GAS TURBINE

Acknowledgment
"It is not possible to prepare this project report without the assistance &
encouragement of other people. This one is certainly no exception."
On the very outset of this report, I would like to extend my sincere & heartfelt
obligation towards all the personages who have helped me in this work. Without
their active guidance, help, cooperation & encouragement, I would not have made
headway in the project. I am ineffably indebted to (supervisor name) for
conscientious guidance and encouragement to accomplish this assignment. I extend
my gratitude to (COLLEGE NAME) for giving me this opportunity. At last but not
least gratitude goes to all of my friends who directly or indirectly helped me to
complete this project report. Any omission in this brief acknowledgement does not
mean lack of gratitude.

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Declaration

This report was written by (student Name) a student in the (Department Name) at
(University Name). It has not been altered or corrected as a result of assessment and
it may contain errors and omissions. The views expressed in it together with any
recommendations are of the student.

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Table of Contents
Acknowledgment ................................................................................................................ 1
Declaration .......................................................................................................................... 2
List of figures ...................................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 1 ............................................................................................................................. 9
(Introduction) ...................................................................................................................... 9
1.1

Gas turbine definition ......................................................................................... 10

1.2

Gas turbine types ................................................................................................ 11

The gas turbine can be classified into different types, which listed below. .............. 11
1.2.1Turbojet ............................................................................................................. 11
1.2.2 Turbofan ........................................................................................................... 12
1.2.3 Turboprop ........................................................................................................ 13
1.2.4 Turbo-shaft ....................................................................................................... 13
1.2.5 Industrial gas turbines for power generation ................................................... 14
1.3. Parts of Gas Turbine .............................................................................................. 14
1.3.1 Inlet section ............................................................................................................. 15
1.3.2 Compressor ............................................................................................................. 16
1.3. 3 Combustion system ............................................................................................... 16
1.3.4 Turbine.................................................................................................................... 17
1.3.5 Exhaust system ....................................................................................................... 17
1.3.6 Exhaust diffuser ..................................................................................................... 18
1.4 Open-Cycle and Closed Cycle .............................................................................. 18
1.5 Gas Turbine Design Procedure ............................................................................... 19
Chapter Two...................................................................................................................... 21
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(Related studies)................................................................................................................ 21
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 22
2.2 literature review ...................................................................................................... 22
2.2.1 Engine cycle ..................................................................................................... 23
2.2.2 Engine modification ......................................................................................... 25
2.2.3 Gas Turbine Emission ...................................................................................... 29
2.2.4 Combined Cycle............................................................................................... 30
2.2.5 Gas Turbine Troubleshooting Loads and Failure Modes .................................... 32
2.2.6 Gas Turbine Maintenance ................................................................................ 34
2.2.7 Gas Turbine Materials and Blades ................................................................... 35
Chapter Three.................................................................................................................... 39
(Theory of Gas Turbines).................................................................................................. 39
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 40
3.2 Operation Principle of the Main Components of the Gas Turbine ......................... 40
3.2.1 Compressor ...................................................................................................... 40
3.2.2 Combustor ........................................................................................................ 44
3.2.3 Turbine ............................................................................................................. 48
3.2.4 Nozzle and Diffuser ......................................................................................... 49
3.3 Gas Turbine and Brayton cycle............................................................................... 51
3.4 payload calculations ............................................................................................... 51
3.5 engine noise ........................................................................................................... 51
CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 56
(Engine specifications Selection) ...................................................................................... 56
4.1Engine selection requirements ................................................................................. 56
4.1.1 Engine Requirement......................................................................................... 57
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4.1.2 Performance parameters................................................................................... 57

4.1.3 Select engine component and materials. .......................................................... 58
4.1.4 Gas turbine limitations ..................................................................................... 63
4.1.4 Performance theoretical analysis ..................................................................... 64
Chapter Five ...................................................................................................................... 65
(Theoretical cycle analysis) .............................................................................................. 65
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 66
5.2 The gas turbine cycle governing equations ............................................................. 67
5.3Turbojet engine performance calculations ............................................................... 70

Flow velocity and mass flow rate .......................................................................... 70

Compressor ............................................................................................................ 70

Combustion chamber ............................................................................................. 71

Turbine ................................................................................................................... 71

Nozzle .................................................................................................................... 72

Thermal efficiency: ................................................................................................ 72

Thrust calculations ................................................................................................. 72

4.3.1 Discussion of calculations................................................................................ 73

4.4 Discussion of results ............................................................................................... 75

4.4

Performance analysis using Matlab.................................................................... 81

Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 85
References ......................................................................................................................... 87
Appendix ........................................................................................................................... 91

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List of figures
Figure 1 energy transformation ......................................................................................... 10
Figure 2 the turbojet engine. Available at ......................................................................... 11
Figure 3 Turbofan gas turbine........................................................................................... 12
Figure 4Turboprop engine ................................................................................................ 13
Figure 5 Turbo-shaft layout, Available at ........................................................................ 14
Figure 6 Gas Turbine Parts. Available at ......................................................................... 15
Figure 7 Compressor Parts. (ACATERPILLAR Company, 2010) .................................. 16
Figure 8 Combustion System. (ACATERPILLAR Company, 2010)............................... 17
Figure 9 Open cycle diagram. (Roco et al., 1997 ............................................................. 18
Figure 10 Closed cycle diagram. (Roco et al., 1997)........................................................ 19
Figure 11 Processes in P, V diagram. (Soares, 2007) ...................................................... 24
Figure 12 Process in h, S diagram (Soares, 2007) ............................................................ 24
Figure 13 Schematic diagram for heat exchanger. (Langston& Opdyke, 1997) .............. 26
Figure 14 The enthalpy-entropy diagram for intercooling. (Soares, 2007) ...................... 27
Figure 15 Schematic diagram for intercooling processes. (Langston& Opdyke, 1997) ... 27
Figure 16 The enthalpy-entropy diagram for reheating. (Soares, 2007)........................... 28
Figure 17 Schematic diagram for reheating processes. (Langston& Opdyke, 1997). ...... 29
Figure 18: Schematic diagram of the three processes that introduced to gas turbine.
(Brooks, 2000) .................................................................................................................. 31
Figure 19: T-S diagram modification on Brayton cycle. (Brooks, 2000) ......................... 32
Figure 20: Overall definition. (Sorokes et.al , 2006) ....................................................... 34
Figure 21 Temperature and pressure profile in gas turbine. (Carlos, 2007) ..................... 35
Figure 22 Creep rupture lives of alloy A, B and C plotted against the Solution Index
value. ................................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 23 : compressor classification (Mattingly and Ohain, 1996) ................................ 41
Figure 24 operating cost of the compressor (Mattingly and Ohain, 1996) ....................... 43
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Figure 25: Can type (Lefebvre, 1999)............................................................................... 44

Figure 26 Cannular type (Lefebvre, 1999). ...................................................................... 45
Figure 27 Annular type (Lefebvre, 1999). ........................................................................ 45
Figure 28 burner component (Lefebvre, 1999). ................................................................ 47
Figure 29 Nozzle (Jiang, 1997) ......................................................................................... 50
Figure 30: Diffuser (Jiang, 1997)...................................................................................... 50
Figure 31: Open cycle (Tanaka et al., 2007) ..................................................................... 52
Figure 32: Closed cycle (Tanaka et.al, 2007) ................................................................... 52
Figure 33 T-S diagram (Tanaka et.al, 2007) ..................................................................... 53
Figure 34 major engine components ................................................................................. 58
Figure 35 The axial flow compressor ............................................................................... 59
Figure 36 combustion chamber ......................................................................................... 60
Figure 37 A twin turbine and shaft arrangement. ............................................................. 62
Figure 38 exhaust system .................................................................................................. 63
Figure 39 the cycle block diagram (DUNN, 2005)........................................................... 66
Figure 40 The schematic diagram for a simple gas turbine (DUNN, 2005). .................... 67
Figure 41 T-s and P-v diagrams LANE, 2001) ................................................................. 68
Figure 42 The schematic diagram for a Atmospheric Temperature Vs. Altitude ............. 75
Figure 43 Atmospheric Pressure Vs. Altitude .................................................................. 76
Figure 44: Combustion chamber inlet Temperature Vs. Altitude..................................... 76
Figure 45: Combustion chamber inlet Pressure Vs. Altitude ........................................... 77
Figure 46: Heat addition Vs. Altitude ............................................................................... 78
Figure 47: Heat rejection Vs. Altitude .............................................................................. 78
Figure 48: Power in Vs. Altitude ...................................................................................... 79
Figure 49: Power in Vs. Altitude ...................................................................................... 80
Figure 50 Matlab code ...................................................................................................... 81
Figure 51 the turbine work Vs. the compressor ................................................................ 82
Figure 52 the Wt Vs. ( T2 & T4) ...................................................................................... 83
Figure 53 the network plot Vs.( wt and Wc ) ................................................................... 83
Figure 54 T4 Vs. T2 .......................................................................................................... 84

