Professional Documents
Culture Documents
SUSTAINABILITY BEHIND
SUSTAINABILITY
No part of this digital document may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or
by any means. The publisher has taken reasonable care in the preparation of this digital document, but makes no
expressed or implied warranty of any kind and assumes no responsibility for any errors or omissions. No
liability is assumed for incidental or consequential damages in connection with or arising out of information
contained herein. This digital document is sold with the clear understanding that the publisher is not engaged in
rendering legal, medical or any other professional services.
SUSTAINABILITY BEHIND
SUSTAINABILITY
New York
CONTENTS
Preface
vii
ix
Contributors
xi
Chapter 1
Definitions of Sustainability
Irene Voukkali, Loizia Pantelitsa
and Antonis A. Zorpas
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Environmental Indicators
Vassilis J. Inglezakis and Antonis A. Zorpas
17
Chapter 4
35
Chapter 5
45
Chapter 6
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
73
87
109
123
vi
Contents
Chapter 10
135
Chapter 11
157
Chapter 12
Chapter 13
Chapter 14
Chapter 15
Chapter 16
207
219
229
243
275
Chapter 17
297
Chapter 18
319
Chapter 19
345
Chapter 20
Concrete Sustainability
Demetris Nicolaides
371
Index
387
PREFACE
In 1987 the World Commission on Environment and Development sought to address the
problem of conflicts between environment and development goals by formulating a definition
of sustainable development: Sustainable development is development which meets the needs
of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs. here has been a growing recognition of three essential aspects of sustainable
development: Economic, Environmental and Social. These three elements (or these three
pillars) of sustainability introduce many potential problems, difficulties as well as
complications to the original, simple definition of economic development. The goals
expressed or implied behind the Sustainability, are multidimensional, raising the issue of how
to balance objectives and how to judge success or failure regarding Sustainable Development.
For example, what if provision of adequate food and water supplies appear to require
changes in land use that will decrease biodiversity or what if non-polluting energy sources are
more expensive, thus increasing the burden on the poor, for whom they represent a larger
proportion of daily expenditure or how will we manage the transportation and how we
introduce and manage sustainability in business, and more are the main research questions
behind the Sustainable Development.
Sustainability, however, is more than limits on population or restraint in consumption
(though these are important). It mainly means that the choice of technologies and goods must
focus on the requirements of ecosystem integrity, ecosystem capacity to absorb, adopt and
resume thinks and species diversity as well as to social goals. Elements of the three views
(ecological, economic and social) are essential to an understanding of the requirements for
sustainability and what is behind, of what we call today Sustainable Development.
The aim of the present book is to review current scientific knowledge on the field of
Sustainable Development topic and assess the environmental, economic and social impact of
Sustainability
It is an honour to be invited to provide this preface.
Dr./Professor Yangsheng Liu
College of Environmental Sciences and Engineering,
Peking University, Beijing 100871, China.
The Secretary-General of Heavy metal pollution control and soil remediation committee,
China Environmental Protection Industry Association
Email: yshliu@pku.edu.cn
Antonis A. Zorpas
cultural, scientific and professional diversity of the book guarantees the expression of
divergent views on the subject.
The participation of Professor Y. Liu from the University of Beijing in China, in this
book as signatory of the Preface is an event that I will never forget and will always be an
ultimate honor for me.
From this position I have the need to thank from by heart all those who have supported
me as well as all those who have discouraged me throughout my career all these years. I have
learned that the most important values of life are the ones which are without price; strong
relations are built on trust as well as success is a state of mind.
I, (Antonis A. Zorpas), personally hope the readers to appreciate my efforts and to enjoy
reading.
I (Antonis A. Zorpas) would like to THANK all of you and especially Mrs Stella Zorpa
(Managing Director of SMART LEARNING Institute in Cyprus www.smart
learning.com.cy), Mrs Irene Voukali Director (Quality Control Manager) and Mrs Pantelitsa
Loizia (Department of European Affairs-Research and Development) in the Institute of
Environmental Technology and Sustainable Development (www.envitech.org) for their
personal help as well as Mr Charis Siasos (my Designer) which has designed the cover of my
Book (prime_design@cytanet.com.cy).
Dr. Antonis A. Zorpas, Ph.D.,
Chemical Engineer Environmental Engineer
Cyprus Open University
Faculty of Pure and Applied Science
Environmental Conservation and Management
antonis.zorpas@ouc.ac.cy, antoniszorpas@yahoo.com
CONTRIBUTORS
(presented in alphabetical base)
Dr. Abeliotis Konstadinos
Dr. Al-Malack H. Muhammad
Dr. Bilalis J. Dimitrios
Mrs. Chroni Christina
Dr. Doula K. Maria
Dr. Ferreira F.D Luis Miguel
Dr. Filho L. Walter
Mrs. Giorgalla Katerina
Dr. Gmez L. Ignacio
Dr. Gouveia B. Joaquim
Dr. Hernndez I. Encarni
Mrs. Hernndez F. Mayte
Dr. Ilia Nikos
Dr. Inglezakis J. Vassilis
Dr. Karagiannidis Avraam
Dr Kavvadias A.Victor
Dr. Komnitsas Konstantinos
Dr. Kyriacou Adamantini
Dr. Lazaridi Katia
Dr. Malamakis Apostolos
Dr. Melendez-Pastor Ignasio
Dr. Moreno L. Jose
Dr. Navarro Pedreo Jose
Dr. Nicolaides Demetris
Dr. Papastylianou Panayiota
Dr. Perkoulidis George
Dr. Pinto Luisa
Dr. Pociovliteanu M. Diana
Mrs. Popeanga Janina
Mr. Rahman M. Muhammad
Dr. Samaras Petros
Dr. Sarris Apostolos
xii
Antonis A. Zorpas
Dr. Tinivella Federico
Mrs. Tolkou Athanasia
Dr. Torri I. Silvana
Dr. Travlos S. Ilias
Dr. Valiantis Marios
Mrs. Voukkali Irene
Dr. Zomeni Maria
Dr. Zouboulis Anastasios
Contributors
xiii
xiv
Antonis A. Zorpas
incineration and landfilling, organic wastes composting and
anaerobic digestion for methane production, industrial wastes
reutilization, and biomass energy development. He has owned
20 invention patents, and published more than 80 papers at
national and international journals, and has ever been invited
to review manuscripts for international famous journals
including
Environmental
Science
&
Technology,
Chemosphere, Energy, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Waste
Management, Atmospheric Environment, Journal of
Environmental management, Industrial & Engineering
Chemistry Research, etc. Dr. Liu is the member of editorial
board for two journals Urban Management Science and
Technology and Environmental Protection of Oil & Gas
Fields, and also the member of China Society of
Environmental Sciences, China Society of Environmental
Protection and Industry, and China Association of Urban
Environmental Sanitation.
Contributors
xv
xvi
Antonis A. Zorpas
Dr. Doula K. Maria is a chemist and she was born in 1969 in
Greece. She was awarded a Bachelor on the adsorption
phenomena on silicate minerals in 1997 and a PhD on the
adsorption of heavy metals on natural zeolites in 2003. She is
working for the Soil Science Institute of Athens, a national
Institute that belongs to the Hellenic Agricultural Organization
(ELGO DEMETER) since 1992. She is working on soil
contamination, movement and adsorption of heavy metals and
nutrients, soil remediation, soil management, reuse of agricultural
wastes in agricultural sector, composting of wastes and reuse in
agriculture, environmental policy. She has participated in many
research projects as coordinator or as a member of the research
team.
Dr. Ferreira F.D Luis Miguel is an Assistant Professor of
Supply Chain Management with the Industrial Engineering and
Management Department of the University of Aveiro and a
researcher with the Centre for Governance, Competitiveness and
Public Policy. He received his PhD from the Universidade
Tcnica de Lisboa. His research interests include: Supply Chain
Risk Management and Sustainable Supply Chain Management.
He has significant consultancy experience, both in the private and
public sectors
Contributors
xvii
xviii
Antonis A. Zorpas
Mrs. Hernndez F. Mayte, graduate in Environmental sciences
and Master in Analysis and management of Mediterranean
Environments. She has been working as technician for CIDARIS
Foundation related with geological heritatge. She also has been
member of the research team of Centro de Estudios Ambientales
del Mediterrneo (CEAM) and in the Department of
Agrochemistry and Environment of the University Miguel
Hernndez of Elche. Nowadays she is finishing her PhD.
Contributors
xix
xx
Antonis A. Zorpas
expert in the fields of chemical processing, decontamination of
effluents and soils, valorization of wastes and risk assessment.
He has acted as expert in several European Commission program
committees such as FP6, FP7 and Horizon 2020 in the fields of
environment and materials. He is member of the editorial board
of three international journals. Professor Komnitsas has been
involved in more than 50 research projects and has published
over 150 research papers in journals and conference proceedings.
Dr. Kyriacou Adamantini, Assistant Professor in Microbiology,
School of Health Science and Education, Harokopio University
Her research interests are focused on issues of human gut
microbiota and food safety as the detection of foodborne
pathogens and antibiotic resistance genes in the food chain and in
the environment. She has been involved also in research projects
studying the biological treatment of different waste as well as the
quality parameters of the final product. From this work, 64
research articles have been published in peer-reviewed journals
and Conference Proceedings.
Contributors
xxi
xxii
Antonis A. Zorpas
Dr. Navarro Pedreo Jose is professor of Soil and
Environmental Science at the University Miguel Hernndez of
Elche. He was fellowship of the Spanish Government (FPI) and
PhD degree in Environmental Sciences at the University of
Alicante (1992). He was associate and assistant professor of the
Autonomous University of Madrid (1993-95) and Polytechnic
University of Valencia (1995-96), coordinator of Environmental
Sciences career (2001-2003) and Vice-rector of the University
Miguel Hernandez of Elche (2003-05). He has been collaborating
with EU and USA universities. Nowadays, he is coordinator of a
Master Program (Analysis and Management of Mediterranean
Ecosystems) and PhD in Environment and Sustainability.
He has participated in more than 50 research projects, published
more than 100 articles and member of IUSS, ESSC and other
national and international scientific associations.
