Running head: STUDENTS OF COLOR COLLEGE DEVELOPMENT

Understanding First Generation Students of Color College Development

Awatif Ruth Elias
Loyola University Chicago

STUDENTS OF COLOR COLLEGE DEVELOPMENT

First-generation students are defined as students whose parents neither attended college
(Nora, Pascarella, Springer, Terenzini, Springer, &Yaeger, 1996; Johnson, Padgett, Pascarella,
2012). This definition also encompasses parents who attended some college but did not finish or
earn a bachelors degree. As more first-generation students of color choose to attend higher
education, they are becoming a significant amount of the current college student population, that
are in need of unique support and unique attention. From 1976 to 2010, the percentage of
Latino/a students rose from 3% to 13%, the percentage of Asian American students rose from
2% to 6%, and the percentage of Black American students rose from 9% to 14 %( National
Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 2012). A study conducted by the Department of
Education (2010) found that almost 50% of the college population is comprised of firstgeneration students (NCES).
First-generation students often embody these characteristics: they tend to be older, more
likely to be women, come from lower socioeconomic statuses, have dependent children and
require additional time to complete their degrees (Pascarella et al., 1996; Jehangir, Pete
&Williams, 2011). In addition, compared to their second generation peers, they are likely to live
off-campus, work more hours off-campus, and perceive faculty as people who are concerned
with their development (Pascarella et al., 1996; Pascarella, Pierson, Terenzini &Wolniak, 2004).
Jehangir et al. (2011), further explained that first-generation students are more likely to be
students of color, immigrants, and have limited access to information about college. Lastly, firstgeneration students enter college with limited cultural and social capital. Social capital is
defined as the values, norms, standards, and expectations for education as communicated to
individuals through interpersonal relationships they share with others (Padgett et al., 2012,
p.246).

STUDENTS OF COLOR COLLEGE DEVELOPMENT

While my topic focuses on first-generation students of color, this paper will draw on the
experiences of Asian American students, Latino/a students, and Black American students. These
students of color often struggle with navigating two worlds on campus, those of the home and of
the school (Jehangir et al., 2011). The experience of first-generation students leaving home to
attend college is akin to arriving in a strange new land where they have to learn the language,
customs, and mores without the codebook to explain what they are (Borrego, 2001; Rendon,
1996; Rodriguez, 1982, as cited in Jehangir et al., 2011, p. 56).
Attending college allows students of color (Asian Americans, Latinos/as, &Black
Americans) to develop cognitively, intrapersonally, and interpersonally. As diversity in higher
education continues to grow, it is imperative that student affairs practitioners understand and
consider the unique needs of these students of color so as to construct and implement effective
developmental interventions. This paper will review existing literature on this student
population as it relates to their development in terms of cognitive, psychosocial, and social
identity development, summarize areas of further research, and outline implications for future
practice.
Cognitive Development
Cognitive development theories study how students think, reason, and make meaning of
their experiences (Evans et al., 2010). When students are exposed to new information or
experiences that cause cognitive dissonance, they can try to fit the new data to their current
understanding, and if they are unable to, they may construct new, complex structures (as cited in
Evans et al., 2010) leading to cognitive development. Torres and Baxter Magoldas (2004) study
found that ethnic identity was interwoven with the cognitive dimension of development (as cited

STUDENTS OF COLOR COLLEGE DEVELOPMENT

in Torres & Hernandez, 2007). Each individuals ethnicity and upbringing in that culture is likely
to influence cognitive development.
Social interactions influence cognitive development. Through interpersonal interactions,
individuals are able to express their thought processes. According to research on social
cognition, learning takes places in a social context, and a persons ability to interact effectively
with others requires some level of cognitive ability (Interpersonal, cultural & emotional
influences, 1999). Chickering and Reisser (1993) emphasized that relationships provide
powerful learning experiences and opportunities to enhance cognitive development. Students
involved in multicultural learning communities (MLC) expressed that engaging with diverse
peers in facilitated classroom discussions prompted them to think about their own identities. For
instances, these students were empowered to share their own perspectives with one another by
speaking up in class. Engaging with peers was not an easy task for these students because they
were challenged by feelings of dissonance that resulted from engaging with new ideas, people
and perspectives (Jehangir et al., 2011, p. 64). Some of the students in the MLC stressed that
engaging with complex ideas and communicating with peers shaped their knowledge
construction process. Due to the supportive environment in the MLC, students were able to
develop their identity through interacting with others, especially when people listened to their
opinion and respected them as individuals with a voice (Jehangir et al., 2011). Thus, these
studies focusing on first-generation students of color prove that the role of context is crucial in
shaping the cognitive development of first-generation students of color.
With regards to specific ethnicities, Asian Americans tend to be more collectivistic. They
respect their parents, and defer to authority (Kodama, McEwen, Liang, & Lee, 2001). Cognitive
theorists (e.g., Perry, 1981) argue that complex reasoning arises as students question the validity