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Abstract
Gas turbine engines are an internal combustion engine that provides mechanical power
through using gas as the working fluid. The definition, types, components, operation as
well as performance analysis for this engine was being the main aims that were discussed
in this project. To simply understand the basic concepts associated with this engine, the
project was divided into five chapters, with each of them discussed a specific topic.
The selection for the engine type to be used depends on the type of application at which it
used. In addition to that, there are other requirements that should be taken into account in
selecting the engine which are: the selection of the engine parameters, components,
materials and performance analysis. The performance analyses were developed to select
the engine. It was evaluated mathematically and then by using MATLAB software. The
analysis of the cycle was obtained at different altitude where the power required to
operate the engine is reduced with increasing the height. Also the performance of the
engine was analyzed related to the efficiency of the cycle where the values of the
efficiency were taken from 0.6-1 using MATLAB.
The selected engine was a turbojet engine. The principle of work for the turbojet engine
is to extract the fuel chemical energy and convert it to mechanical work through using the
gaseous energy of gas to drive both the engine and the propeller, which is then propelling
the airplane. The operation of this engine can be summarized as the gas flows
continuously and entered a compressor at where it will be compressed and then heated in
the combustion chamber, and lastly, the heated gas flows through the turbine which
converts the gas energy into mechanical work.
From the theoretical analysis, this engine has an efficiency of 66 %, this means that it
produced a high power due to the direct correlation between output power and engine
efficiency. As a result, when less fuel is consumed through the engine and when the
output power is more, the engine will be more efficient.
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Chapter 1
(Introduction)

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1.1 Gas turbine definition

Gas turbine is a mechanical machine transformed energy from chemical to thermal and
then to mechanical as shown in Figure.1. In gas turbines is a constant flow of the liquid
agent. At first this fluid is compressed in the compressor then heated in the combustion
chamber. Finally, it passes through the turbine to convert the stored energy in gas to
mechanical work (Kulikov & Thompson, 2004).

chemical
energy

thermal
energy

mechanical
energy

Figure 1 energy transformation

Gas turbines have great roles in the electricity generation during the past years. Because
they have low investment cost, the gas turbines can be implemented to supply the power
for the transmission lines, and also they have considerable roles during the emergency
statues. Different researches have done focuses on the estimation of the performance of
gas turbines; these studies are divided into

two main classes. The first one involves

studies have focused on the modeling of gas turbine cycles parts, the second type of
researches have focused on the most important parameters effecting on the design
performance (Lane. D, 2010).

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1.2 Gas turbine types

The gas turbine can be classified into different types, which listed below.

1.2.1Turbojet
Turbojet is an earliest and simplest kind of gas turbine; this type is usually used within
high speed aircraft Figure.2 shows the main parts of turbojet engine

Figure 2 the turbojet engine. Available at

http://wings.avkids.com/Book/Propulsion/advanced/types-01.html (accessed in 24 Jan 2012)

These turbines have different advantages such as- high jet velocity and small frontal area,
also the turbojet extracts the energy from the gas stream in order to drive the compressor
(Liu, F., 2001).

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1.2.2 Turbofan

This type is the widest

type used for the aircraft propulsion Figure.3 shows the

main parts of this type. The air enters the engine and then is compressed and passed
to the combustion chamber, part of air in this type is compressed to the lesser
extent, and bypasses the combustion section as shown in Figure .3, this method will
help to cool the thrust also the bypass air will rejoin the hot gases downstream of the
turbofan. In these cases, the overall velocity of the jet will be reduced in order get
lower noise levels, better efficiency and improved ( SFC) Specific Fuel
Consumption.( Roux,E., 2007).

Figure 3 Turbofan gas turbine.

Available at : http://www.techberth.com/high-bypass-ratio-turbofan-engine-components/ (accessed at 24
Jan 2012)

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1.2.3 Turboprop

Turboprop turbine is a similar to turbojet but with additional turbine as shown in

Figure.4, the additional turbine is used to extract the remaining energy from the gas to
drive the compressor, additional turbine is called the power turbine as shown in Figure.4,
which drives the propeller using a reduction gear and shaft. During normal operation a
small amount of thrust remains in exhaust gases. The turboprop is a very efficient power
plant for relatively low-altitude aircraft and t low-speed applications.

Figure 4Turboprop engine

(Available at : http://www.aerospaceweb.org/question/propulsion/q0209.shtml accessed in 25 Jan 2012).

1.2.4 Turbo-shaft
The turbo-shaft is the same of the turboprop but without a propeller, where power turbine
in these types is connected to the output shaft or reduction gearbox. Power turbine has
the same functions as the turboprop turbine, the power turbine extract as much as the
remaining energy from the gas.

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Figure 5 Turbo-shaft layout, Available at

http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/media/19425/Turboshaft-engine-driving-a-helicopter-rotor-as-propulsor
accessed in 25 Jan 2012)

1.2.5 Industrial gas turbines for power generation

Industrial gas turbine has differ construction than other types where the size is various
from small to enormous size. The efficiency of this type can achieve 60% when remains
energy from the gas turbine is used again by a heat recovery to power in steam turbine
during the combined cycle configuration. This type is used generally to produce
electricity the following section will show the parts of this type in details:

1.3. Parts of Gas Turbine

Gas turbine consist of four main parts (compressor, injector, turbine and exhaust system)
figure 6 show them and other component.

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Figure 6 Gas Turbine Parts. Available at

http://fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/turbines/turbines_howitworks.html, (accessed in 25 Jan 2012)

Where:
-

1 = Inlet section

2 = Compressor

3 = Combustion system (injector)

4 = Turbine

5 = Exhaust system

6 = Exhaust diffuser

1.3.1 Inlet section

Inlet air section provides a clean and undistributed airflow to compressor. It prevent
corrosion, erosion and foreign. In design process of inlet air section the atmospheric
condition must take in the account such as (salt, dust, foreign object, industrial pollution
and temperature). (Kulikov& Thompson, 2004)

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1.3.2 Compressor
Compressors are responsible for getting all the need from gas turbine. In addition to the
amount of compressed air must be fixed and high. Compression ratio ranging from about
9.5:1.
Compressor consists of several stages at each stage gradually increase the pressure for the
previous phase. Each stage contains of a multi of rotors which connected to a rotating
disk, which is followed by pro vanes connected to a fixed ring. And it also includes two
guides vanes the inlet and outlet. However vanes, is installed at the inlet and outlet
compressor. As shown in Figure 7

Figure 7 Compressor Parts. (ACATERPILLAR Company, 2010)

1.3. 3 Combustion system

It also known as Burner which provides heat to hot and pressurized gas, the main part in
the combustion system is Injector. The large amounts of fuel and air are difficult to
control. Which must accomplished with minimal loss pressure and the maximum heat
release. As shown in figure 8. (ACATERPILLAR Company, 2010)
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Figure 8 Combustion System. (ACATERPILLAR Company, 2010)

:
1.3.4 Turbine
Covert the high pressure and temperature to mechanical energy using a set of stationary
vanes connected by a set of rotating blades that worked under the reverse of the
compressor. The velocity of gas turbine increased related to the temperature and pressure
which increases the power can be extracted from the turbine.

