http://law.onecle.com/california/government/830.4.html):"Aconditionisnotadangerousconditionwithin
themeaningofthischaptermerelybecauseofthefailuretoprovideregulatorytrafficcontrolsignals,stop
signs,yieldrightofwaysigns,orspeedrestrictionsigns..."andCGC830.8
(http://law.onecle.com/california/government/830.8.html):"Neitherapublicentitynorapublicemployeeis
liableunderthischapterforaninjurycausedbythefailuretoprovidetrafficorwarningsignals,signs,
markingsordevicesdescribedintheVehicleCode.Nothinginthissectionexoneratesapublicentityorpublic
employeefromliabilityforinjuryproximatelycausedbysuchfailureifasignal,sign,markingordevice
(otherthanonedescribedinSection830.4)wasnecessarytowarnofadangerousconditionwhichendangered
thesafemovementoftrafficandwhichwouldnotbereasonablyapparentto,andwouldnothavebeen
anticipatedby,apersonexercisingduecare."SeealsoCalVeh.Code22350
(http://www.dmv.ca.gov/pubs/vctop/d11/vc22350.htm),CalVeh.Code22358.5
(http://www.dmv.ca.gov/pubs/vctop/d11/vc22358_5.htm),CalGov.Code831
(http://law.onecle.com/california/government/831.html),andCACIForm1120(http://www.justia.com/trials
litigation/docs/caci/1100/1120.html).

References
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

11/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

1. ^"TheRoleofFHWAProgramsinLivability:StateofthePracticeSummary"
(http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/livability/state_of_the_practice_summary/research00.cfm).FederalHighway
Administration.Retrieved16April2012.
2. ^abcdefgGarber,N.J.,andHoel,L.,A.,TrafficandHighwayEngineering,3rdEdition.Brooks/Cole
Publishing,2001
3. ^"SANRALGeometricDesignGuideline"(http://geometricdesign.csir.co.za/).TheCouncilforScientificand
IndustrialResearch(CSIR)inSouthAfrica.Retrieved20130728.
4. ^abcHomburger,W.S.,Hall,J.W.,reilly,W.R.andSullivan,E.C.,FundamentalsofTrafficEngineering
(15thed),ITSCourseNotesUCBITSCN011,2001
5. ^abcAPolicyonGeometricDesignofHighwaysandStreets.WashingtonD.C.:AmericanAssociationof
StateHighwayandTransportationOfficials.2004.
6. ^"MnDOTRoadDesignManual"(http://dotapp7.dot.state.mn.us/edms/download?docId=1062355).MnDOT.
Retrieved6September2012.
7. ^MinnesotaDepartmentofTransportation,BikewayFacilityDesignManual,section53.5.1,
http://www.dot.state.mn.us/bike/pdfs/Chapter5_Bw.pdf,retrieved4/20/2010
8. ^"DesignConsistencyModuleEngineersManual"
(http://www.ihsdm.org/public/html/user/dcm/dcm_em.1.html#overview_dcm).InteractiveHighwayDesign
ModelEngineer'sManual.FederalHighwaysAdministration.Retrieved3/6/2012.Checkdatevaluesin:
|accessdate=(help)

9. ^abcD.W.Harwood,F.M.Council,E.Hauer,W.E.Hughes,andA.Vogt(2000).Predictionofthe
ExpectedSafetyPerformanceofRuralTwoLaneHighways
(http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/99207/99207.pdf).Washington,D.C.:Federal
HighwayAdministration.
10. ^Potts,IngridB.(2007).RelationshipofLaneWidthtoSafetyforUrbanandSuburbanArterials
(http://www.completestreets.org/webdocs/resources/lanewidthsafety.pdf).TransportationResearchBoard.
11. ^TheEffectofCrossSectionalGeometryonHeavyVehiclePerformanceandSafety
(http://www.nzta.govt.nz/resources/research/reports/263/docs/263.pdf)
12. ^HighwayDesignManual(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/hdmtoc.htm).6thEd.CaliforniaDepartment
ofTransportation.2012.p.200.SeeChapter200onStoppingSightDistance
(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/pdf/english/chp0200.pdf)
13. ^NationalCooperativeHighwayResearchProgram(1997).NCHRPReport400:DeterminationofStopping
SightDistances(http://onlinepubs.trb.org/onlinepubs/nchrp/nchrp_rpt_400.pdf).TransportationResearch
Board(NationalAcademyPress).p.I13.ISBN0309060737.
14. ^AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(1994)APolicyonGeometricDesign
ofHighwaysandStreets(pp.117118)
15. ^AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials(1994)APolicyonGeometricDesign
ofHighwaysandStreets(pp.650679)
16. ^HighwayDesignManual(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/hdmtoc.htm).6thEd.CaliforniaDepartment
ofTransportation.2012.pp.40014.SeeChapter405.1onSightDistance
(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/pdf/english/chp0400.pdf)
17. ^"ManualonUniformTrafficControlDevices(MUCTD)"(http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/).UnitedStates
DepartmentofTransportationFederalHighwayAdministration,.|chapter=ignored(help)
18. ^HighwayDesignManual(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/hdmtoc.htm).6thEd.CaliforniaDepartment
ofTransportation.2012.p.200.SeeChapter405.1onSightDistance
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