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of authorities opinions and progress toward recognizing that multiple perspectives exist and
require support, which is known as relativistic thinking (Evans et al., 2010). For example, Perry
(1981) described dualism as thinking in absolute terms of right or wrong. However, Asian
Americans reasoning should not be considered any less complex because of deferring to
authority. It is possible that Asian Americans might not challenge authority because such
behavior is not promoted in their culture.
Most of the research found on cognitive development focuses on how outside
commitments affect the academic growth of first-generation students due to time constraints.
Terenzini et al. (1996) found that first-generation students had weaker cognitive skills on
reading, math, and critical thinking compared to their traditional White peers. Due to more time
spent working off campus per week, these students have less time to study, which is shown to
reduce their reading skills. Pascarella et al. (2004) showed that hours studied yielded a positive
effect on critical thinking skills, and the number of written reports and term papers had a positive
impact on writing skills, openness to diversity, and learning for self-understanding. Having
greater work responsibilities and living off campus is said to contribute to the lower levels of
extracurricular involvement and interaction with peers for first-generation students (Pascarella et
al., 2004; Padgett et al., 2012; Kuh & Pike, 2005). Yet, the fact remain that students who live
on campus are more engaged and gain more from their college experiences due to easier access
to faculty, staff, and peers(Schuh, Jones, Harper & Associates, 2011, p.261). Having greater
work responsibilities interfered with growth during college.
Similarly, the theory of self-authorship is a process whereby individuals reflect on their
own identities, beliefs, and relationship with others (Evans et al., 2010; Jehangir et al., 2011).
Baxter Magolda identified three questions that guide ones journey toward self-authorship.

STUDENTS OF COLOR COLLEGE DEVELOPMENT

These questions are: who am I, how do I know, and how do I want to construct relationships with
others. She also identified four phases of growth that consist of external formulas, crossroads,
becoming the author of ones own life, and internal foundations (Evans et al., 2010; as cited in
Jehangir et al., 2011). In Torres and Hernandezs (2007) study, Latino/a students who were at
the external formula phase relied on the opinion of their family, friends, and advisors in initially
selecting an academic major. Those students who transitioned into crosswords phase recognized
multiple perspectives and commenced making their own decisions by taking their needs into
consideration. For example, one student who transferred to a Predominantly White Institution
(PWI) was exposed to multiple perspectives different from those of her family and friends. For
many of these students, the change in environment and new diversity provided them with an
opportunity to incorporate those aspects in their social circle (Jehangir et al., 2011). Latino/a
students who transitioned to becoming the author of their own lives considered their needs when
making choices instead of making choices proposed by others. For the few Latino/a students at
the internal foundation, their culture was imbedded within their choices and actions. These
students had adjusted to being confident and accepting both in and out of their cultural context.
First-generation students (Latino/a, Asian Americans, & Black Americans) who were at
the external foundation status valued their own beliefs and devalued anything outside their
comfort zone (Jehangir et al., 2011; Torres & Hernandez, 2007). For example, one Latina
student, who was self-conscious of her accent around Anglos, only maintained relationships with
Latinos/as to avoid criticism about her accent. Making friends with only individuals from the
same ethnic group (as in this previous example) limits ones experiences that could further
facilitate growth. For students transitioning to crossroads, a change in the environment exposed
them to incorporate multiple perspectives in their lives. For instance, first-generation students in