1.3.5 Exhaust system

After the gas passes the turbine, then discharged to the exhaust the thermal energy is
extracted from the gas to be mechanical energy , the remains energy in gases can be used
again to enhance the performance of the gas turbine where these gases can be used in
regenerative unit. (Kulikov& Thompson, 2004)

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1.3.6 Exhaust diffuser

The divergent shape of the diffuser converts the air velocity to static pressure which
supports the engine structural, the rear compressor bearing and seals, and mounting the
engine nacelle and fuel nozzles. (Kulikov& Thompson, 2004)
1.4 Open-Cycle and Closed Cycle
The gas turbine cycle can be classified in two types:
1- Open cycle
2- Closed cycle.
If the gases enter the turbine expand to atmospheric pressure after the turbine producing
the power it called open cycle. On the other hand if the gases leave the turbine and enter
the inlet duct system this cycle called closed cycle. Look at figure 9 and 10.

Figure 9 Open cycle diagram. (Roco et al., 1997

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Figure 10 Closed cycle diagram. (Roco et al., 1997)

1.5 Gas Turbine Design Procedure

Different researches have done focuses on the estimation of the performance of gas
turbines; these studies are divided into two main classes. The first one involves studies
have focused on the modeling of gas turbine cycles parts, the second type of researches
have focused on the most important parameters effecting on the design performance.
The most important factors will be studied in this project are: the cycle efficiency
(turbine, compressor), the power output, and the temperature and pressure at each state.
Advancements in materials used for manufacturing gas turbine which operate on high
temperatures and pressures have contributed during the enhancement of the temperature
capabilities and efficiencies of the gas turbines.. Finite element analysis involves of a
computer model of a material of any mechanical design that is subjected under stress in
order to get specific results.
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To design a gas turbine there are many steps are mention below:
1- Calculate the needed power for gas turbine.
2-Take the geographical factors in deigns account.
3- Select the operation cycle of gas turbine.
4- Make all calculation to find the variables of all point in the operation cycle.
5- Select the optimum part according to design calculation. (Strand, 2006).

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Chapter Two
(Related studies)

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2.1 Introduction
This chapter will discuss a literature review for the previous works related to the gas
turbine. the literature includes a discussion for the ideal operation cycle of the gas
turbine (Brayton), discuss its calculation like (performing, efficiency and pressure ratio)
and all possible modification to enhance it efficiency which can be applied on the
Brayton cycle such as (heat exchanger, inter cooling, reheat and combination between
them).
2.2 literature review
According to (TSA, 2004) research about design and performance requirement for a
Gas-Turbine Engine from an Automobile Turbocharger, and as a result defining the gas
turbine as systems produce a positive work transfer by using air and fuel so it considered
as thermodynamic systems converting the chemical energy in fuel to mechanical energy.
The gas turbine activates on an unlock cycle consisting of a combustor, a compressor,
and a turbine collective in series. Atmospheric air goes through the compressor to be
compressed by a negative shaft work transfer to be combined and burned in the
combustion chamber with fuel. Both the specific volume of the air and the temperature
increases in the combustor. Then the hot air is fed into to be expanded in the turbine. The
air expansion generates a positive shaft work transfer, finally, exhausting the expanded
air to the atmosphere. A positive shaft work transfer is created since the negative shaft
work transfer created by the turbine need to operate the compressor is lower than the
positive work transfer.
(Roberts, 1990) was worked on one type of gas turbine, which is the turbofan engine. He
defined it as an engine where the first stage compressor rotor is larger in diameter than
the rest of the engine (Airplane, n.d, pg.3). In the turbofan engine the air passes
through the fan that is situated near the inner diameter the same air also passes through
the compressor stages situated in the core of the engine and then it is furthermore
processed and compressed through the engine cycle (Airplane, n.d.pg.5). He said, to
design Turbo fan engine there is a need of wave rotor which is stated to be the partial
admission device that causes the one gas to compress another through the use of wave
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propagation. The development of these devices for Turbo fan engines were designed in
the early 1950s as stated by Roberts in his Thesis. Further on, there were few
developments which were stated to be attempted after the 1960s. It is also stated that the
Wave rotor components have promising applications in small engines that range from
600 to 1000 in pounds thrust range. Such kind of engines are stated to have applications
which are used in cruise missile, piloted vehicles, helicopters and the small thrust
turbofans (Roberts, 1990).

2.2.1 Engine cycle

Soares, 2007) was studied the ideal cycle for gas turbine engine which is called a
Brayton. This theoretical cycle for simple gas turbine consists of two isentropic and two
constant pressure processes. The compressor consists of four main parts:

Inlet duct

Compressor

Fuel injector

Exhaust diffuser.

In every inlet and outlet of the compressor parts Joule-Brayton define some variables
such as temperature (T), pressure (P), entropy (S), enthalpy (h) and volume (V) can be
used to study the compressor, as shown in figure 11 and 12.

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Figure 11 Processes in P, V diagram. (Soares, 2007)

Figure 12 Process in h, S diagram (Soares, 2007)

From the relationships have been drawn in figures (11 and 12), it was concluding that:
-

During step 2------- 3 the input power to compressor given as:

)

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During step 3----------4 the input heat in the compressor given as:

During step 4 ----------5 the output power from the compressor given as:

During step 5--------- 2 the output heat from the compressor given as:
)

Also, it was can conclude from figures (11 and 12):

2.2.2 Engine modification

(Soares, 2007) also, said that there are many methods to enhance the efficiency of gas
turbine. These methods are illustrated below.
Heat Exchange
Which also known as a recuperator that can be achieved at applied the heat exchanger
after point 5 (look at figure 3). The heat exchanger used the heat from the exhaust gas
from compressor to warm up the entering at point 3 (look at figure 3). This process can

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be used only if T5 more than T3 which means the of the compressor lees than opt. and
it can be noticed this compressor work at low pressure ratio.
As a result of apply this technique the input heat to the compressor become less than
usual which lead to enhance the efficiency of the compressor where:
(

At this procedure the efficiency increase as temperature decrease, therefor prefer to apply
the heat exchanger to the lower pressure ratio compressor. Figure 13 show the schematic
diagram for heat exchanger (regeneration) processes.

Figure 13 Schematic diagram for heat exchanger. (Langston& Opdyke, 1997)

Intercooling
can be defined as increasing the specific gas power by making sure the compressor
require less power , apply at point 2 as show in 2.4 .

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Figure 14 The enthalpy-entropy diagram for intercooling. (Soares, 2007)

The input power for gas turbine can be given as:

Winput= W22.3 +W2.53 = Cp (T2.3 T2) + Cp (T3 T2.5).
Because T3 less than usual the input power becomes smaller so the thermal efficiency
increased. Figure below shows the schematic diagram for intercooling processes

Figure 15 Schematic diagram for intercooling processes. (Langston& Opdyke, 1997)

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 Reheating
The main idea of reheating is similar to intercooling but it applied in the turbine at point
4 which lead to increase the output work as shown in figure below.

Figure 16 The enthalpy-entropy diagram for reheating. (Soares, 2007)

The output work given as.

W output= W44.5 +W4.55 = Cp (T4 T4.5) + Cp (T4.5 T5).
Figure 17 below show the schematic diagram for reheating processes.

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Figure 17 Schematic diagram for reheating processes. (Langston& Opdyke, 1997).

2.2.3 Gas Turbine Emission

(Macak, 2001) studied the gas turbine emissions. He said that huge amount of emission
from gas turbine happened during startup/shutdown, emission rate is function of Ambient
temperature, load condition and pollutant concentration. One of the possible solutions to
reduce the NOx/CO/ Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) emission level and ensure not
exceeded the non-Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) done by limiting
operation hours and fuel consumption. But this process didnt take in it account the
emission level during the startup/shutdown of gas turbine.
Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) one of the successful procedures to reduce the NOx
emission, but it cant take it effect until the Heat Recovery Steam Generator (HRSG)
temperature reach 575F0 approximately, during this time the NOx level increased.
Main causes to emission increase during startup lower plume buoyancy (lower airflow
and stack exist temperature). According to simple cycle gas turbine operation system the
usual NOx emission controlled consist of water injection in the combustors or Dry, Low
NOx (DLN), it is ideal operation system for beak load generation due to its ability to
quickly startup and smaller needed time (10-30) min to producing electricity.
The emission concentration in a simple cycle operation system increased as load
increased decreased as ambient temperature increased. On the other hand, engine
efficiency and fuel combustion must be taken in consideration.
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As a result of existing HRSGs in the compound cycle which makes it ideal for medium
load application. The HRSGs same as SCR in the NOx control.
The emission percentage in the compound cycle depends on the hourly limitation and
Ton per Year (TPY) produced.
2.2.4 Combined Cycle
The thermal efficiency of a gas turbine can be increased by decreasing the input power or
increasing the output work or both.to reduce the input work the required ratio pressure
must be smallest as possible and the compression done in multi stage with intercooling.
To enhance the output work the required ratio pressure must be larger as possible, the
expansion process done in multi stage with reheating. (Brooks, 2000)
Two previous processes must do without raising the maximum temperature in the cycle
that leads to increase the number of stages of the cycle.
During the combustion process in the gas turbine a heat exchanger introduced between
the gases leave the turbine (high temperature) and the gases leaves the compressor (low
temperature) to increase the thermal efficiency of the cycle. Figure 18 shows the
schematic diagram of the three processes that introduced to gas turbine.