Contributors
xxiii
xxiv
Antonis A. Zorpas
Mrs. Popeanga Janina graduated in 2010 the Faculty of
Cybernetics, Statistics and Economic Informatics, Economic
Informatics specialization. The title of her Bachelors thesis is
Distributed Databases. In 2012, she graduated the Databases
for Business Support master program with the thesis
Monitoring and management of electric power consumption
using sensorial data. Janinas interests are broadly in the fields
of databases and distributed systems. Since 2012 she is a Ph.D.
Student in the Doctoral School of Bucharest Academy of
Economic Studies. Her research focuses on real-time database
systems, business intelligence analytics, sensor data
management, smart grid and renewable energy.
Mr. Rahman M. Muhammad completed his MSc in Civil
Engineering with the specialization of Environmental
Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum &
Minerals (KFUPM) in 2005. After completing the MSc, he
joined the Department of Civil Engineering, KFUPM in 2006 as
Research Engineer. Mr. Rahman has extensive experience in
development of wastewater feasibility and strategic studies,
conceptual and detail design and associated reporting of
municipal and industrial wastewater project. Mr. Rahman is the
technical author of several journal and conference papers and
co-author of a book chapter on use of membrane technology in
the treatment of wastewater.
Dr. Samaras Petros (PhD Chemical Engineer), born in 1964, is
a Professor at the Department of Pollution Control Technologies
in Technological Educational Institute of West Macedonia,
(Koila, Kozani) and from 2010 is an Associate Professor at the
Department of Food Technology and Nutrition in Technological
Educational Institute of Thessaloniki and Laboratory of Water
and Wastewater Technology. He is an author (and co-author) of
several articles in refereed journals and of several books, and he
has more than 60 publications in international scientific journals.
He participated in more than 30 National and European R & D
Projects dealing with water or wastewater treatment and he also
holds a patent of US Patent Office (PN 200201602324).
Dr. Sarris Apostolos is Director of Research and scientific
supervisor of the Laboratory of Geophysical and Satellite
Remote Sensing & Archaeo-environment at the Institute for
Mediterranean Studies, one of the research units of F.O.R.T.H.
He is also a contracted lecturer of Archaeometry at the
Contributors
xxv
xxvi
Antonis A. Zorpas
Ms. Tolkou Athanasia (M.Sc. Chemist), born in 1980, is a PhD
candidate (from 2013) at the Department of Chemistry in
Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, working at the Laboratory
of Chemical Technology. Her Doctoral dissertation has to do
with the optimization of Water and Wastewater treatment and in
addition she has a scientific background in the field of
Environmental Engineering and on Material analysis. She has
collaborated in the preparation of a number of research proposals
that were submitted to EU and national programmes. She is also,
an author (and co-author) of several articles in conference
proceedings.
Contributors
xxvii
xxviii
Antonis A. Zorpas
landscape ecology i.e. the study of spatial pattern effects on
landscape functions and species persistence, focusing on habitat
loss and fragmentation. She is particularly concerned with the
implementation of the Natura 2000 network of protected areas,
with emphasis on the investigation of its effectiveness towards
biodiversity conservation.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
DEFINITIONS OF SUSTAINABILITY
Irene Voukkali1, Loizia Pantelitsa1 and Antonis A. Zorpas2*
1
ABSTRACT
Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the needs of future generations to meet their own needs. The definition of
Sustainable Development given by Brundtland in 1987 is the most common used by
authors, researchers and other related to concept of sustainability. However this definition
is not the only one. This Chapter provides a selective reference to the main explanations
given for sustainable development starting from the first definition of 1713 since recent
years.
1. INTRODUCTION
Sustainability remains an elusive concept. It has been a part of local, national and
international discussions. It means different things to different people and is difficult to
define. Sustainable development could be introduced as a process or evolution (Bebbington,
2001). Terminology in the field of sustainable development is becoming increasingly
important because the number of terms continues to increase along with the rapid increase in
awareness of the importance of sustainability.
Definitions of Sustainability
management risk; and merging environment and economics in decision making (Glasby,
1995).
By the mid-90s and other amendments concerning the definition of sustainable
development carried out, increasing focus on social issues and a requirement for simultaneous
achievement of economic ("economic viability"), social ("sociopolitical sustainability") and
environmental ("environmental sustainability") objectives. These amendments formally
expressed in the UN Conference in Rio in 1992, in which over 170 countries pledged that the
concept of sustainable development is the basic principle for future development, signing the
Agenda 21 and the Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. The Agenda 21 was
the result of an extensive analysis of what is needed to achieve sustainable development. The
40 chapters on the environmental, economic, social and organizational issues contain
guidelines for developing decision-making processes for sustainability.
Regarding the adoption of sustainable development by the European Union, there was
also an "evolutionary" process concept. The environment became an independent legal
recognition in 1987 by the Single European Act and in particular with the addition of Articles
130r, 130s and 130s (Korkovelos, 1997). In Article 2 of the Maastricht Treaty (1992)
described as the main mission of the European Community to promote "harmonious" and
"balanced" development of economic activities. Can the principle of sustainable development
is not explicitly mentioned but clearly described.
Article 2 of the Amsterdam Treaty (1997) referred to a "harmonious balanced and
sustainable development of economic activities (European Communities, 1999). Thus
sustainable development has change from being solely an environmental concept and
recognized that there must be a close correlation between economic growth, social cohesion
and environmental protection in the context of the EU Strategy for Sustainable Development
(Commission of the European Communities, 2001).
In order to offer a more workable interpretation of the principle of sustainable
development, the Swiss Monitoring of Sustainable Development Project MONET (BFS,
BUWAL & ARE 2001) precise the Brundtland definition according to the first of the 10
Bellagio Principles, saying that assessment of progress toward sustainable development
should be guided by a clear vision of sustainable development. In this sense, MONET
modified the definition given in the Brundtland Commission report, using key elements like
justice, intra- and intergenerational equity, maintenance of options, meeting of needs, and
maintenance of bio-diversity.
As a result, MONET proposes the following definition: Sustainable development means
ensuring dignified living conditions with regard to human rights by creating and maintaining
the widest possible range of options for freely defining life plans. The principle of fairness
among and between present and future generations should be taken into account in the use of
environmental, economic and social resources. Putting these needs into practice entails
comprehensive protection of bio-diversity in terms of ecosystem, species and genetic
diversity, all of which are the vital foundations of life (Keiner M, 2005).
Through the years, except the definitions given in important conferences and treaties,
many other writers gave their own interpretation to the concept of sustainability. Some of
them are given below.
Sustainability means transforming our ways of living to maximize the chances that
environmental and social conditions will indefinitely support human security, well-being
and health (McMichael et al., 2003).
I define sustainability as the possibility that all forms of life will flourish forever
(Ehrenfeld, 2005).
Sustainable development means the will to follow a rational approach to economic
policies; to show respect for future generations by integrating concern for environmental
protection into decisionmaking; and progressively to evolve towards the full
participation of all concerned actors (Barboza, 2000).
Sustainability is defined in economic terms as nondeclining capital taking capital
to mean not just monetary and human capital, as economists conventionally consider
capital to be, but natural capital, being the value to human beings of the Earth itself
(Dresner, 2002).
Sustainability means protecting our options. To protect our options we must place
as much (or more) emphasis on maintaining and restoring ample, healthy stocks and
flows of natural capital as we do on protecting financial capital. Natural capital
includes all of the environmental resources and ecological processes that sustain life on
earth (Doppelt, 2003).
Sustainable development comprises types of economic and social development that
protect and enhance the natural environment and social equity (Dunphy et al., 2000).
CONCLUSION
Recent research carried out by White (2013), included the study of the most frequentlyoccurring words in sustainable development (Figure 2). It's obvious that there is not a specific
definition for sustainable development. Each one has a different approach to sustainability
depends the study area. It has been a part of local, national and international discussions and
will continue to be since the meaning of sustainability includes so many sub-categories.
Definitions of Sustainability
Figure 2. Top 25 most frequent words/phrases in definitions of sustainability (White M.A, 2013).
REFERENCES
Adams, W. M. (1995). Green development theory: Environmentalism and sustainable
development. Power of development (1st edition). London: Routledge.
Amsterdam Tready. (1997). Available from: http://eur-lex.europa. eu/en/ treaties/dat/11997D
/htm /11997D.html
Barboza, N. (2000). Educating for a sustainable future: Africa in action. Quarterly Review of
Comparative Education, 30, 71-85
Bebbington, J. (2001). Sustainable development: A review of the international development,
business and accounting literature. Accounting Forum, 25(2), 128157.
Brundtland, G., Khalid, M., Agnell, S., Al-Athel, S. A., Chidzero, B. & Fadika, L. M. (1987).
Our common future: the World commission on environment and development (1st
edition). Oxford: Oxford University
Bundesamt fr Statistik (BFS), Bundesamt fr Umwelt, Wald und Landschaft (BUWAL) and
Bundesamt fr Raumentwicklung ARE. (2001). MONET projectFrom the definition to
the postulates of sustainable development. Neuchtel.
Doppelt, B. (2003). Leading Change toward Sustainability: A change Management Guide for
Business, Government and Civil Society. Greenleaf Publishing
Dresner, S. (2002).The principles of sustainability (2st edition). Earthscan
Dunphy D. & Benveniste J. (2000). Sustainability the Corporate Challenge of the 21st
Century. Allen & Unwin
Ehrenfeld, J. R. (2005). The roots of sustainability. MIT Sloan Management Review, 46,
2325.
Glasby, G. P. (1995). Concept of sustainable development: a meaningful goal? Science of the
Total Environment, 159, 67-80
Keiner, M. (2005). History, definition(s) and models of sustainable development. ETH eCollection
Korkovelos, C. (1997). Environmental protection in the European Union. Athens: A.
Sakoulas
Maastricht Treaty. (1992). Available from: http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/ treaties/ dat/11992M /
htm / 11992M.html
McMichael A. J., Butler, C. D. & Folke C. (2003). New visions for addressing sustainability.