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the MLC whose curriculum explored issues of race, class, and gender shaped students
experiences through interactions with others from various racial and ethnic groups. One way to
improve students interpersonal growth in this phase is to design projects that link students lived
experiences with academic content (Jehangir et al., 2011). Students who entered becoming the
author of ones own life, made relationships that were consistent with and informed Latino/a
identity (Torres &Hernandez, 2007, p. 571).
Psychosocial Development
Psychosocial development is influenced by cultural and ethnic context, such as
relationships with the same ethnic members and ones internal feelings of attachment to a
particular ethnic group (Evans et al, 2010). Psychosocial theories guide in understanding ones
self, relationships with others, clarifying purposes in life, and how environment impacts
individuals development throughout their lives (Evans et al., 2010). Pope (2000) found that
racial identity was related to psychosocial development, claiming that the two were equally
important and concurrent developmental concerns for students of color (p. 308). Pope further
asserts that the energy students of color commit to developing their racial identity may at times
hinder their ability to focus on psychosocial development. For example, Baber (2012) explains
that African American students at PWIs experience a racially hostile climate on campus
compared to their White peers. Having such feelings often lead to a sense of alienation that
inhibits students of color from establishing a connection and commitment to the institution.
Fleming (1984) found that isolation and loneliness affected African American students from
making interpersonal relationships on White campuses (as cited in Evans et al., 2010). Once
they matriculate to colleges and universities, African American students, Latino/a students, and
Asian American students have to confront a community that maintains certain preferences and

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tendencies which exclude those with dissimilar cultural experiences (Baber, 2012, p. 68). For
African Americans, relationships with mainstream social institutions are subjectively influenced
by cultural norms grounded in racism and discrimination (Baber, 2012). Such external
assumptions and stereotypes can influence these students willingness to be engaged in their
campuses for fear of being judged. First-generation students of color are likely to encounter
racism, isolation, racial bias, discrimination and a hostile campus environment which could
negatively impact their psychosocial development. Therefore, it is important for higher education
practitioners to be conscious of our speech and create supportive environments to advance the
psychosocial development of these students.
Marcias (1966) ego identity status model demonstrates how individuals balance crisis
and commitment when experiencing conflict to establish individual values and manage parental
values (Evans et al., 2010). Respect for authority (i.e., parents) for Asian Americans does not
support Marcias model. In the moratorium status, Marcia asserted that individuals actively
question parental values in order to form their identity (Evans et al., 2010, p.53). However,
Asian Americans develop individually but also in relation to the group, which differs from
Marcias idea that conflict is necessary between the two for development to occur. As Yen and
Huang (1996), stated, relationships and interdependence are crucial to the core identity of self.
Also, Marcias identity achievement status seems inapplicable to this group. In the identity
achievement status, Marcia contended that individuals rely on an internal rather than external
process to construct identity and contextualize their experiences (Evans et al., 2010, p. 54). But
this is not true for Asian Americans because they rely on both internal and external forces to
define their identity. For example, Asian Americans conformed to White society in order to

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avoid the embarrassment of being different but also identified with their own culture when it was
expected, to avoid shame in the family or among other Asians(Yen & Huang, 1996, p.645).
Dacey and Kenny (1994) posit that in order for first-generation students (including Asian
Americans) to develop a positive sense of belonging, they have to construct a unique sense of
self that maintains the support of significant others (such as parents) and society (as cited in
Alessandria& Nelson, 2005).
Chickering and Reissers (1993) theory of identity development provides a framework
for understanding Asian Americans psychosocial development. The vector of moving through
autonomy toward interdependence is not entirely relevant for Asian Americans. This vector is
defined as freedom from continual and pressing needs for reassurance, affection, or approval
from others (as cited in Evans et al., 2010, p. 68). Due to the collectivistic nature of Asian
Americans, they are continually influenced by the external forces such as parents and elders in
determining their selves. Their relationships with parents, elders, and others affect how they act
in that context to be accepted.
Wong and Mock (1997) emphasized that:
It is also important to note that acculturation level and generational status are
particularly influential variables in the development of autonomy and interdependence,
with third and fourth generation Asian Pacific American students (APAs) identifying
more with these western concepts(as cited in Kodama et al., 2001, p. 420).
Therefore, as Asian Americans experience cultural conflict, they might have to redefine the
concepts of autonomy and interdependence.
Social (Cultural) Identity Development

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Social identities influence how individuals perceive themselves, how they define
themselves and how they relate to others (Evans et al., 2010; Schuh et al., 2011). Social
identities are dynamic and include aspects of race, gender, ethnicity, language and social class.
Individuals as well as others evaluate and make judgments of a person based on the identities
they hold (Evans et al., 2010). The concepts of oppression and privilege influence how students
of color make meaning of their identities in a society that is mostly White.
First-generation students of color encounter many challenges when they enroll in the
academy. For example, some students who grew up in neighborhoods that were predominantly
Asian, Hispanic, or Black have to negotiate their identities once they are removed from both
their home culture and American culture to only American culture. Cushman (2007) claimed
that first-generation students often feel that their peers are usually members of a club of
insiders (as cited in Woosley & Shepler, 2011). In addition, first-generation students feel that
other students have different expectations about ways of dressing, speaking, and interacting with
faculty. First-generation students who find others who are similar to them are able to integrate
more socially. As Chickering and Reisser (1993) noted, a students best teacher is often another
student (as cited in Evans et al., 2010). The social environment has an impact on whether a
student chooses to get involved in co-curricular activities or not. According to Pascarella et al.
(2004) first-generation students derive significantly stronger positive benefits from these
involvements than did other students (p. 272-273). By taking the time to assist first generation
students to connect to and find organizations that share their common interests, their social
integration within the campus community can improve.