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Figure 18: Schematic diagram of the three processes that introduced to gas turbine. (Brooks, 2000)

Figure 19 show the modification occurs in the T-S diagram on the gas turbine.

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Figure 19: T-S diagram modification on Brayton cycle. (Brooks, 2000)

2.2.5 Gas Turbine Troubleshooting Loads and Failure Modes

The failure of gas turbine occurs due to many reasons like: loss of performance,
excessive noise, vibration, poor engine control, structural failure, excessive exhaust
emission and over load.
The structural failure of gas turbine can be defined as any change in the shape, size, or
mechanical properties lead to make the part unsatisfied to do it work.
On the other hand, can be define as any physical or chimerical change lead to make the
part unsatisfied to do it work. (Stelling & MNIMH, 2010)

Vibration is one of the most important issue must be consider due to it effect, as known
compressor and turbine blades are subjected to High Cycle Fatigue (HCF) its connected
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in one shaft , gas turbine has a wide range operation pressure that maybe caused a
turbulence in flow rate which mean vibration.
Also, during the alignment process the miss-alignment make a vibration problem.
(Shreve, 1994)
Combustion control is one the most important field must be taken in the account due to
the noise, damage all gas turbine system. Also, by using the combustion control it can
reduce the emission a mount and increase the overall thermal efficiency of gas turbine.
(Farhat & Al-Taleb, 2010)
Another important cause can be damage the gas turbine is overload. It is a complicated
problem due to huge variables introduced; during this situation the needed for more
complexes control system increase, and the impeller resistance to forces increased and
lead to consequences. (Sorokes et.al , 2006)
Overload hasnt a clear definition because it depends on design condition, material used
in gas turbine, gas turbine specification and ambient temperature.
Another term must be known to understand the overload is Surge which mean the
minimum needed of flow rate can be generated electrical. Look at figure 20.

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Figure 20: Overall definition. (Sorokes et.al , 2006)

2.2.6 Gas Turbine Maintenance

The maintenance of gas turbine divided into two major types:
1- Routine (Usual) Maintenance.
2- Daily Maintenance.
Usual maintenance included protection maintenance, plotting trends, fuel consumption,
heat rate, and performance testing and vibration analysis.
Where daily maintenance depend on labor inspection and general site condition which
means a large amount of time to assure that all part of gas turbine are integrated.
On the other hand, gas turbine needs a 4000 hour of work to ensure its free from
vibration that maybe occurs due to worm bearing, blades damage and rotors.

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Actually for every 25000 to 50000 operation work hour gas turbine needs an overhaul
(dimensional inspection, testing and product upgrade) depending on load and type of
maintenance. (Energy Nexus Group, 2002)

2.2.7 Gas Turbine Materials and Blades

As a result of little operation hour of the gas turbine due to high pressure and temperature
which a result of the material used, unacceptable reliability and thermodynamic
efficiency, damaging to equipment and injures to people, all these reason make the
material used as an important factor in the design process of gas turbine.(Carlos, 2007)
Compression, combustion, generation power and exhaust processes occurs in gas turbine
the most dangerous point located between the combustion chamber outlet and the turbine
inlet, it is the most sensible and challenging design point. Look at figure 21.

Figure 21 Temperature and pressure profile in gas turbine. (Carlos, 2007)

Page | 35

One of the possible solution let the turbine blades to receive the compressed air through
small holes drilled on them, which protect the blades by made layer and avoid the effect
of hot flue gases.
According to mechanical properties, testing program and manufacturing process help to
select optimum material work under high pressure and temperature.
Nowadays, the ceramic coting is applied to the blade surfaces using ELECTRON BEAM
PHYSICAL VAPOR DEPOSITION (EB-PVD) and ARC PLASMA SPRAYABLE
(APS) powder method. (Carlos, 2007)
Many combined cycle power plants which consists of gas turbines, steam turbines and
heat recovery steam generators (HRSG) have been in operation due to high thermal
efficiency associated with them in contrast with steam turbines power plants. The thermal
efficiency of the combined cycle power plant can be increased by increasing the inlet gas
temperature of the gas turbines.
In order to increase the inlet gas temperature, the materials for turbine blades and vanes
are required to have higher creep rupture strength. In this study, a new single crystal
superalloy with a moderate Rhenium (Re) addition (2.4wt %) has been developed. The
alloy shows a higher creep rupture strength than other generations of single crystal
superalloys.
The composition of the developed single crystal superalloys were designed with a
computer aided alloy design program which was developed in National Research Institute
for Metals (NRIM). This program can estimate the mechanical properties of materials by
empirical equations.
In the present study, Ni-base single crystal superalloys will be used in the material
development, these superalloys have higher creep strength in comparison with
conventionally cast and directionally solidified superalloys. Creep rupture strength of
solution index superalloys was found to be improved by adding Rhenium (Re) element.

Page | 36

The alloy was designed to have superior creep rupture strength by an effective use of
negative lattice misfit ( > ). Other properties was considered such as the creep rapture
life at 1100 C/137 MPa was designed to be longer than 200 h and Rhenium (Re) content
to be less than 2.5%, in addition to castability and corrosion resistance.
Several alloys were designed, alloy A was designed to have a volume fraction of gamma
prime () phase of about 60% and maximum content of solid solution elements without
exceeding the solution index value of 1.25. Alloy B and C were made by diluting alloy A
with Ni-8wt% Al.
The results were shown in Figure (22). This shows the creep rupture strengths plotted
against solution index values.

Figure 22 Creep rupture lives of alloy A, B and C plotted against the Solution Index value.

Except for a low temperature and high stress condition such as 900C/392MPa, alloy B
was the strongest in the three alloys. Microstructural examination showed many
precipitates of a Topologically Closed Packed (TCP) phase in the creep specimen of alloy
A, especially near the rupture portion, and this is the reason why alloy A is weaker than
alloy B. The creep rupture strength of alloy C is also lower than that of alloy B since

Page | 37

alloy C is not strengthened enough by solution hardening. Thus we selected alloy B as a

final alloy. This alloy was designated as TMS-82 and has the following composition:
Table (1): Chemical composition of tested alloy B

Co

Cr

Mo W

Alloy B 7.8 4.9 1.9

Al

Ti

Ta

Hf

Re

Ni

Solution Index wt%

8.7 5.3 0.5 6.0 0.1 2.4 Bal. 1.2

Heat treatment was conducted on TMS-82. This show after heating for 2 hours between
128O C and 1360 C most of the precipitates are dissolved into the gamma phase ()
phase at 1280. At 136O C, will melting occurs. This shows that TMS-82 has a heat
treatment window over 6O C providing very good heat treatment processability.

Page | 38

Chapter Three
(Theory of Gas Turbines)

Page | 39

3.1 Introduction
This chapter will discuss the operation principle of the main parts of the gas turbine
system (compressor, combustor, turbine and nozzle and diffuser), and the possible failure
modes for each component in the gas turbine system. Then discussion will be carried for
how to use the gas turbine in distillation process and what is the possibility and
affectivity of the distillation in the gas turbine power plant. Moreover, the efficiency of
the gas turbine will be discussed according to the Brayton cycle; finally the main
differences between the steam turbine and the gas turbine will be mentioned.

3.2 Operation Principle of the Main Components of the Gas Turbine

Gas turbine is one of the engineering applications which have a wide range uses in the
industrial applications; the gas turbine consists of four main components which are:
1- Compressor
2- Combustor
3- Turbine
4- Nozzle and Diffuser (Mattingly and Ohain, 1996)
3.2.1 Compressor
Compressor in different applications is used to improve the overall efficiency of the
system. The compressor in general consists of many parts, which are (Mattingly and
Ohain, 1996):
Intake Air Filters: this part prevent any dust from entering into the compressor
Cooler stage: in this stage the temperature of the inlet air will be reduced to
decrease the compression ratio and enhance the compressor efficiency.
Impeller: it makes the compression in the stage of the compressor.