Science, 302, 19191920
Meadows, H. D., Meadows, I. D., Randers, J. & Behrens, W. W. (1972). The limits to
Growth. A report to the Club of Rome.
Mebratu, D. (1998). Sustainability and sustainable development: Historical and conceptual
review. Environmental Impact Assessment, 18, 493-520.
Mikolajuk, Z. & Gar-On Yeh, A. (2000). Sustainable Development and Decision Support
Systems: A Resource Book of Methods and Applications (1st edition). International
Development Research Centre-Kluwer Academic Publishers.
United Nations Conference on Environment & Development Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. (1992)
/Agenda 21. Available from: http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content /documents/
Agenda21.pdf
White, A. M. (2013). Sustainability: I know it when I see it. Ecological Economics (in press)
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 2
ABSTRACT
Since the introduction of the concept of sustainable development till today the
European Union and the United Nations have proposed and voted several legislation and
policies for meeting basic goals and objectives raised for sustainability. The following
section describes the most important treaties that occurred from 1992 up to date and
became focal points in the evolution of sustainable development globally. Starting from
Agenda 21, signed in Rio in 1992, up to the Strategy on climate change for 2020 (2010),
the global community is making continuous efforts to balance the three pillars of
sustainability - environmental, social and economic dimension-.
1. INTRODUCTION
When the European Economic Community (EEC) was established, environmental
protection, let alone the broader concept of sustainable development, was not perceived as an
important policy issue. The concept of sustainable development contains environmental,
social and economic dimensions; finding practical ways to balance the three is widely
regarded as a key challenge. The EU policies in the field of sustainable development evolved
as a result of the interaction between internal political drivers and the EUs response to a
number of key UN conferences (table 1), (Pallemaerts, M., and Azmanova, A., 2006). One
such influential conference was the first UN Conference on the Human Environment held in
Stockholm in 1972. This not only addressed the environmental concerns of the industrialized
countries in the North, but also, the development concerns of countries in the South.
Sustainable development was only mentioned in European Council Conclusions for the first
time in 1988. Wavering political support for sustained growth and/or sustainable
*
development continued for some years and reveals just how ambivalent attitudes were to the
concept (Pallemaerts, M., 2012). The 1997 Treaty of Amsterdam eventually ensured the
formal recognition of sustainable development as a legal objective under the Treaties.
Subsequently, the EUs commitment to sustainable development was formalised as one of the
EU's fundamental goals.
In 1997, the EU committed itself to draw up a national strategy for sustainable
development by 2002. The Commission published a Communication on a European Union
Strategy for Sustainable Development in 2001 which was discussed at the Gteborg European
Council. However, this strategy suffered from several governance weaknesses which
inhibited its implementation. In particular, the Strategy has been heavily affected by its
ambiguous relationship to the Lisbon Strategy for growth and jobs, which has received far
higher political priority (Pallemaerts, M., 2012).
The political and institutional crisis that faced the EU in 2005 after the rejection of the
EU Constitution pushed the Sustainable Development Strategy back up the political agenda.
A renewed SDS was subsequently adopted by the EU Council in 2006. The renewed
strategy contained more detailed arrangements for implementation, monitoring and follow-up.
The legal formalization of the EUs commitment to sustainable development as a policy
objective was completed by the Lisbon Treaty. Sustainable development is now repeatedly
mentioned in the Treaties: as a basic objective of the EU in the new Article 3 TEU; in Article
21 TEU concerning the external action of the Union; and in Article 11 TFEU setting out the
integration principle. The EU is now legally committed to pursue sustainable development
both internally and externally (i.e. in its relations with the wider world).
The post 2008 economic crisis has led to a marked decline in high-level policy interest in
long-term policy objectives such as sustainable development. A new Europe 2020 strategy
replaced the Lisbon Strategy in 2010; it reduced the environmental dimension to energy and
resource efficiency. The future of the EUs sustainable development policies is uncertain and
it is possible that the EU will return once again to a narrower focus on environmental policy.
Table 1. EU policies in the field of sustainable development
Declaration of the United Nations
Conference
Earth Summit 1992 Agenda 21
Treaty of European Union
Treaty of Amsterdam
Kyoto Protocol
European Union Strategy for
Sustainable Development (2001/2005)
Earth Summit 2002 - declaration
Treaty of Lisbon
United Nations Climate Change
Conference (Copenhagen Summit)
Strategy on climate change for 2020
and beyond
1972
Stockholm
1992
1992 (1993)
1997 (1999)
1997 (2005)
2001
2002
2007 (2009)
2009
2010
European Council
10
Central themes of the Maastricht Treaty are to support sustainable development and to
take measures to curb environmental degradation. Includes among the activities of the Union
a policy in the sphere of the environment specifying that this policy must aim at a high level
of protection, be based on the precautionary principle and that environmental protection
requirements must be integrated into the definition and implementation of other EU policies
(Treaty of European Union, 1992).
11
12
The Framework Convention made a large contribution towards the establishment of key
principles of the international fight against climate change. In particular, it defines the
principle of "common but differentiated responsibility". It also helped to make people the
world over more aware of the problems linked to climate change.
The Kyoto Protocol tackles emissions of six greenhouse gases: 1) carbon dioxide (CO2);
2) methane (CH4); 3) nitrous oxide (N2O); 4) hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs); 5)
perfluorocarbons (PFCs); 6) sulphur hexafluoride (SF6).
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was
adopted. The amendment includes: i) new commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto
Protocol who agreed to take on commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January
2013 to 31 December 2020; ii) a revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to be reported on by
Parties in the second commitment period; and iii) amendments to several articles of the Kyoto
Protocol which specifically referenced issues pertaining to the first commitment period and
which needed to be updated for the second commitment period.
During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and the European
Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990
levels. During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions
by at least 18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020 (Kyoto
Protocol, 1997).
13
OBJECTIVE
Limit climate change
Sustainable management of
natural resources
Limiting major threats to
public health
Combat social exclusion and
poverty
5
6
14
After years of negotiation over institutional matters, the Treaty of Lisbon entered into
force on 1 December 2009. Described as the foundation for a more democratic, transparent,
and efficient Europe, the Treaty provides the EU with a new legal framework and tools to
tackle future challenges. It consists of amendments to the Union's two main treaties, Treaty
on European Union (TEU) and Treaty establishing the European Community (TEC).
The Treaty reinforces the EUs commitment to sustainable development, the fight
against climate change, and development of renewable energy sources.
Although the concept of sustainable development was already present in the existing
treaties, the Treaty of Lisbon reinforces the Unions pledge to pursue this objective both
within and beyond its borders. The emphasis brought by the amendment underlines the
different dimensions of sustainable development (economic, social, and environmental).
Introduces specific reference to the promotion of scientific and technological progress, which
could also have implications for environmental protection. In its relations with the wider
world, the EU shall uphold and promote its values and contribute to the sustainable
development of the Earth. (Lisbon Treaty, 2007).
15
finally another conference in the course of international climate policy with very limited
results, failing to put the main institutional pillars of the post-Kyoto period. The Copenhagen
Accord came to seal the assumption of policy inconsistency and institutional failure,
confirming once more the irreconcilable differences between the Member States and the
failure to reach consensus on a substantive progress of the international regulatory framework
on climate change.
16
CONCLUSION
Over time the world community efforts to achieve their respective targets set in relation
to sustainable development in environmental as well as social and economic dimension. For
accomplish this, strategies and policies are reviewed, amended and where is necessary are recreated. It is certainly that the future of the EU's sustainable development policies is uncertain
and until they become dramatic changes in the global community the concept of sustainability
will continue to be a concern for all.
REFERENCES
Commission Communication 2007: Limiting Global Climate Change to 2 degrees CelsiusThe way ahead for 2020 and beyond
Commission Communication of 21 February 2002, entitled: "Towards a global partnership
for sustainable development"
Commission Communication of 13 December 2005 on the review of the Sustainable
Development Strategy A platform for action
Commission Communication of 15 May 2001 A Sustainable Europe for a Better World: A
European Union Strategy for Sustainable Development
Declaration of the United Nations Conference On The Human Environment (Stockholm
Declaration), 1972
Earth Summit 1992 -Agenda 21 (http://www.sustainable-environment.org.uk).
Handl G. (2012). Declaration of The United Nations Conference On The Human
Environment (Stockholm Declaration), 1972 and the Rio Declaration On Environment
And Development, 1992. Tulane University Law School
Johannesburg Declaration on Sustainable Development. 2002
Kyoto Protocol. 1997
Pallemaerts, M. & Azmanova, A. (2006). The European Union and Sustainable Development:
Internal and external dimensions. VUB Press: Brussels.
Pallemaerts, M. (2012). Developing more Sustainably? In: Jordan, A.J. and C. Adelle (ed.)
Environmental Policy in the European Union: Contexts, Actors and Policy Dynamics
(3e). Earthscan: London and Sterling, VA.
Treaty of Amsterdam. 1997
Treaty of European Union. 1992
Treaty of Lisbon amending the Treaty on European Union and the Treaty establishing the
European Community, signed at Lisbon, 13 December 2007
United Nations Climate Change Conference, 2009
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 3
ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS
Vassilis J. Inglezakis1* and Antonis A. Zorpas2
1
ABSTRACT
According to the definition given by the European Environmental Agency (EEA), an
environmental indicator is an observed value representative of a phenomenon under
study. Indicators are necessary information we use to understand the world and then to
decide and plan the future. Communication is the main function of indicators but they
also provide an early warning to prevent economic, social and environmental damage and
they are used to assess, monitor and manage systems. Consequently they are of
paramount importance for policy decision making as well as for communication and
dissemination of important environmental information to the public. This Chapter deals
with the broad issue of Environmental Indicators and provides the scientific and policy
context in a concise and comprehensive way.
environmental
policy,
1. INTRODUCTION
The concept of environmental sustainability was developed by Goodland (1995).
According to Goodland, environmental sustainability seeks to improve human welfare by
protecting the sources of raw materials used for human needs and ensuring that the sinks for
human wastes are not exceeded, in order to prevent harm to humans (Moldan et al., 2012).
*
vasileios.inglezakis@nu.edu.kz.