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First-generation students are often faced with the challenge of negotiating college culture
versus home culture. As Tajfel (1981) and Turner (1991) stated, developing a sense of self
requires that individuals negotiate their personal identities within the larger social group(s) to
which they belong(as cited in Orbe, 2008). For example, first-generation students are expected
to act differently when at home and on campus. Going to college provides first-generation
students the opportunity to construct an independent identity. However, once they return home,
they might be confronted by family members who do not approve of their new independence.
They often have to balance their individuality with that of family and community. Orbe (2006)
explained that some first-generation students report that family members accuse them of acting
White or thinking they are better than them (as cited in Orbe, 2008). When students fail to
negotiate their old and new identifies, they may face isolation from their family, close friends,
and other students. Such isolation is detrimental to a students well being and their ability to feel
accepted within a particular social context. Another area of identity negotiation for these
students revolves around communication styles. Depending on the situation, these students are
prompted to communicate in ways that reflect their own group (i.e., home culture) and college
culture. For instance, when African American and Latino/a first-generation students are a
distinct minority on campus, they may experience a sense of hypervisibility where they are often
defined through preconceived racial and ethnic stereotypes (Orbe, 2008, p. 88). Due to such
experiences, some of these students attempt to assimilate into the university culture through
dress, language and following behaviors of the majority (Orbe, 2008). Other times, they stay
true to their identity without assimilating.
Strengths and Limitations in Literature

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While substantial research has been uncovered on first-generation students of color (i.e.
Latino/a, Asian Americans, & Black Americans), it is crucial to consider the strengths and
limitations of these findings in the context of cognitive, psychosocial, and social identity
development. Pope (2000) mentioned that little information exists as it relates to the
developmental needs of Asian American, Latino/a American, and Native American college
students, and limited information exists on African American students. Torres and Hernandezs
(2007) provides a rich analysis of Latinos/as self-authorship process. This study details the
development of these students from external formulas through internal foundations. Some of the
Latino/a students had to go through recognizing racism, and balancing their culture with that of
the collegiate environment. Although Torres and Hernandez (2007) longitudinal study was
insightful on the experiences of Latino/a students, it was limited to only a few students in those
institutions, and thus might not be representative of the majority of these students journeys
toward self-authorship. The multicultural learning community, whose curriculum explored
issues of race, gender, and social class allowed students to share their common experiences with
each other, and build interpersonal relationships in a supportive environment.
A majority of the literature surrounding cognitive development focused on academic
performance. Terenzini et al.s (1996) focused on first-generation students scores on reading,
math and critical thinking. Pascarella et al.s (2004) study further pointed out that firstgeneration students work commitments off campus led to less time dedicated to studying and
joining extracurricular activities. Extracurricular activities had positive effect on their cognitive
growth and establishing interpersonal relationships with peers and faculty outside the classroom.
Pascarella et al. (2004) study took into account students ethnicity, age, family socioeconomic

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status and sex; however this research did not include the role of environmental context in
shaping students experiences.
In terms of psychosocial development, the body of research pointed out factors such as
racism, social isolation, and stereotypes that negatively impact first-generation students of
color(Latino/a & African Americans) from being connected to their institution, and making
friends (Baber, 2012; Torres& Hernandez, 2007). Even though Yen and Huangs (1996) study
revealed that Asian Americans are stereotyped, more research could be done to unpack how
stereotyping impacts their psychosocial development.
When considering social identity, most of the research focuses on first-generation
students negotiating between their home culture and that of the university (Orbe, 2004; 2008).
However, these studies only provided surface-level issues that these students experience. More
direct research exploring the social identity development of Asian Americans, Latino/a and
African Americans could yield a deeper understanding for this student population. For example,
they could explore how gender roles impact students social identity development when they
return home while in college.
Implications for Higher Education
The literature reviewed provides a broad set of implications for higher education
professionals to consider when working with Latino/a, Asian American, and Black American
students. In order for student affairs practitioners to provide developmentally appropriate and
meaningful services and programs, they need to have a clear understanding of race and racial
identity, and how these factors impact the experiences of college students of color (Pope, 2000).
As Pope (2000) suggested, doing extensive reading and constant interactions with students from
various cultural groups will prepare higher education professionals to incorporate unique