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 COMPRESSORS TYPES
Figure 23 shows the main classification of the compressor based on the principle of
operation and type of forces.

Figure 23 : compressor classification (Mattingly and Ohain, 1996)

The actual volumetric flow rate of the compressor can be calculated form the following
equation:

Where

Page | 41

: The output pressure from the compressor

: The inlet pressure to the compressor if there is a storage tank for the cooled air or
from the nozzle
: The atmospheric pressure of the outside air.
V: volumetric flow rate from the storage tank
T: the needed time to build the pressure from P1-P2 (Mattingly and Ohain, 1996)

The isothermal efficiency can be calculated from the following equation:

Where the isothermal power can be calculated from the following equation:
(

Where
Q: flow rate of the inlet air (m3/hr)
r: pressure ratio (P2/P1)
: The absolute intake pressure (Kg/cm2)
The cost of operating the compressor can be shown in figure 24 which shows the max.
cost of the compressor.

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Figure 24 operating cost of the compressor (Mattingly and Ohain, 1996)

There are many problems occur in the gas turbines which are:
1- Fouling: is one of the most important problems which can be presented as a result from
the particle in the intake air (smoke, carbon, sea salt and the oil mists) or from the
annulus surface, these particles have a range from 2

to 10 m which can cause a

change in the airfoil shape, so it is important to make sure there are a good filter in the
first stage in the compressor to avoid this problem and must be optimum for particle
remove, cost, service life and the pressure losses (Mattingly and Ohain, 1996).
2- Hot corrosion: this can be defined as a chemical reaction between a specific material
and the compressor components; this reaction can make a big change in the flow path,
crack or damage in the impeller. The oxidization process become more active under a
high temperature, so the compressor component must be protected from the oxidization
process by coating the component (Mattingly and Ohain, 1996).

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3- Erosion: it can be defined as a result of the impact forces from the particles which have
a diameter more than 10m; these particles inter the compressor because of the bad
filtration system.
4- Clearances: this problem can be defined as an error in the dimensions between the
rotating blades and the stationary part, one of the main causes is the leakage which can be
defined as any reduction in the flow rare, this problem make a reduction in the overall
efficiency (Mattingly and Ohain, 1996).
3.2.2 Combustor
Is one of the main components in the gas turbine system which is also called burner,
combustion chamber or flame holder. The air enters the burner with high flow rate and
temperature, so the burner must injects the fuel and ensures a complete combustion
process, then the heated compressed air enters the turbine.
The burner is divided into three main types according to the process of injection, which
are:
1- Can type which is shown in figure 25

Figure 25: Can type (Lefebvre, 1999).

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2- Cannular type which shown in figure 26

Figure 26 Cannular type (Lefebvre, 1999).

3- Annular type which shown in figure 27

Figure 27 Annular type (Lefebvre, 1999).

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The main components of the burner system are:

1- Case
The design of the case must take the surrounding conditions, which means a high
temperature and pressure and the case must carry the load of the chemical load, in other
hand, the case didnt need a continuous maintenance.
2- Diffuser
The main goal in the diffuser design is to minimize the pressure losses and reduce the air
speed (Lefebvre, 1999).
3- Liner
The combustion process in the burner done on the liner with different shapes of the air
flow (intermediate, cooling and divination) so the modulus strength of the liner material
must be high
4- Snout
The aim of the snout is to separate the secondary air flow from the primary air flow.
5- Swirler (dome)
To have an excellent (complete combustion) the flow turbulence in the combustion zone
must be increased; it is the dome mission.
6- Fuel injector
The main task of the injector is to introduce the fuel in the combustion region; there are
four main types of the injection process, which are (Lefebvre, 1999). :
a- air blast
In this process the fuel evaporate with the air at the entering zone in the combustion
chamber
b- pressure- atomizing
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This process is used in the application which needs a high pressure ratio but in this
method the specification of the fluid must be taken in the considerations and additional
requirements to reach the wanted pressure.
c- Pre-evaporating
In this method the fuel evaporates before enter the combustion zone (Lefebvre, 1999).
d- Vaporizing
The operation principle of this method is same as the operational principle of the air blast
but in this method the surrounding heat is used to improve the evaporation process.
7- Igniter
It can be defined as a device which gives the spark (to start the combustion) in the
combustion zone, the electrical spark is usually used in different applications but one of
the other important types is the oxygen injection which makes the combustion process
easier.
The burner and its main component can be shown in figure 28.

Figure 28 burner component (Lefebvre, 1999).

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In the combustion process, there are many problems occur which can make a damage or
reducing the efficiency in all parts of the gas turbine, so it is important to study the field
of the cases error in the combustion chamber which are (Lefebvre, 1999):
1- Peak in the gas turbine sections temperature.
2- Any increase in the air flow which will be a result of the altered temperature can make
a reduction in the gas turbine efficiency.
3- The control of the difference between the actual temperature in the combustion
chamber and the design temperature (Lefebvre, 1999).
3.2.3 Turbine
Turbine can be defined as a rotary mechanism that transfers the potential and the kinetic
energy from the fluid to a useful mechanical energy, the main parts of the turbine are:
rotating blades and the stationary blades (Lefebvre, 1999).
After the fluid is being compressed in the compressor and expansion in the combustion
chamber, the kinetic energy and the potential energy reach to the maximum point then the
fluid enters the turbine and the energy in the working fluid transfers to mechanical energy
by the rotating blades, there are many operating principles of the turbine which are:
1- Impulse
In this type of turbines, the direction of the flow is changed after leaving the blades and
during the fluid movement over the rotating blades no changes in the fluid pressure is
realized, the changes of the fluid pressure happen in the stationary blades so there are no
any need to additional support for the turbine (Lefebvre, 1999).
2- Reaction
In this type of turbines, the fluid does not change its direction and the pressure drop
occurs in the rotating blades so it is important to have a casement to support the turbine.
According to the different working fluid and different operational systems there are many
types of turbines which are:

Page | 48

1- Gas turbine
2- Transonic turbine
3- Steam turbine
4- Stator less turbine
5- contra-rotating turbine
6- Shrouded turbine
7- Ceramic turbine
8- Water turbine
9- Bladeless turbine
10- Shroud fewer turbines
11- Wind turbine (Lefebvre, 1999).
The main possible failures in the turbine are the same possible failure modes in the
compressor which was mentioned before in section 3.2.1.
3.2.4 Nozzle and Diffuser

Nozzle can be defined as a device that is used to increase the fluid velocity which is used
in the first stage in the gas turbine before the fluid enters the compressor, figure 29 shows
the nozzle (Jiang, 1997).

Page | 49

Figure 29 Nozzle (Jiang, 1997)

Diffuser can be defined as a device that decreases the fluid pressure which is used in the
final stage in the gas turbine, figure 30 shows the diffuser.

Figure 30: Diffuser (Jiang, 1997)

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3.3 Gas Turbine and Brayton cycle

As a result of extensive demanding in the electrical field, the turbine was introduced as
one of the possible approaches to generate electricity. One of the major used turbines is
the gas turbines which consist of main four parts (compressor, combustion chamber,
turbine and diffuser and nozzle) which analyzed and described in the section 3.1, this
section will analyze the gas turbine in the another shape in thermodynamic analysis, in
other words, study the physical parameter (temperature and pressure) cross bonding to
Brayton cycle (Tanaka et al., 2007).
Brayton cycle was investigated in 1870 by George Brayton; its cycle was built on the
compression and expansion phase that occurs in the gas turbine (Tanaka et al., 2007).
The gas turbine operates into two major types which are:
1- Power plant system (to produce electricity)
2- Get engine system (power of the aircraft)
Based on the type of the operation cycle the gas turbine can be divided into two types:
1- Open cycle: it means the working fluid in the gas turbine not operating in a cyclic, and
the operation is based on the assumptions air-standard, one of the gas turbines that
operates as an open cycle is the jet engine which is shown in figure 31.