+357-99532025, +357-22411600 antonis.zorpas@ouc.ac.cy, antoniszorpas@yahoo.com.
18
Environmental sustainability and the more general concept of sustainable development are
ambiguous and loosely defined. In the same time is true that failing to clearly define scientific
terms creates problems both in science and communication. Especially in legislation and
standards different interpretations by several stakeholders frequently lead to confusion (Heink
and Kowarik, 2010). In this context, the function of environmental indicators is to support
environmental management activities and policy frameworks. The work done the last two
decades on sustainable development strategies and indicators at international, national and
local levels is immense. Figure 2 presents the relationship between selected scientific fields
and their indicators.
SUSTAINABILITY
Sustainability Indicators
SOCIETY
Quality-of-life Indicators
ECONOMY
Macroeconomics Indicators
ENVIRONMENT
Environmental Indicator
ECOLOGICAL ECONOMICS
Welfare Indicators
Figure 1. Relationship between selected scientific fields and their indicators (Pissourios, 2013).
Indicators are the necessary metric to track environmental performance and they provide
a comprehensive basis for assessment of progress against environment policy targets (Herva
et al., 2011; EC, 2009). According to Herva et al. (2011), indicators quantify information by
aggregating different and multiple data (necessary to obtain reliable information); thus, they
can be used to illustrate and communicate complex phenomena in a simpler way, including
trends and progresses over a certain period of time. Furthermore, according to the
definitions given by the European Environmental Agency (EEA), an environmental indicator
is an observed value representative of a phenomenon under study (EEA, 1999) and a
measure, generally quantitative, that can be used to illustrate and communicate complex
phenomena simply, including trends and progress over time (EEA, 2005).
Simply put, environmental indicators reflect the status and tendencies of, for example,
biodiversity, quality of water, quality of air, waste generated, etc. It is true that the motivation
behind indicator initiatives lies in their ability to provide reliable and concise information on
economical, societal and environmental issues (Rinne et al., 2013). Is also clear that
communication is the main function of indicators; communication demands simplicity and
indicators always simplify a complex reality (EEA, 2003). This distillation of complex
Environmental Indicators
19
information allow stakeholders to make decisions and general public to be properly informed.
A detailed discussion on indicators definitions is provided by Heink and Kowarik (2010).
20
2. To support policy development and priority setting, by identifying key factors that
cause pressure on the environment;
3. To monitor the effects and effectiveness of policy responses, and
4. To raise public awareness on environmental issues.
DATA
COLLECTION
VALIDATION
METADATA
STATISTICS
PROCESSING
INDICATORS
DATABASE
WATER QUALITY
MEASUREMENTS
MONTHLY
STATISTICAL TABLES
MINIMUM &
MAXIMUM
CONCENTRATIONS
NUMBER OF DAYS
WHEN THE
CONCENTRATION
OF POLLUTANTS
EXCEEDS
THRESHOLDS
Figure 2. Simplified procedures from raw data to indicators with the example of water quality
indicators.
Hsu et al. (2013), developers of the Environmental Performance Index (EPI), present the
following examples of common purposes and benefits for which environmental performance
indices are created:
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
Measurement:
Measure or gauge something
Track progress toward identified goals
Communication:
Communicate information to a specific audience
Translate complex information for social or policy learning.
Call attention to the most relevant or current policy-related issues.
Comparison
Develop a common metric by which to compare progress or performance
between entities.
Determine impact of policies or processes.
Issue Framing
Combine complex or disparate data/information to communicate something new.
Decision making and management tools
Provide a guide for allocating resources, taking actions, or making decisions.
Devices for support or influence.
Inform specific decisions or directions of management/policies.
Environmental Indicators
21
According to Pissourios (2013), unlike other scientific areas, environmental studies have
reached an adequate and efficient indicators framework level. A significant problem is the
large number of indicators, which is constantly growing and could lead to confusion. It is true
that the less information required the higher chance is to get it but is also true that too little
information may not give a true image of the situation. The proliferation of environmental
indicators is balanced by the development of core or key or core indicators, which facilitate
the dissemination and communication of the important information (Pissourios, 2013).
The criteria for selecting environmental indicators vary the most representative are
summarized in Table 1. European Environmental Agency (2005) used the respective criteria
for selection of the core set of indicators (CSI). Three basic criteria are used for the selection
of environmental indicators in OECD work (OECD, 2003): policy relevance and utility for
users, analytical soundness, and measurability. Finally, Dale and Beyeler (2001) proposed
another set of criteria for selecting ecological indicators.
Table 1. Criteria for selection of environmental indicators
EEA (EEA, 2005)
Policy relevance
Progress towards
targets
Available and
routinely collected
data
Spatial and temporal
coverage
National scale and
representativeness of
data
Understandability of
indicators
Methodologically well
founded
EU priority policy
issues
22
A pressure variable that describes human activities or aspects that exert pressures on
the environment, e.g. income growth, energy use, population growth etc.
A state variable that describes some measurable characteristic of the environment
that results from the pressure variable, e.g. water quality, deforestation, air
pollution etc.
A response variable that measures policy responses to environmental states and
changes, e.g. water-pricing methods, use of alternative crops, reforestation programs
etc.
This framework was elaborated by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development, United Nations and EEA and led to the development of the Driving forces
23
Environmental Indicators
DRIVING FORCES
(e.g. causes)
PRESSURES
(e.g. pollutants)
STATE
(e.g. quality)
RESPONSES
(e.g. policies and
targets)
IMPACT
(e.g. health
ecosystems,
materials)
Figure 3. The DPSIR framework of environmental indicators analysis (EEA. 2003; Pissourios, 2013).
24
Problem recognised
Measures taken
Problem
controlled
Public awareness
Problem
signaled
Time
State
Impact
Driving force
Pressure
Response
Figure 4. DPSIR indicator use in the policy life cycle (EEA, 2003).
The Environmental Performance Index (EPI), which is based on PSR and DPSIR
frameworks, is based on three major components to (Hsu et al., 2013):
I.
II.
III.
Measurable objectives: relate to the overall goals of an index and can be assessed
with data. Often it may be sufficient to have only one overall measurable objective
for an index. For the EPI, two environmental protection objectives were selected: (1)
Environmental Health and (2) Ecosystem Vitality.
Core Policy categories: Core categories of an index are the types of categories that
reflect facets of its measurable objectives. These categories set clear policy lines to
help distinguish an intermediary level between indicators and objectives. The 2012
EPIs include 10 core categories: environmental health, air quality (human health
effects), water quality (human health effects), agriculture, biodiversity and habitat,
forestry, air quality (ecosystem effects), water quantity, climate change and energy.
Indicators: The third component of the indicator framework includes the indicators
themselvesquantitative variables measured from observations (i.e., data) or
calculated.
European Environmental (EEA) introduced 225 indicators organized in twelve topics that
focus, either on physical aspects of the environment that covers seven environmental themes
(air pollution and ozone depletion, climate change, waste, water, biodiversity, land and soil
and environmental scenarios), or on human activities with environmental impact that covers
five sectors (agriculture, energy, transport, tourism, fisheries) (EEA, 2005; EEA, 2010; EEA,
2012). These topics address EU policy priorities. The proliferation of environmental
indicators is balanced by the development of core or key indicators, which facilitate the
dissemination and communication of the important information (Pissourios, 2013).
Time
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Environmental Indicators
25
Figure 5. The Indicator Framework for the 2012 Environmental Performance Index (adopted from Hsu
et al., 2013). The percentages indicate the weightings used for aggregation .
The core set of indicators (CSI) in used by the EEA is 37. Each indicator in the core set
can be positioned in the DPSIR framework (EEA, 2005). Furthermore, the indicators are
classified by type, which is based on their operational utility, in four classes (EEA, 1999,
2003; Pissourios, 2013):
(a) Descriptive, e.g. cadmium contents in blue mussels in mg/kg dry matter. Descriptive
indicators are used in order to describe a certain aspect of the environmental situation
and are usually presented as a time-series.
(b) Performance, e.g. distance-to-target for greenhouse gas emissions. Performance
indicators compare the actual conditions with a specific set of reference conditions.
(c) Efficiency, eco-efficiency indicators combine pressure and driving force indicators in
one graph, e.g. gross value added of fuel and power products and greenhouse gas
emissions. Efficiency indicators provide an insight into the efficiency of products and
processes, in terms of the resources used and waste generated.
(d) Policy effectiveness indicators, relate the actual change of environmental variables to
policy efforts. As such they are a link between response indicators on one hand and
state, driving force, pressure or impact indicators on the other.
(e) Total welfare indicators, composite indicators are used e.g. Index of Sustainable
Economic Welfare (ISEW).
26
All core indicators are either descriptive or performance based (EEA 1999; EEA 2003;
EEA 2005).