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interventions. In addition, having an understanding of this student population will prove helpful
for student affairs practitioners in interacting with various first-generation students of color.
Woosley and Shepler (2011) stress that it is important to foster a campus environment
that is accepting of first-generation students of color. To improve student social integration,
student affairs should plan events that allow first-generation students of color to connect with
peers. In addition, providing educational programs that address issues surrounding racism,
prejudices, isolation, and racial bias make these events available to faculty, students and staff so
that a greater awareness of these issues can be understood within the campus community.
Providing this information campus wide could create a welcoming environment that allows firstgeneration students of color to participate in extracurricular activities, and develop interpersonal
relationships.
It is also vital to note that Latino/a, and Asian American students are not a homogenous
population. Within each major group, there is room for a wide range of ethnicities (Alessandria
& Nelson, 2005). For example, Asian American groups include Chinese, Japanese, Taiwanese
and many more. Each ethnic group is comprised of its values and traditions. Therefore, it is
inaccurate to draw conclusions about first-generation students from these cultures by lumping
them into racial categories. As culture is important for Asian American and Latino/a students
depending on their generational status, researchers should use a cultural perspective when
exploring students development.
Collaborative partnerships around campus should be created to address student needs. For
instance, counseling center personnel may collaborate with residence life directors to provide
outreach programming that address issues of social isolation, homesickness, and study strategies
(Woosley & Shepler, 2011). Support programs and services ranging from extracurricular

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15

activities, academic advising, career centers, and social development could be a goal shared
across departments, to create a unified purpose to effectively serve these students.
Specific programming for first-generation students of color should be implemented to
improve academic performance. Since Terenzini et al.(1996) study discovered that first
generation students benefitted from studying more hours, it would be beneficial to have study
groups, designated quiet areas in libraries and residence halls, peer tutoring, and provide
financial assistance to reduce the need to work. In addition, to combat adjustment problems,
student affair practitioners should provide students with tools to deal with stress and feelings of
being overwhelmed in a new environment, especially for students who enroll in PWIs, or who
lived in neighborhoods that differ from their college environment.
Gaps in Literature and Future themes for Research
While this review is not comprehensive, important gaps exist in this body of literature
that are worthy of consideration. Torres and Hernandezs (2007) longitudinal study on Latino/a
students toward self-authorship provided an insightful framework for understanding this student
population. Even though the piece was thorough, it was a reference tool for understanding the
lived experiences of some Latino/a students. This research could also be limited to studying one
ethnic group at time to avoid comparing students whose experiences are different.
As mentioned previously, a majority of the research on cognitive development is limited
because it focuses on academic achievement (Terenzini et al., 1996; Pascarella et al., 2004).
Even though work responsibilities and living off campus contributed to the overall engagement
of students involvement in campus activities and lower levels of math, writing, and critical
thinking skills, more research could be conducted to unpack if these are the only factors affecting
academic performance for most students or not.

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Most of the important gaps in literature were found when looking for research on social
identity. No studies were found that address gender or sexual development theories. More
research is needed to understand how first-generation students of colors identities are
constructed through intersecting identities. No research was evident on how intersecting ethnic,
cultural, and sexual identities impact students holistic development in a socially constructed
context. On the other hand, missing gaps found in the literature provide opportunities to conduct
research on social identity theories better understand student development theories.
Conclusion
First-generation students of color enrollment in higher education continues to increase.
Latino/a, Asian American, and Black American students often have to balance school, work, and
family. In addition, because they are likely to come from families with lower socioeconomic
statuses, they have to work to pay for their education. Working more hours off campus
contributes to students lower involvement in extracurricular activities, which are shown to
improve a students adjustment to college. Social isolation, racism, and stereotypes are some of
the issues that affect first-generation students holistic development. As student affairs
professionals, it is imperative that we make an effort to understand this student population in
order to create programs and services that will create a welcoming environment to allow these
students to develop cognitively, psychosocially and socially. The more we understand the unique
experiences of these students, the better we are in communicating with them.

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