Page | 51

Figure 31: Open cycle (Tanaka et al., 2007)

2- Closed cycle: the working fluid in the closed cycle gas turbine completes the operation
cycle and it can be presented as a reversible process which can be shown in figure 32.

Figure 32: Closed cycle (Tanaka et.al, 2007)

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The process of the closed cycle type in the Brayton can be drawn in the TemperatureEntropy relationship as shown in figure 33.

Figure 33 T-S diagram (Tanaka et.al, 2007)

From figure 33, it can be shown that the compressor and turbine work at isentropic
process, heat addition and rejection work at constant pressure.

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3.4 Payload calculations

By Assuming the average mass of the individual passenger is 60 Kg, and has a package
of mass equal to 10 Kg.
Then, in this case of plane with 30 passengers each has a package mass equal to 10 Kg.

Then,

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3.5 Aircraft Noisy

Aircraft noise represents a type of pollution called noise pollution, which is generated
mainly due to two reasons; the first is the intake, exhaust and other major engine
components and the aerodynamic drag of air flow around the aircraft body and wings.
Commonly, during the take-offs the noise is generated by the engine. But the airframe
noise is the most important factor during landing, where the engine operates at low
power. The developments and improvement in the manufacturing of the aircraft are
concentrated on enhancing engine and airframe design with an n important aim of
reducing the noise that affects on the aircraft. (CAIRNS PORT AUTHORITY, 2006).
Researchers reach that dying by a heart attack was more public among people with
increased experience to aircraft noise. Those effects was specifically obvious for people
who were exposed to really high levels of noise, and was dependent on how long those
people had lived in the noisy place ( Matthias Egger) . But this study could support to
determine whether the sound is really the main effect, or if it is something else grouped
with the noise, such as air pollution. It's been a problem that when you study the case of
road traffic noise there are both high levels of noise and high level of air pollution. After
taking consideration for the air pollution and other factors including education and
revenue levels, the group found that both the level and duration of aircraft noise increase
the risk of a fatal heart attack (Alleyne, 2010).
Therefore, in the design the turbojet engine is selected since it has the least noise also has
a good performance.

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CHAPTER FOUR
(Engine specifications Selection)

4.1Engine selection requirements

The gas turbine engine is considered to be a complex machine including operation at
extremes of pressure and temperature and demanding expertise at the highest level of
engineering technology. To select the best engine to use it in any application, some
engine selection requirements should be considered as shown in the following.
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4.1.1 Engine Requirement

The requirements of this engine that it has to fly at an altitude of 35000ft and at a speed
of 0.85mn, also it has to be able to land with the aircraft at day and night. The engine has
to be on very suitable engine geometry with the aircraft. if the engine volume is quite
big, it will prevent the aircraft from landing when it hits the ground and that is happing at
day as well as if it is small it will be noisy and that type of an engine is prevented from
flying at night and cannot land at that time.
Due to these requirements the best engine to use is a turbojet engine due to that this
engine used in high speed aircrafts and it has different advantages such as- high jet
velocity and small frontal area, also the turbojet extracts the energy from the gas stream
in order to drive the compressor.
4.1.2 Performance parameters
The gas turbine engine designed in this project is a Turbojet engine which is the simplest
type of gas engines. Table below shows the main specifications of this engine taken at
elevation of 35000 ft.
Engine type

Turbojet engine

Inlet temperature

-54.2C = 218.8K

Inlet pressure

23, 911KPa

Compression ratios

In excess of 40:1

Compressor type

Axial flow compressor

Fuel type

Natural gas (methane)

Diameter

6.75 inches

Length

10.75 inch

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Max. RPM:

90,000r.p.m

4.1.3 Select engine component and materials.

The major components of gas turbine engine are illustrated in figure below and describes
briefly in this section. The engine and parts selection depends on the calculation in the
previous chapter.

Figure 34 major engine components

a. Compressor
Compressor is the engine part that raises the ambient air the temperature and
pressure as air enters to it. Generally in gas turbines, the compressors that are used
are either centrifugal flow or axial flow. Both of them are driven by the turbine
and directly coupled to the turbine shaft.

In this assignment the axial flow

compressor was used. The axial flow compressor includes one rotor assembly or
more which carry the blades of the airfoil unit. The rotor assemblies are located
between bearings in the casings that include the stator vanes. The compressor is
considered as a multi-stage part. By each stage when the quantity of pressure rise
is small; the stage contains a line of rotating blades which are followed by a line
of stator vanes. When some of compression stages run in series on one shaft then
it is essential to differ the angle of stator vane in order to allow the compressor to
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run successfully at speeds value below the design condition.

As increasing the

pressure ratio, the integration of variable stator vanes makes sure that the airflow
is moved toward the successive stage of rotor blades at an suitable angle. Figure
below demonstrates the the axial flow compressor (Rolls-Royce plc company.
2001)

Figure 35 The axial flow compressor

Compressor materials

To select the best material for compressor design, the material should attain the
most cost effective design. For casing designs it requires to build with a light rigid
construction which allows blade tip permissions to be maintained accurately with
a high efficiency. It is generally made from aluminum at the front of the
compression system and at the final stages of the compression system is made
from nickel based alloys (Rolls-Royce plc company. 2001).

b. Combustion chambers
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Combustion chamber is the component where the fuel burning occurs to produce heat
required to raise the temperature of air to the required temperature. It receives the air
from the compressor and then delivers it to the turbine at the temperature required with
no pressure loss in the ideal case. Commonly, the Fuel that is used is liquid or gaseous
which are usually hydrocarbons. The gases used are natural gases as butane and methane.
Where the liquid fuels can be highly refined gasoline, light diesel, or a heavy residual oil
Bunker C or No. 6 fuel oil. The fuel can successfully burn, if enough pressure droplets
are obtainable to offer the essential turbulence required to mix air and fuel as well as if
enough volume is obtainable to give the essential time required to complete combustion
(LANE, 2001).
The fuel is added to the air at deferent amount depending on the temperature required.
The maximum temperature is within the range between (850- 1700 degree). Generally,
The air is heated to a range between 200 to 500 degree during compression, and rise to
(650 to 1150 degree) in the combustion chamber (Rolls-Royce plc company. 2001).

Figure 36 combustion chamber

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For gas turbines the combustion chamber has three main types that are the tubo-annular
chamber, the multiple chambers and the annular chamber. The annular type is mostly
used.
Most of gas turbine engines have 100 % efficiency at (sea-level take-off conditions)
which dropping to 98 % at (altitude cruise conditions).
Combustion chamber materials
The combustion chamber is made from coated metals that have a high heat resistance,
anticorrosion which occurs due to the products of the combustion, and can resist creep
failure which occurs due to temperature gradients and resist fatigue which occurs due to
vibrational stress (Rolls-Royce plc company. 2001).
c. Turbines
The turbine is the engine component that provides the power required to drive the
compressor and engine accessories. It extracts the energy from the gases that delivers
from the combustion chamber and expands them to a lower temperature and pressure. At
this process a high stresses are established.

To achieve an efficient operation; the

turbine blade tips can turns at speeds of 1,500 ft/s and more. As the gas is continually
flows to the turbine it may have a temperature range between (850 and 1,700 degree) at
the entry, and it can achieve a velocity over 2,500 ft/s in portions of the turbine (RollsRoyce plc company. 2001).

Page | 61

Figure 37 A twin turbine and shaft arrangement.

Turbine MATERIALS
Basically, turbine parts consist of combustion discharge nozzles, the nozzle guide vanes,
turbine discs and the turbine blades.
The Nozzle guide vanes are made from nickel alloy which has a good heat resistance and
Ceramic coatings are used to improve the heat resisting properties and decrease the
quantity of cooling air needed, and thus enhancing the engine efficiency. As well as the
turbine blades are made from Ceramic (Rolls-Royce plc company. 2001).
d. Exhaust system
The main function of the exhaust system of the gas turbine is to pass the discharge gases
of the turbine to atmosphere in the wanted direction to give the resultant thrust. In turbojet engine the pressure and velocity of the exhaust gases generate thrust. The exhaust
system should be designs accurately due to that it has an considerable impact on the
engine performance. The jet pipe and outlet nozzle areas affect the inlet temperature,
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pressure, velocity and mass airflow of the exhaust jet. The gas enters the exhaust system
has a temperature between (550 to 850 degree). And for this system to select the best
material the cracking and distortion resistance and the resistance of heat conduction to the
plane structure should be considered. To achieve that nickel or titanium are used (RollsRoyce plc company. 2001).