Table 2. EEA core set of indicators (EEA, 2005)
Theme
CSI
1
2
3
Biodiversity
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Climate change
Terrestrial
Waste
Water
Agriculture
Energy
Fisheries
Transport
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
Indicator title
Emissions of acidifying substances
Emissions of ozone precursors
Emissions of primary particulates and secondary
particulate precursors
Exceedance of air quality limit values in urban areas
Exposure of ecosystems to acidification. Eutrophication
and ozone
Consumption of ozone-depleting substances
Threatened and protected species
Designated areas
Species diversity
Greenhouse gas emissions and removals
Projections of greenhouse gas emissions and removals and
policies and measures
Global and European temperature
Atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations
Land take
Progress in management of contaminated sites
Municipal waste generation
Generation and recycling of packaging waste
Use of freshwater resources
Oxygen-consuming substances in rivers
Nutrients in freshwater
Nutrients in transitional, coastal and marine waters
Bathing water quality
Chlorophyll in transitional, coastal and marine waters
Urban wastewater treatment
Gross nutrient balance
Area under organic farming
Final energy consumption
Total energy
Total energy consumption
Renewable energy consumption
Renewable electricity
Status of marine fish stocks
Aquaculture production
Fishing fleet capacity
Passenger transport demand
Freight transport demand
Use of cleaner and alternative fuels
Environmental Indicators
27
For the preparation of the Environment Policy Review report, European Commission
uses a different set of indicators mainly chosen from the EU Sustainable Development
Indicators, EU Structural Indicators and the EEAs Core Set of Indicators, divided in 6
different groups (EC, 2009):
Table 3. OECD core environmental indicators (OECD, 2003). The table includes only
the main core indicators
Theme
Climate change
Ozone layer
depletion
Eutrophication
Indicator
Index of greenhouse gas emissions
Atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases
Global mean temperature
Energy efficiency
Index of apparent consumption of ozone depleting substances (ODP)
Atmospheric concentration of ODP
Ground level UV-B radiation
CFC recovery rate
Nutrient balance
BOD/DO in inland/in marine waters
Concentration of N & P in inland/marine waters
Population connected to biological and/or chemical sewage treatment plants
28
Table 3. (Continued)
Theme
Indicator
Index of acidifying substances
Exceedance of critical loads of pH in water & soil
% of car fleet equipped with catalytic converters
Capacity of NOx and SOx abatement equipment of stationary sources
Emissions of heavy metals
Emissions of organic compounds
Concentration of heavy metals & organic compounds in environmental
media & in living species
Changes of toxic contents in products and production processes
Urban air emissions (SOx, NOx, VOC)
Population exposure to air pollution/noise
Ambient water condition in urban areas
Green space
Economic, fiscal and regulatory instruments
Habitat alteration and land conversion from natural state
Threatened or extinct species as a share of total species known
Area of key ecosystems
Protected areas as % of national territory and type of ecosystem
-
Acidification
Toxic
contamination
Urban
environmental
quality
Biodiversity
Cultural
landscapes
Waste
Water resources
Forest resources
Fish resources
Soil degradation
(desertification &
erosion)
Material resources
Socio-economic,
sectoral and
general indicators
Environmental Indicators
29
Table 4. OECD key environmental indicators. The table includes available indicators
and medium term indicators (in italics) as defined in the original source
(OECD, 2008)
Theme
Pollution issues
Climate change
Ozone layer
Air quality
Waste generation
Freshwater quality
Natural resources
Freshwater resources
Forest resources
Fish resources
Energy resources
Biodiversity
Indicators
CO2 emission intensities
Index of greenhouse gas emissions
Indices of apparent consumption of ozone depleting substances
(ODS)
SOx and NOx emission intensities
Population exposure to air pollution
Municipal waste generation intensities
Total waste generation intensities
Wastewater treatment connection rates
Pollution loads to water bodies
Intensity of use of water resources
Intensity of use of forest resources
Intensity of use of fish resources
Intensity of use of energy
Energy efficiency index
Threatened species
Ecosystem diversity
Area of key ecosystems
It should be noted that emission intensity is the average emission rate of a given
pollutant from a given source relative to the intensity of a specific activity; for example mass
(g) of carbon dioxide released per energy produced (MJ), greenhouse gas emissions produced
per gross domestic product (GDP), waste generation per capita etc.
30
could also be in the form of reduction target, e.g. 10% by year etc. A review of targets set in
the European Union policy is provided by the latest European Environmental Agency report
(EEA, 2013). The targets are divided to (Figure 3):
In European Union these targets refer to 9 different areas: energy, GHG emissions and
ODS, air pollution and air quality, GHG emissions and air pollution in transport, waste,
water, SCP and resource efficiency, chemicals, biodiversity and land use.
Apart from baselines and targets another important parameter is the threshold value,
which is set in legislation and standards is might be also used as reference point. Thresholds
are limits beyond which unacceptable and possibly irreversible consequences to the
environment are likely to occur. To avoid such consequences, it is important to identify where
such 2thresholds might exist and what the actual threshold values are (EI-SERI, 2010). A
threshold example is the limit value which is used in EU air quality legislation. These limit
values are legally binding concentration thresholds that must not be exceeded and are
generally termed as Environmental Quality Standards (EEA, 2013b).
40
37
35
30
25
20
10
5
14
13
15
9
6
6
3
4
1
4
1
0
2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2028 2030 2050
Binding targets
Non-binding targets
Figure 6. Binding and non-binding targets in EU environmental policies, by sector and year (EEA,
2013).
Environmental Indicators
31
Environmental quality standard is a concept for which there is no uniform definition. This
type of rule is used in many different legal systems in the world, but the standards do not have
the same definition, criteria or legal effect in them. According to the Industrial Pollution
Prevention and Control Directive 96/61/EC, environmental quality standards shall mean: the
set of requirements which must be fulfilled at a given time by a given environment or
particular part thereof, as set out in Community legislation. Environmental quality standard
is also defined in the Water Framework Directive 2000/60/EC as: the concentration of a
particular pollutant or group of pollutants in water, sediment or biota which should not be
exceeded in order to protect human health and the environment.
Environmental quality standards are set in order to protect human and ecosystem health
and prevent damage to the physical environment. The term standard refers here to any limit
placed on the presence of a contaminant in the ambient environment. Standards can be either
numerical values (for example, the maximum allowable concentration of a contaminant in air)
or narrative descriptions (such as the requirement that odour associated with treated drinking
water be inoffensive). The quality objectives are substantiated at a various level (Stuno,
1989). For example, there are desirable levels (long-term objectives), maximum tolerable
levels (short term objectives) and intervention levels (alarm function). These different
sorts of quality objectives need to be quantified with their own forms and accuracies.
For example, in EU the quality status of the water is evaluated on the basis of 41
dangerous chemical substances, including 33 priority substances and 8 other substances,
specified by the legislation. The environmental quality standards for these priority substances
are described in the directives and consist of annual average concentrations and maximum
allowable concentrations, for protection against long-term and for short-term, direct and acute
ecotoxic effects, respectively (EI-SERI, 2010).
An indicator as a variable can take any value from below the baseline to above the
threshold value (Figure 7). Although there is no absolute rule, in the typical case baseline
value is the lowest possible while threshold value is the maximum permissible. Target values
are somewhere between baseline and threshold values.
32
REFERENCES
Bedrich, M., Svatava, J., Toms, H. (2012). How to understand and measure environmental
sustainability: Indicators and targets. Ecological Indicators 17, 413
Council Directive 96/61/EC of 24 September 1996 concerning integrated pollution prevention
and control.
Dale, H.V., Beyeler, C.S. (2001).Challenges in the development and use of ecological
indicators. Ecological Indicators, 1 310.
Directive 2000/60/EC of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in
the field of water policy.
EC, 2009. (2009) Environment Policy Review. European Commission
EEA, 1999. Environmental Indicators: Typology and Overview. European Environment
Agency
EEA, 2003. Environmental Indicators: Typology and Use in Reporting. European
Environment Agency
EEA, 2005. EEA core set of indicators. European Environment Agency
EEA, 2010. The European Environment. State and Outlook 2010. Synthesis. European
Environment Agency
EEA, 2012. Environmental indicator report 2012. Ecosystem resilience and resource
efficiency in a green economy in Europe. European Environment Agency
EEA, 2013. Towards a green economy in Europe. EU environmental policy targets and
objectives 20102050. European Environment Agency
EEA, 2013b. Air quality in Europe 2013 report, European Environment Agency
EI-SERI (2010), Establishing Environmental Sustainability Thresholds and Indicators.
Ecologic Institute and SERI, Final report to the European Commissions DG
Environment, November 2010.
Emerson, J.W., Hsu, A., Levy, M.A., de Sherbinin, A., Mara, V., Esty, D.C., Jaiteh,
M.(2012). Environmental Performance Index and Pilot Trend Environmental
Performance Index. Yale Center for Environmental Law and Policy, New Haven.
Goodland, R., (1995). The concept of environmental sustainability. Annual Review of
Ecology and Systematics 26, 124.
Heink, U., Kowarik, I. (2010) What are indicators? On the definition of indicators in ecology
and environmental planning, Ecological Indicators 10, 584593.
Herva M, Franco A., Carrasco E., Roca E., (2011). Review of corporate environmental
indicators. Journal of Cleaner Production 19, 1687-1699.
Hsu, A., L.A. Johnson, and A. Lloyd. (2013), Measuring Progress: A Practical Guide From
the Developers of the Environmental Performance Index (EPI). New Haven: Yale Center
for Environmental Law & Policy.
OECD, 2002. Indicators to Measure Decoupling of Environmental Pressure from Economic
Growth, SGSD (2002)1/FINAL, OECD, Paris.
OECD, 2003. OECD Environmental Indicators. Development, Measurement and Use,
Reference Paper, OECD Environment Directorate Environmental Performance and
Information Division, Paris.
OECD, 2008. Key Environmental Indicators, OECD Environment Directorate, Paris, France.
Environmental Indicators
33
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 4
ABSTRACT
This chapter focuses on the psychological aspects of environmental sustainability
and aims to further our understanding in relation to the construction of positive
environmental behaviors. It is argued that the cornerstone of sustainability is behavior
change and psychology as the field of studying human behavior can provide valuable
insights of how we can enhance sustainable development. In relation to this, the focus
should not only be on how humans affect the environment but also how humans can alter
their behavior in stopping affecting the environment. This chapter discusses different
psychological processes that increase awareness of sustainable behavior in promoting
environmental sustainability. Moreover, it attempts to explain the significant role of
constructing positive social representations of sustainable behaviors and development of
"Green identities" in the service of environmental sustainability.
1. INTRODUCTION
In the second decade of the twenty - first century humanity continues to face many
challenges. Our world is witnessing colossal changes in every possible domain (e.g. the
financial domain, the political domain, the socio-cultural domain, the psychological domain
and the environmental domain). Centuries ago, man had struggled for survival against
environmental rivals. This struggle unavoidably led him to escape nature by building cities
and creating civilizations. As a result, man has accomplished his evolution by creating a new
safe haven where he can live, explore, enjoy and safely consume the benefits of the natural
world within city walls. Initially, the natural and urban environment was perceived as a
framework in which human and nature could harmoniously interact (Gleeson & Low, 2000).