12/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/pdf/english/chp0400.pdf)
19. ^"300".APolicyonGeometricDesignofHighwaysandStreets(http://www.transportation.org).4thEd.
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials.2004.
20. ^"300".APolicyonGeometricDesignofHighwaysandStreets(http://www.transportation.org).4thEd.
AmericanAssociationofStateHighwayandTransportationOfficials.2004.SeeExhibit954.TimeGapfor
CaseB1LeftTurnfromStop
21. ^HighwayDesignManual(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/hdmtoc.htm).6thEd.CaliforniaDepartment
ofTransportation.2012.pp.40022.SeeChapter405.1onSightDistance
(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/oppd/hdm/pdf/english/chp0400.pdf)
22. ^USLegalDictionary(http://definitions.uslegal.com/a/assuredcleardistanceahead/)
23. ^"ManualonUniformTrafficControlDevices(MUCTD)"(http://mutcd.fhwa.dot.gov/).UnitedStates
DepartmentofTransportationFederalHighwayAdministration,.|chapter=ignored(help)
24. ^"Riggsv.GasserMotors,22Cal.App.2d636"
(http://law.justia.com/cases/california/calapp2d/22/636.html).OfficialCaliforniaAppellateReports(2nd
SeriesVol.22,p.636).September25,1937.Retrieved20130727.""Itiscommonknowledgethat
intersectingstreetsincitiespresentacontinuinghazard,thedegreeofhazarddependinguponthe
extentoftheuseoftheintersectingstreetsandthesurroundingcircumstancesorconditionsofeach
intersection.Undersuchcircumstancesthebasiclaw...isalwaysgoverning.""SeeOfficialReports
OpinionsOnline(http://courts.ca.gov/opinionsslip.htm)
25. ^"Reaughv.CudahyPackingCo.,189Cal.335"(http://www.lexisnexis.com/clients/CACourts/).Official
CaliforniaReports,Vol.189,p.335,(CaliforniaSupremeCourtreporter).July27,1922.Retrieved
20130727.""motorvehicles,mustbespeciallywatchfulinanticipationofthepresenceofothersat
placeswhereothervehiclesareconstantlypassing,andwheremen,women,andchildrenareliableto
becrossing,suchascornersattheintersectionsofstreetsorothersimilarplacesorsituationswhere
peoplearelikelytofailtoobserveanapproachingautomobile.""SeeOfficialReportsOpinionsOnline
(http://www.lexisnexis.com/clients/CACourts/)
26. ^"Leeperv.Nelson,139Cal.App.2d65"(http://law.justia.com/cases/california/calapp2d/139/65.html).
OfficialCaliforniaAppellateReports(2ndSeriesVol.139,p.65).Feb6,1956.Retrieved20130727.""The
operatorofanautomobileisboundtoanticipatethathemaymeetpersonsorvehiclesatanypointof
thestreet,andhemustinordertoavoidachargeofnegligence,keepaproperlookoutforthemand
keephismachineundersuchcontrolaswillenablehimtoavoidacollisionwithanotherautomobile
drivenwithcareandcautionasareasonablyprudentpersonwoulddoundersimilarconditions.""See
Huetterv.Andrews,91Cal.App.2d142(http://law.justia.com/cases/california/calapp2d/91/142.html),Berlin
v.Violett,129Cal.App.337(http://www.lexisnexis.com/clients/CACourts/),Reaughv.CudahyPackingCo.,
189Cal.335(http://www.lexisnexis.com/clients/CACourts/),andOfficialReportsOpinionsOnline
(http://courts.ca.gov/opinionsslip.htm)

LawReviews
"Liabilityofhighwayauthoritiesarisingoutofmotorvehicleaccidentallegedlycausedbyfailure
toerectorproperlymaintaintrafficcontroldeviceatintersection".AmericanLawReports
Annotated,3rdSeries34.TheLawyersCooperativePublishingCompanyBancroftWhitney
WestGroupAnnotationCompany.p.1008.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

13/14

2/6/2015

GeometricdesignofroadsWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

"CommentNote:GovernmentalLiabilityforFailuretoReduceVegetationObscuringViewat
RailroadCrossingoratStreetorHighwayIntersection,".AmericanLawReportsAnnotated,6th
Series50.TheLawyersCooperativePublishingCompanyBancroftWhitneyWestGroup
AnnotationCompany.p.95.
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?
title=Geometric_design_of_roads&oldid=643183819"
Categories: Transportationengineering
Thispagewaslastmodifiedon19January2015,at10:05.
TextisavailableundertheCreativeCommonsAttributionShareAlikeLicenseadditionalterms
mayapply.Byusingthissite,youagreetotheTermsofUseandPrivacyPolicy.Wikipediaisa
registeredtrademarkoftheWikimediaFoundation,Inc.,anonprofitorganization.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_design_of_roads#Profile

14/14