Figure 38 exhaust system

4.1.4 Gas turbine limitations

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Engine gas Emissions is considered as one of the engine limitations. Gas emissions refer
to the unwanted pollutant that created within the combustion chamber and founds in the
exhaust gases. Mainly, there are 4- main types pollutants that are controlled legislatively,
these pollutants are smoke (carbon particles), un-burnt Hydrocarbons (un-burnt fuel),
oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide. The main conditions that affect the creation of
pollutants are temperature, pressure, and time (Rolls- Royce plc. company. 2001).

4.1.4 Performance theoretical analysis

The performance analysis has a significant role in determining the engine heat additions,
heat rejection, input power, power output, and engine efficiency. All of these parameters
will be evaluated in the next chapter.

Page | 64

Chapter Five
(Theoretical cycle analysis)

Page | 65

5.1 Introduction
The basic and ideal cycle is called the constant pressure cycle due to that the cooling and
heating processes are conducted at constant pressure. Figures (34 and 35) below
demonstrates the cycle block diagram and the cycle schematic diagram respectively. The
basic gas turbine cycle is called the Brayton cycle according to George Brayton (LANE,
2001).

Figure 39 the cycle block diagram (DUNN, 2005).

Page | 66

Figure 40 The schematic diagram for a simple gas turbine (DUNN, 2005).

5.2 The gas turbine cycle governing equations

There are four ideal processes in the cycle that are (DUNN, 2005):

Process (1-2) is reversible adiabatic (isentropic) compression (in compressor)

requiring power input.

Process (2-3) is constant pressure requiring heating addition.

Process (3-4) is a reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion (in turbine)

producing power output.

Page | 67

Process ( 4-1) is a constant pressure cooling requiring heat rejection.

Figure below demonstrates the T-s and P-V diagrams for the brayton cycle.

Figure 41 T-s and P-v diagrams LANE, 2001)

Efficiency calculations

The thermal efficiency is calculated through applying the first law of thermodynamic
which gives:

Page | 68

Where, m and cp denote to the mass and specific heat, which are assumed to be the same
values for cooling and heating.
-

The temperature ratio for the turbine and compressor are the same.

From this equation,

-

, and (

Then the thermal efficiency is given by:

Page | 69

5.3Turbojet engine performance calculations

The turbojet engine performance calculations are carried out for private passengers plan
that carrying 30 passenger. The calculation where made when the plane was at 35000 ft
height. At this elevation the initial conditions for temperature and pressure are given
according to (U.S Standard Atmosphere):
-

T1= -65.61C = 218.8K

P1= 23. 8 KPa

Flow velocity and mass flow rate

Where, R is the gas constant.

Assume, A= 0.05

= 0.00464515

based on literature of (CARETTO, 2008), then

Compressor

According to the jet engine literature (*) the Compressors can achieve compression ratios
in excess of 40:1, then assume it to be 45

( )

Page | 70

Combustion chamber

Combustion process occurs under constant pressure then,

Turbine

The turbine occurs under a reversible adiabatic (isentropic) expansion producing power
output.
-

P4 = P1= 23. 8 Kpa

Page | 71

Nozzle

Thermal efficiency:

Thrust calculations

For a turbojet the thrust equation is given by the general thrust equation (F) with the
pressure-area term set to zero (MARZOCCA, 2011),

To determine the exit velocity, the Mach number at exit should be evaluated as shown
below:

Page | 72


According the conservation of mass principle

then:

4.3.1 Discussion of calculations

The calculations made for the turbojet engine performance in the case of a plane with 30
passengers at a height of 35000 ft. To begin the analysis the initial conditions of the
compressor inlet needed to be determined, and it is determined according to the (U.S
Standard Atmosphere), then the speed of sound is calculated to evaluate the amount of air
entered to the compressor, by knowing the pressure ratio for the compressor the outlet
temperature of the air at the compressor exit, which is increase because of the
compression process, finally the power needed for the compressor is calculated which is
not significant compared to the output power from the turbine .
In combustion chamber, the combustion process represent heat addition to complete the
cycle occurs under condition of constant pressure, and the amount of heat added is
evaluated. This heat added represent a cost must be added to the system, as this heat
added decreases the system will be more efficient and preferable by assuring that the
performance has to be.
In the turbine the expansion process occurs under reversible adiabatic (isentropic)
condition to produce the output power the outlet temperature of the air and the pressure
of the air reduced significantly because of power extraction. The output power is not
significant compared to the input.

Page | 73

The Nozzle is a device used to accelerate the fluid before its enter the compressor , while
the fluid velocity, it's temperature will be increase but it's pressure will decrease and this
represent a heat rejected in the turbojet system, and this is not a significant value.
Thrust is the force which moves an aircraft through the air; it is used to overcome the
drag of an airplane, and to overcome the weight of a rocket, thrust is generated by the
engines of the aircraft through some kind of propulsion system. The thrust is calculated
using a special equation that depends on the velocities at the inlet and exit of the engine.
Finally, the thermal efficiency is a measure of the performance of the device that uses
thermal energy and calculated by evaluate the net output power by subtract the input
power from the output power, and evaluate the heat added to the system. For this system
the thermal efficiency reaches up to 66 % which is a good percentage that demonstrate
the system performance to use the thermal energy.

Page | 74

4.4 Discussion of results

The results of calculation also can be shown graphically, as shown below:
1. Temperature and pressure variation in compressor inlet with Altitude
The figure below shows the variation in temperature of the air with altitude, where the
graph demonstrates that as the altitude increases the temperature decrease. And this
phenomenon is explained due to the reduction in the pressure, because the pressure and
temperature as a function of the altitude related directly.

Atm. Temp(K)

Atmospheric Temperature Vs. Altitude

300
250
200
150
100
50
0

T1 (K)

10000

20000

30000

40000

Altitude (ft)

Figure 42 The schematic diagram for a Atmospheric Temperature Vs. Altitude

The figure below shows the variation in pressure with altitude, where the graph
demonstrates that as the altitude increases the pressure decrease. And this phenomenon is
interpreted due to the reduction in the weight of the air column affected on the area unit
as the altitude increases. Where, the pressure at 33000 ft is 23.8 KPa.

Page | 75

Atm. Pressure (Kpa)

Atmospheric Pressure Vs. Altitude

80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0

P1(kpa)

10000

20000

30000

40000

Altitude (ft)

.
Figure 43 Atmospheric Pressure Vs. Altitude

These changes effect on the properties of the inlet air for the engine, so these changes
effect on the compressor efficiency.
2. Pressure and temperature variation in combustion chamber inlet
The figure below shows the variation in the inlet temperature for the combustion chamber
with altitude, where the graph demonstrates that as the altitude increases the inlet
temperature for the combustion chamber decrease. Therefore, the power input to the

Inlet combustion chamber temperature

compressor will also decrease.

Combustion chamber inlet Temperature Vs.

Altitude
1000
800
600
400

T2

200
0
0

10000

20000

30000

40000

Altitude (ft)

Figure 44: Combustion chamber inlet Temperature Vs. Altitude

Page | 76

The figure below shows the variation in the inlet pressure for the combustion chamber
with altitude, where the graph demonstrates that as the altitude increases the inlet
pressure for the combustion chamber decreases significantly.

Inlet combustion chamber pressure

Combustion chamber inlet Pressure Vs.

Altitude
3500
3000

2500
2000
1500

P2

1000
500
0
0

10000

20000

30000

40000

Altitude (ft)

Figure 45: Combustion chamber inlet Pressure Vs. Altitude

3. Heating (addition and rejection) and Power (input and output) variations
with Altitude.

The two figures below show the variation in the amount of heat added in the combustion
chamber and the amount of heat rejected in the Nozzle with altitude, where the graphs
demonstrate that as the altitude increases the amount of heat added in the combustion
chamber decrease. Therefore, the efficiency of the engine will be increase.