*
36
However, this rapid expansion of human activity to a range of environments has caused a
great impact on the global environment (Clayton & Radcliffe, 1996). Fast shaping cities,
technological breakthroughs, financial crisis and increasing climate changes which occur
almost on a daily basis are the highlights of the dramatic alterations that our planet and world
is currently facing. These revolutionary environmental alterations confirm what we intuitively
know- what we see here today, may not be what we will see in the future to come (Morse,
2010). The world is clearly changing at a very fast pace. The increasing population suggests
increasing human needs in terms of food and water. This emphasizes that now, more than
ever we need to understand that this unregulated exploitation of resources without any
conscious planning or any reckoning of the potential ramifications of our actions to the
environment can no longer continue. (Hawkes, 2011).
The concept of sustainability or sustainable development has been evolving ever since the
relationship between the environmental quality and best quality in life, was first mentioned by
the international community at the United Nations Conference on Human Environment in
1972. Sustainability can be defined in many different ways. For example, it can be defined as
the idea of finding a more regenerative way to balance human and environmental needs, or as
an idea of emphasizing the need for more responsible decision makings regarding the
relationship of collective equity and ecological quality. As pointed out by Rogers, Jalal and
Boyd (2008), sustainability is a necessary process of change in which human needs,
exploitation of resources and technological advances are consistent with not only our present
needs but with our future ones as well. As Repetto (1986) explains, the core idea of
sustainability is that current decisions should not impair the prospects for maintaining or
improving future living standards, which implies that our economic systems should be
managed in that way so that we can live off the dividends of our resources. In general, the
idea of sustainability embodies the desire that future generations will inherit a world at least
as bountiful as the one we inhabit today. This can only be achieved by responsible and
cautious planning about our actions and materialistic pursuits (Hawkes, 2011).
Sustainable development is based on the relationship between people and time and
symbolizes the interrelation between the past, the present and the future. As Morse (2010)
explains, it is related to the past because it teaches us about the progress of human existence
and our battles for survival; the present because it emphasizes our duty to make sure we
provide the best quality of life that we can today and the future because it should be our moral
responsibility to provide future generations an even better quality of life than ours. To this
end, we should all acknowledge the importance in becoming the protectors of the
environment and in doing so we must acquire an active role in safeguarding humanity.
Clearly, it should be our obligation not only to limit any damage done to the environment so
far, but also, try and amend any destructions caused to the environment by past generations
(Morse, 2010).
37
choices or options may be confusing or misleading to people at first, yet these alternatives
regarding a more sustainable way of living are very important to be fully explained and
understood (Burthold, 2007).
According to the latest United Nations projections, it is estimated that by the year 2050
the world population will reach nine billion people in developing and emerging countries. It is
evidenced that there is a strong and global need for environmental awareness regarding the
importance of sustainable development worldwide because the current consumption rates
cannot continue like that; people need to be directed to more balanced and sustainable
patterns. Even though the majority of consumers may have positive attitudes towards
sustainability, they still havent really changed their consumption behaviors. They may "talk
green" but they do not in fact "walk green" (Van Trijp, 2014).
Psychology, as the field of studying human behavior, can provide valuable insights and
tips of how different professionals working in the field can empower sustainable
development. It should be noted that, human behavior is responsible for almost every
environmental disaster, whether it is air or water pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity
or climate changes (Manning, 2009). Interestingly enough, even though people are concerned
about the broader ramifications of their actions they still engage in unsustainable behaviors. A
psychological perspective can provide some valuable insights regarding the nature of peoples
unsustainable attitudes, explain why people do in fact occasionally behave sustainable and
how to motivate and empower sustainable behavior. Most people wish to respect and care
about the environment we live in and that is why they often express increasing concerns about
the state of our natural environment. However, despite their concerns they continue to behave
in unsustainable manners resulting in negative environmental consequences.
One of the most interesting observations made by psychological research is that our
decisions are frequently a result of unconscious automatic processes. There is research-based
evidence that thinking is a product of two separate systems of reasoning: the rule-based
system and the associative system but even though they work together they do not always
agree (Sloman, 2007). Manning (2009) explains that the rule-based system is our rational
thinking in which decisions are made after careful consideration of facts or evidence while the
associative system is more spontaneous and makes decisions a lot quicker based on our
instinct. People make decisions every day and even though we may think that these decisions
were rational they are in fact the result of the associative system.
For example, going to work by bicycle seems like a good idea because you are thinking
that you will save up petrol or because you may consider it to be a good exercise to keep you
fit and healthy. However, the associative system will definitely be negative on this idea
perhaps because nobody likes the idea of going to work with messy hair (Manning, 2009).
Therefore, following this line of logic, we need to make sustainable behavior more appealing
to the associative system. The primary focus then should be given to the individuals behavior
and the factors that influence it.
Festingers (1957) theory of cognitive dissonance claims that inconsistent cognitions
produce an aversive state of arousal (i.e., dissonance), which in turn produces a desire to
reduce the underlying inconsistency and preserve a state of consonance (Gawronski, 2012).
For example, recycling is one of the most promising ways of living sustainable lives. In line
with this theory, even though people know that they cannot carry on living in these
consumption rates and that they should embrace recycling because there will be negative
ramifications in the future; yet, they continue to behave unsustainable justifying this by
38
thinking that scientists are exaggerating and that this scenario of severe changes worldwide
will not happen.
Praising more environmentally suitable patterns of living, unavoidably involves changing
our current way of living both at a personal as well as, at a social level; and the challenging
task is to foster these potentially helpful revolutions for a more sustainable behavior (Irvine &
Kaplan, 2001). Change suggests that things as we know them will be amended and people in
most cases feel threatened by change (Kaplan 1991). The thought of changing jobs, meeting
new people, working in a new city, or implementing technological innovations is frequently
perceived with some apprehension, but this fear of change is particularly severe during
situations where many changes occur at the same time (Grabiner & Miller, 1974). Why is it
so difficult for humans to accept change, and how can we provide solutions to these pressing
environmental issues given their resistance to change? In order to manage peoples fear of
change we first need to identify the "appropriate" change. The "appropriate" change should be
the one that will bring the desirable effects and minimize any undesirable ones. We need to
find solutions that will promote sustainable patterns of living but in a way that people will
feel comfortable and willing to help. The second step is to face the challenge of getting the
proposed change facilitated (Irvine & Kaplan, 2001). Once the "appropriate" changes have
been recognized, then there is the challenge of facilitating them. The reason why this is so
puzzling is simple; "humans are much more comfortable with the known than the unknown"
(Irvine & Kaplan, 2001). The "known", may refer to a person, a particular physical or social
environment or even something abstract such as the term sustainability. It is something that
someone has some understanding about it, something familiar which suggests a moderate
degree of understanding. In general, people are motivated to make minimal exploratory
ventures from the safe base of their "known". Therefore, we can increase familiarity and
lessen human resistance by introducing change in small steps. Taking small but steady steps
will create a level of familiarity, and this will help to keep track of the effect each step has
had so far, which is an important component for assessing what steps we should take next.
Lastly, we need a campaign that encourages participation. Participating in something helps
building this familiarity and a sense of ownership of the process which can keep you
motivated. For example, consider recycling. Each community or city needs to have recycling
bins. People need to be constantly reminded that they should recycle anything that can be
recycled in their households. If we convince them to keep recycling and this attitude is truly
implemented in their daily routines, then we will have made a great start. But how can this be
done? The next section explains how sustainable behavior can be developed and enhanced.
39
one knows well". Emphasizing in what one "knows well" may facilitate taking action towards
the achievement of environmental sustainability. If one takes into consideration the concept
of thinking and acting locally rather than globally, then one must also consider the local
human resources that are part of the solution to a problem as well. Finding better ways to
utilize theses resources can contribute toward solving our environmental problems and
achieving sustainability (Irvine & Kaplan, 2001). This should be thought as a step-by-step
goal; we cannot have a worldwide effect immediately, yet we can have local effects from
each community. In addition to this, it would be best to give people a specific goal to keep
them motivated. People respond better not only when they know what they need to do but
when they feel that they can do it as well. This goal needs to be a bit challenging so it can
motivate them, but more importantly it needs to be realistic., Thus, it would be best to
research what goals are perceived as realistic in sustainability in each community and refine
these goals accordingly (Manning, 2009).
People are biologically programmed to desire social approval and respect hence, they
tend to adjust their behavior accordingly. Social norms refer to implicit social rules that
influence our behavior in the community we belong to. Obviously, each community is
different but they all bound to certain rules that people need to follow in order to be socially
accepted. They are constantly looking for "social proof" they look at other peoples
behaviors for clues as to how they should behave themselves in a given situation (Cialdini,
2004). In accordance to that, we need to try and give people the following social proof:
behaving ecological is the desirable and acceptable thing to do. Furthermore, it would be best
to provide the audience with less normative information that they will not fully comprehend
but instead use terms such as, "many of your fellow citizens or many of your neighbors"
engage in this behavior. Manning (2009) suggests that by providing less normative
information could still be effective as these messages inform people that others are behaving
sustainable hence implying they should be too. Another critical factor to consider is that we
need to make this sustainable ambition personal. Its imperative that we make people realize
that it is not just the environment that is affected but all of us as well. We are a fundamental
part of the environment and any significant damages to it can and will have an effect on us
too. Therefore, instead of keep mentioning that there are "increasing environmental
problems" we should perhaps emphasize on personal messages such as, there is "an
increasing pollution to the air we breathe" (Manning, 2009).
In addition, it is important to understand that people tend to use heuristic thinking
whenever they want to make a quick decision. For instance, imagine when we go to our
grocery shop and see a sticker on a product that says "all natural". This phrase will activate a
heuristic or positive bias that "natural is good" hence we won't take time to further look at it
especially when we are in a hurry (Manning, 2009). Amel, Manning and Scott (2009) provide
support that people who are in a more mindful state of awareness are more likely to behave
more sustainably. Consequently, if we increase mindfulness and critical thinking we can also
increase sustainable behavior.
Furthermore, we should all aim to create opportunities in which people can demonstrate
to others sustainable patterns of living. We can talk about the future we want to create, rather
than the threats we are trying to avoid. It's better to mention the positive things that are
possible and doable so that people will feel more inspired to engage in a sustainable life
(Manning, 2009). Different academics (Cinnirella, 1998; Ilia, 2012) have pointed out the
importance of taking into consideration the psychological processes that take place in the
40
41
establish a consensual order among phenomena and at the same time they enable
communication to take place among the members of a community by providing them with a
code for social exchange. Deaux and Philogene (2001) suggest that social representations are
built on a shared knowledge and understanding of a common reality; allowing people to
construct a framework of references that facilitates their interpretations of reality and guide
their relations to the world around them, and at the same time, because they elaborate them
together and evoke them frequently social representations become deeply embedded in their
cultural fabric. Social representations can therefore be conceptualized as a collective process
for understanding and giving meaning to new phenomena. Importantly, there are two related
processes which are central to the generation of representations: anchoring and
objectification. These are the psychological processes by which unfamiliar objects or events
become familiar (Moscovici, 1984).
Many social scientists have acknowledged the fact that information originating from the
mass media plays an important role in the development of social representations (Bruter,
2003; Cinnirella, 1996; Clemence, 2001; Ilia & Lyons, 2008; Ilia, 2012; Wagner &
Kronberger, 2001).
As Wagner and Kronberger (2001) explain, in modern society images rarely become
shared if there is no mass media to take on an image and provide for its necessary widespread
publicity and; in that sense, the mass media, become the major vehicle for the dissemination
of social representations. Furthermore, the media with a large audience contribute to the
circulation of various thematic elements and multiple opinions that produces a set of common
points of reference (Clemence, 2001); hence, it can provide an important source for the
content of information that may influence the processes of development and negotiation of
social representations in the society. In particular, those images (e.g. promoting positive
images with sustainable behavior) presented in the mass media could contribute to the process
of anchoring and objectifying the new phenomenon (i.e. positive aspects of a green identity)
to a better and healthier life through a more sustainable community (Morgan, 2009; Wagner
& Kronberger, 2001).
In relation to these, the mass media industry should be considered as a very strong actor
in the promotion of sustainable behavior and; should become an ally in the process of a green
identity construction. That is, an identity that will encompass all those elements that suggest a
green, environmental-friendly person who perceives and understands the world through an
environmental consciousness and behaves in a responsible and coherent way by protecting the
environment.
Moreover, for many people the representations of "environmentalists" are anchored to
negative images of people (e.g. hippy, smelly, vegetarian, protester etc.) and these are
representations that most people do not want to associate themselves with. This issue can be
addressed by replacing labels that are neutral and more broadly descriptive to portray groups
of people encouraging ecological stability (Amel, Scott, Manning & Stinson 2009). We could
for example try and use the mass media in a beneficial way by circulating new positive
images that are friendly to a green identity (e.g. use terms and promote images such as
"concerned citizens or people worried about clean air and water") and avoid terms such as
"environmentalists or environmental groups" (Manning, 2009).
42
CONCLUSION
Sustainability is indeed a "word of our time" (Morse, 2010) and even though it may be a
subject of constant cultural debate, it should be embraced in all of its forms by all cultures and
civilizations (Hawkes, 2011). The fundamental challenge of sustainability is not just in terms
of environmentalism but also as a state of mind, because the question that rises is whether we
can understand our behavior and most importantly the actual consequences of our behaviors.
To do this we must be able to discard our biases and review every area of human life and
alternative life style choices. We need to become aware of the ramifications of our
irresponsible actions and then start to manage these actions more consciously (Clayton &
Radclifle, 1996). Human race has achieved a lot and whether we have enough vision and will
power to accomplish this goal as well, remains to be seen. As Morse (2010) pointed out, "we
should ask ourselves, what do we wish to give our children and grandchildren; do we wish
them to live and enjoy the environment that we have today or do we want them to have a
better one?".
Koger and Winter (2010) postulates that, while human behavior is not easy to change, it
does change through commitment, patience and perseverance: change begins by learning
what is needed and what is not needed through responsible consumer behaviors; by
explaining and teaching people why environmental sustainability is not just important but
crucial for our survival and; by making people understand that they need to take responsibility
for their own behavior while working to change the norms and rules that shape the behavior
of others.
People should rethink their own consumer and environmental attitudes via promoting a
more green lifestyle by building the blocks of a stronger green identity that would in turn,
reflect a more sustainable behavior. In general, we need to change the way/s we perceive
things and play the right cards for sustainable development. The greater obstacle to a
sustainable future, is indeed, human behavior, hence this needs to change if we want to have a
better future for us and our future generations. Importantly, the focus of the academic
community should not only be on how humans affect the environment but also how humans
can alter their behavior in stopping affecting the environment. The blueprint for an
environmental sustainability is to change people's understanding of how they think and act
towards these issues. This can be achieved with the construction of positive social
representations of a sustainable behavior through the development and enhancement of
"Green identities".
Finally it is important to say that the psychological aspects of sustainability are a crucial
factor when it comes to changing sustainable behavior. Importantly, greater emphasis should
be given to the psychological processes involved in how an individual perceives, understands
and behaves in relation to environmental sustainability and how green identities are being
constructed. The emphasis on one individual at a time may seem like a lengthy process for a
more sustainable world, however, we need to be realistic and keep in mind that we cannot
change the world in a day; an individual change though is in fact possible and can be the
beginning of future and broader changes (Manning, 2009).
43
REFERENCES
Alicke, M. D., & Sedikides, C. (2010). Handbook of self-enhancement and self-protection.
New York: Guilford.
Amel, E.L., Manning, C.M., & Scott, B.A. (2009). Mindfulness and Sustainable Behavior:
Its Not effortless being green. Ecopsychology, 1(1),14-25.
Breakwell & E. Lyons (Eds.), Changing European identities: Social psychological analyses
of social change (pp. 253-274). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Breakwell, G.M. (1986). Coping with threatened identities. London and New York: Methuen.
Breakwell, G.M. (2001). Social Representational Constraints upon Identity Processes. In K.
Deaux and G. Philogene (Eds.), Representations of the Social: Bringing Theoretical
Traditions (pp.271-284). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Breakwell, G.M. (2010). Resisting representations and identity processes. Papers on Social
Representations, 19, 6.1-6.11.
Brewer, M.B. (2001). Social identities and social representations: a question of priority? In
K. Deaux and G. Philogene (Eds.), Representations of the Social: Bringing Theoretical
Traditions (pp.305-311). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Bruter, M. (2003). Winning hearts and minds for Europe: the impact of news and symbols on
civic and cultural European identity. Comparative Political Studies, 36, 1148-1179.
Burthold, G. (2007). Psychology of Decision-Making in Legal, Health Care and Science
Settings. Nova Science Publishers Inc., New York.
Cialdini, R. (2004). Influence: Science and practice. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Cinnirella, M., (1996). A social identity perspective on European integration. In G.M.
Clayton, A .M. H. & Radcliffe, N. J. (1996). Sustainability: A Systems Approach. Earthsian
Publications Limited, UK.
Clayton, S., & Opotow, S. (2003, Eds.). Identity and the natural environment. Cambridge,
MA: MIT Press.
Clemence, A. (2001). Social positioning and social representations. In K. Deaux and G.
Philogene (Eds.), Representations of the Social: Bringing Theoretical Traditions (pp.8395). Oxford: Blackwell Publishers.
Deaux, K., & Philogene, G. (2001). Introduction. In K. Deaux and G. Philogene (Eds.),
Representations of the Social. Bringing Theoretical Traditions (pp.3-7). Oxford:
Blackwell Publishers.
Estava G., & M. S. Prakash. (1994). From global to local thinking. Ecologist, 24(5), 162163.
Festinger, L. (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Evanston, IL: Row Peterson.
Gawronski, B. (2012). Back to the future of dissonance theory: Cognitive consistency as a
core motive. Social Cognition, 30 (6), pp. 652668.
Gleeson, B., & Low, N. (2000). Cities as consumers of the worlds environment. In: Low, N.,
Leeson, B., Elander, I, & Lidsog, R. (2000), Consuming cities: The Urban Environment
in the Global Economy after Rio. Routledge, New York.
Goodland, R. (2002). Sustainability: Human, Social, Economic & Environmental.
Encyclopedia of Global Environmental Change. John Willey & Sons Ltd.
Grabiner, J. V., & P. D. Miller. (1974). Effects of the Scopes Trial. Science,185:832-837.
Hawkes, J. (2011). The fourth pillar of sustainability. Cultures essential role in public
planning. Common Grand Publishing Pry Ltd. Australia.
44
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 5
ABSTRACT
Businesses, worldwide about sustainability indicated the major benefits of
Sustainable development for their businesses are: Improved company or brand image
Cost saving Competitive advantage Employee satisfaction Product, service or market
innovation new sources of revenue or cash flow Effective risk management. Multiple
forces in the 21st century have propelled businesses into confronting conditions that
challenge their own and the worlds sustainability. In spite of the considerable research
on sustainability, reports suggest that we are barely any closer to a more sustainable
society. As such, there is an urgent need to improve the effectiveness of human efforts
towards sustainability. A clearer and more unified understanding of sustainability among
different people and sectors could help to facilitate this. In last decade the issue of
Sustainability has become a critical issue for the world and for business. Global issues
relation to water, food, energy, health, corruption, human rights, property, climate and
population threaten societal well-being and thus the pillars of a healthy market place.
This chapter present the concept of Business behind the concept of Sustainable
Development.
vasileios.inglezakis@nu.edu.kz.
46
1. INTRODUCTION
In Europe, an enterprise is considered to be an SME if it has fewer than 250 employees
and the annual turnover does not exceed 40 million euros (1 euro = USD 1.43, GBP 0.887,
JPY 138.31 on June 2009) or the annual balance-sheet 27 million euros (Milka and Matti,
2001). A further basic criterion for an enterprise to be characterized as an SME is its
independence, meaning that it may not be more than 25 % owned or controlled by another
enterprise or jointly by several enterprises which are not themselves SMEs. SMEs are an
important engine for economic growth and employment throughout the European Union.