Page | 77

Heat addition Vs. Altitude

500

Q in (Kw)

400
300
200

Q_in

100
0
0

10000

20000

30000

40000

Altitude (ft)

Figure 46: Heat addition Vs. Altitude

Heat rejection Vs. Altitude

200

Q out(Kw)

150
100
Qout
50
0
0

10000

20000

30000

40000

Altitude (ft)

Figure 47: Heat rejection Vs. Altitude

Page | 78

4. Power variation with altitude

The figure below shows the variation in the power input to the compressor with altitude,
where the graph demonstrates that as the altitude increases the input power decreases
linearly. Therefore, this will enhance the performance of the turbo jet since it consumes a
less amount of power, and then the efficiency will also enhanced.

Power in Vs. Altitude

10

Pin(Kw)

8
6

Power in

2
0
0

10000

20000

30000

40000

Altitude (ft)

Figure 48: Power in Vs. Altitude

The figure below shows the variation in the power output from the turbine with altitude,
where the graph demonstrates that as the altitude increases the output power decreases in
a non- linear shape. Therefore, this will affect in the efficiency of the engine and as a
result the performance of the turbojet. Therefore, the plane cannot reach to high altitude
because it is clearly that the performance of the plane affected by the height, and it may
represent a danger and risk.

Page | 79

Power out Vs Altitude

350

P out (Kw)

300
250
200
150

power out

100
50
0
0

10000

20000

30000

40000

Altitude (ft)

Figure 49: Power in Vs. Altitude

Page | 80

4.4 Performance analysis using Matlab

Using Matlab the following code also was built in order to find the performance of the
engine where the performance of the turbine was plotted at different efficiencies

Figure 50 Matlab code

Page | 81

The work of the turbine Vs. the compressor work was plotted as shown in the following
figure as shown when the efficiency of the engine increase the output work will increase .

Figure 51 the turbine work Vs. the compressor

Now the turbine was plotted as function of the inlet temperature of the combustion
chamber and the inlet of the turbine, where the variation was measured at different
efficiencies as shown in the following Figure.

Page | 82

Figure 52 the Wt Vs. ( T2 & T4)

Now again the net power was plotted as function of the compressor work and the turbine
work where the variation on these values also was measured depending the efficiency .

Figure 53 the network plot Vs.( wt and Wc )

Page | 83

the variation on the inlet temperature of the turbine was plotted as shown in the following
figure , where the inlet temperature of the turbine increases with increasing the inlet
temperature of the combustion chamber .

Figure 54 T4 Vs. T2

Page | 84

Conclusion
Gas turbine is a mechanical machine transformed energy from chemical to thermal and
then to mechanical. In this project the performance of the gas turbine was discussed in
order to find a suitable design for the engine at required specifications. According to this
specification the best and simple engine selected was the turbojet engine. for this engine,
a performance calculations were carried out for private passengers plan that carrying 30
passenger. The calculation where made when the plane was at 35000 ft height. At this
elevation the initial conditions for temperature and pressure are given according to (U.S
Standard Atmosphere). The amount of heat added for the system in the combustion
chamber will decrease with increasing the height. At 33 000 ft the minimum heat addition
where the amount of heat rejection from the system to the surrounding also will decrease
with increasing the altitude. MATALAB software was used to get the performance of the
proposed engine. According to the performance analysis the engine selection can be
achieved. In addition to the performance analysis, the selection of engine also includes
the selection of best engine parameters, outside condition as well as the engine parts
selection with best materials. All parts of the engine were selected depending the
calculations in chapter five. The results of performance analysis were graphically shown.
From these figures the performance of engine was demonstrated at different altitudes, and
the results are shown as:
-

The inlet temperature and pressures to the compressor decreasing with increasing
the altitude. These changes effect on the properties of the inlet air for the engine,
so these changes effect on the compressor efficiency.

The inlet pressure and temperature to the combustion chamber varies with
altitude, as the altitude increases the inlet pressure and temperature decreases
significantly.

As the altitude increases the amount of heat added in the combustion chamber
decrease.

As the altitude increases the input power decreases linearly.

Page | 85

As the altitude increases the output power decreases in a non- linear shape.
Therefore, this will affect in the efficiency of the engine and as a result the
performance of the turbojet.

Page | 86

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Page | 90

Appendix MATLAB calculations

T2 =
519.4413 616.8736 640.1044 661.5823
495.0589 581.6654 602.3151 621.4065
475.5530 553.4989 572.0835 589.2659

T4 =
1.0e+003 *

1.0570

1.2672

1.5488

1.8219

1.0016

1.1756

1.4299

1.6746

0.9463

1.0840

1.3110

1.5273

T2 =

519.4413 616.8736 640.1044 661.5823

495.0589 581.6654 602.3151 621.4065
475.5530 553.4989 572.0835 589.2659

Page | 91

T4 =

1.0e+003 *

1.0570

1.2672

1.5488

1.8219

1.0016

1.1756

1.4299

1.6746

0.9463

1.0840

1.3110

1.5273

T2 =

519.4413 616.8736 640.1044 661.5823

495.0589 581.6654 602.3151 621.4065
475.5530 553.4989 572.0835 589.2659

T4 =

1.0e+003 *

1.0570

1.2672

1.5488

1.8219

1.0016

1.1756

1.4299

1.6746

Page | 92

0.9463

1.0840

1.3110

1.5273

wc =

264.2159 381.5282 409.4991 435.3593

234.8586 339.1362 363.9992 386.9860
211.3727 305.2226 327.5993 348.2874

wt =

1.0e+003 *

0.5158

0.8533

1.1076

1.3718

0.5803

0.9599

1.2460

1.5433

0.6448

1.0666

1.3845

1.7148

wnet =

Page | 93

1.0e+003 *

0.2516

0.4717

0.6981

0.9365

0.3454

0.6208

0.8820

1.1563

0.4334

0.7614

1.0569

1.3665

0.5122

0.4471

0.3697

0.3174

0.4047

0.3533

0.2921

0.2508

0.3278

0.2862

0.2366

0.2031

r_bw =

q_reg =

1.0e+003 *

0.6773

0.8194

1.1450

1.4619

0.6383

0.7484

1.0428

1.3270

0.5931

0.6684

0.9310

1.1820

Page | 94

qin =

1.0e+003 *

1.3954

1.1170

0.7589

0.4118

1.4686

1.2373

0.9140

0.6030

1.5411

1.3567

1.0681

0.7931

T2 =
519.4413 616.8736 640.1044 661.5823
495.0589 581.6654 602.3151 621.4065
475.5530 553.4989 572.0835 589.2659

T4 =
1.0e+003 *

1.0570

1.2672

1.5488

1.8219

1.0016

1.1756

1.4299

1.6746

0.9463

1.0840

1.3110

1.5273

Page | 95

T2 =

519.4413 616.8736 640.1044 661.5823

495.0589 581.6654 602.3151 621.4065
475.5530 553.4989 572.0835 589.2659

T4 =

1.0e+003 *

1.0570

1.2672

1.5488

1.8219

1.0016

1.1756

1.4299

1.6746

0.9463

1.0840

1.3110

1.5273

T2 =

519.4413 616.8736 640.1044 661.5823

495.0589 581.6654 602.3151 621.4065
475.5530 553.4989 572.0835 589.2659

Page | 96

T4 =

1.0e+003 *

1.0570

1.2672

1.5488

1.8219

1.0016

1.1756

1.4299

1.6746

0.9463

1.0840

1.3110

1.5273

wc =

264.2159 381.5282 409.4991 435.3593

234.8586 339.1362 363.9992 386.9860
211.3727 305.2226 327.5993 348.2874

wt =

1.0e+003 *

Page | 97

0.5158

0.8533

1.1076

1.3718

0.5803

0.9599

1.2460

1.5433

0.6448

1.0666

1.3845

1.7148

wnet =

1.0e+003 *

0.2516

0.4717

0.6981

0.9365

0.3454

0.6208

0.8820

1.1563

0.4334

0.7614

1.0569

1.3665

0.5122

0.4471

0.3697

0.3174

0.4047

0.3533

0.2921

0.2508

0.3278

0.2862

0.2366

0.2031

r_bw =

Page | 98

q_reg =

1.0e+003 *

0.6773

0.8194

1.1450

1.4619

0.6383

0.7484

1.0428

1.3270

0.5931

0.6684

0.9310

1.1820

qin =

1.0e+003 *

1.3954

1.1170

0.7589

0.4118

1.4686

1.2373

0.9140

0.6030

1.5411

1.3567

1.0681

0.7931

Page | 99