In 1996, the Commission adopted a recommendation establishing a first common SME
definition. This definition has been widely applied throughout the European Union. On 6th
May 2003, the Commission adopted a new recommendation in order to take account of
economic developments since 1996 (for the complete text, see annex II, p. 32 of this guide). It
entered into force on 1st January 2005 and will apply to all the policies, programs and
measures that the Commission operates for SMEs. For Member States, use of the definition is
voluntary, but the Commission is inviting them, together with the European Investment Bank
(EIB) and the European Investment Fund (EIF) to apply it as widely as possible. This guide
presents the changes being made by the new definition and the reasons for them. It then
explains how to determine if an enterprise can qualify as an SME by following a step-by-step
approach. Since the average European enterprise employs no more than six people, most can
be considered as SMEs. However, the new definition takes into account possible relationships
with other enterprises. In certain cases, those relationships, particularly if they create
significant financial links with other enterprises, may imply that an enterprise is not an SME
(Zorpas, 2010).
According to The new SME definition User guide and model declaration and the
directive 2003/361/EC, (2003/361/EC; EU, 2005) we have a new definition (Table 1) for the
SMEs which is:
i.
47
a.
48
25 % or more of the capital or voting rights are directly or indirectly controlled, jointly or
individually, by one or more public bodies. Enterprises may make a declaration of status as an
autonomous enterprise, partner enterprise or linked enterprise, including the data regarding
the ceilings set out in Article 2 of the directive 2003/361/EC. The declaration may be made
even if the capital is spread in such a way that it is not possible to determine exactly by whom
it is held, in which case the enterprise may declare in good faith that it can legitimately
presume that it is not owned as to 25 % or more by one enterprise or jointly by enterprises
linked to one another. Such declarations are made without prejudice to the checks and
investigations provided for by national or Community rules.
49
Micro enterprises (Zorpas et al, 2008) presented with several characteristics. Among
them are: (i) that they have Mono-service and or product, (ii) they fill economic pressure, (iii)
they sell to the local market, (iv) they're Family traditions and they are informal organization,
(v) they have Very low management, sometimes they have employees from different
nationalities (new phenomenon), (vi) they have little access to adult training and to the new
requirements of the market, (vii) they do not federate and (viii) they produce high amount of
waste (liquid, solid, air).
Traditional Quality and Environmental Management or Health and Safety tools do not fit
in the reality of the VSMEs or micro-business with less than 10 employees. Nor do they fit
well in many SMEs. Family companies are everywhere in Europe. Most of them they want to
apply the most common and known standard which is the Quality Management System
(QMS) ISO 9001:2008. The requirement of the QMS for the VSMEs sometimes is very
complex. It is not the substantial or effective qualities of those standards which are too high, it
is more the internal and external barriers to access which are more demanding; cost,
bureaucracy, resources, measurement analysis and improvements, knowledge, know-how, etc
(Zorpas et al, 2008).
The EMS has several Objectives, which are (i) Encouraging SMEs to develop an
environmental management system in their production processes; (ii) Assisting SMEs to
apply concepts of EMSs in their actual operations in order to reduce pollution and comply
with regulations while saving costs and increasing productivity; (iii) Developing
environmental awareness among SMEs entrepreneurs; (iv) Laying a solid foundation upon
which SMEs could base a further step towards international standards such as ISO 14001 or
EMAS regulation.
There is increasing pressure on firms, from a number of different sources, to engage in
environmental management initiatives. Government regulation was the major initial
environmental pressure. However, community and market have become the determinant
factors as they play more active roles in environmental protection in developed countries
(Chen and Soyez, 2003). Certain strategic choices can be imposed coercively through
sanction or threat, as in the case of a government legally mandating environmental standards
(Meegeren 2001; Delmas, 2002). Government regulation, including inspections and
enforcement actions, is one of the most important factors affecting a firms decision-making
process (Henriques and Sadirsky, 1996). However, Cohen (1999) reports that surprisingly few
empirical studies of environmental enforcement have been conducted in the USA. In the
economics literature, a few articles have examined the effectiveness of government
interventions on facility environmental performance involving standard emissions (i.e., nonaccidental discharges). These studies began by focusing exclusively on two industrial sectors
e pulp/ paperboard and steel (Gray and Deily, 1996). Later, expanding to other sectors, May
and Winter (May and Winter, 1999) examined the compliance with agro-environmental
regulations in Denmark. Stafford (2002) examined the effect of a new United States
Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) enforcement protocol on facility compliance
with hazardous waste regulations. Reijnders (2003) examined the regulatory influence on
cleaner production and found that regulation by permits based on adequate law and related
negotiated agreements might emerge as more specific instruments furthering cleaner
production. The US EPA has expressed a strong interest in getting a better understanding of
the factors that shape environmental performance at individual polluting facilities (Earnhart,
2004a). Subsequently, Earnhart (2004b) analyzed the regulatory factors that shape the level of
50
51
aspects), (ii) market opportunities (incentive aspects), (iii) regulatory procedures (sanction
aspects) and (iv) community pressure (informal aspects).
However, most of the recent research focused on single factors influence on corporate
environmental performance, for example regulation and compliance. But firms usually make
decisions with a full consideration of all factors. Thus an integrated approach with all factors
taken into account should be adopted. On the other hand, such researches in China are
limited, though China has an urgent demand of effective environmental policies (Zorpas,
2010).
52
the EcoTechnology office at US-based Intel, the worlds largest manufacturer of computer
microprocessors The Economist Intelligent Unit, 2009. However, IT evolve as a key strategic
enabler across the enterprise, many companies are realising the need to think more holistically
about how IT can support enterprise-wide corporate sustainability efforts. This paper aims to
understand how those efforts are being applied in various business settings, and to identify
best practices for other companies to follow.
According to the same report (The Economist Intelligent Unit, 2009) there is one clear
area where IT can help companies to become more energy-efficient is in the design,
construction and ongoing maintenance of office buildings. The common assumption is that
most greenhouse gases come from transport, but in fact its only 25-27%. The largest
contributing activity (at 47% of total emissions, he says) is the construction, operation and
decommissioning of buildings. Clearly the area where IT can make the most significant
contribution is in energy management. For example, Yahoo!, an Internet company, uses an
online system to track energy consumption building by building on its California campus, and
translates that into kilowatt-hours used and dollars spent. Wal-Mart, a US retail giant,
monitors and controls in real time the lighting, heating, air conditioning and refrigeration in
all 4200 of its Wal-Mart and Sams Club stores in the US from its headquarters in
Bentonville, Arkansas. This allows the company to analyse its energy use and performance
and to adjust specific levels at any time. But to be truly eco-friendly, environmental issues
must be taken into consideration at the earliest planning stages of a new office complex. That
has been the case with the Shanghai Tower, which, it is claimed, will be the most sustainable
skyscraper in the world when it is completed in 2014. At 128 floors, the building will have
two skins, with an airy inner atrium surrounding the core structure. The top of the office
building will have a wind farm of 54 vertical-axis wind turbines generating 540000 kwh of
electricity per year (the energy is equal up to 400 houses). There will also be systems to
collect rainwater and condensation. These and other sustainability elements will be computer,
controlled and linked through a variety of enterprise and application software that will be
controlled by the buildings owner.
One of the worlds leading mobile-phone manufacturers, Nokia of Finland buys
environmentally friendly components, uses recyclable materials and purchases 25% of its
global energy needs from green sources, aiming to increase this to 50% by 2010. But it is also
trying to instill in its employees a corporate philosophy steeped in the ideas of sustainable
resources and the minimisation of carbon emissions. According to the Vice president of
Nokias environmental affairs, Kirsi Sormunen, The way that Nokia sustainability is based
on the principle that it has to be part of everything Nokias do, and fully integrated into
business activities. Workers at Nokias offices in New York, the UK and China are
encouraged to use mobile offices (desks and meeting rooms where IT supplies wireless
access and to which employees can relocate for an hour, a day or more). This system has so
far reduced office space needs by roughly 30%, leading to lower energy and buildingmaintenance costs. Top management is leading the way by being the first to use the mobile
office concept. Employee travel is discouraged when teleconferencing will suffice. But for
those who do travel and book their passage on the companys intranet, there is an option to
purchase, at company expense, carbon offsets equivalent to the appropriate carbon credit for
that distance. Nokia is taking sustainability initiatives to its customers as well. Some of its
phones come with applications such as city maps to encourage walking, directions to phonerecycling centres and information on ways to purchase carbon offsets. Nokia has formed
53
partnerships with European Internet services to educate consumers about the environment,
link them to a conservation bulletin board or offer a daily sustainability tip. To conserve
energy further, the company has developed software to make battery chargers beep when
phones are fully charged, so that users will unplug them and avoid drawing unnecessary
power from outlets. Nokia calculates that if its 1 bn phone users followed this practice they
would conserve enough electricity to power 100000 houses (The Economist Intelligent Unit,
2009).
According to IKEA policy (the largest stores offer everything for the home displayed in
inspiring room Settings), by the end of 2015, the energy consuming products, such as lights
and white goods, will be at least 50% more efficient than average installed products on the
market. The water consuming products, such as taps, dishwashers and washing machines
shall be at least 50 % more efficient than average installed products on the market in 2008.
Comparisons for both water and energy consumption are based on estimated averages for the
European market. According to same policy by the end of 2015, all product materials shall be
renewable, recyclable, or recycled. The main raw materials used in IKEA products are wood,
cotton and glass. The latter is recyclable, while wood and cotton are renewable and recyclable
materials. Hence IKEA want as many people as possible to be able to afford IKEA products
as part of their visions and to develop a better everyday life. Cost-consciousness is essential to
this idea, inspiring IKEA to make economical use of all resources and to seek innovative
solutions. This in turn helps IKEA to reduce overall environmental impact. IKEA always
strives to use the least possible resources to make the best possible products (using hollow
legs on furniture and chipboard as filling) are classic IKEA ways of saving on wood
resources, and often blend cotton with other materials to reduce cotton use without any
negative impact on the quality. Raw material extraction can be associated with environmental
and social concerns. IKEA wants to support the development of sustainable practices for what
they are often long and complex supply chains. IKEAs team works actively with their
partners to spread better management practices in cotton cultivation, and to increase the
availability of certified wood from responsibly managed forests. IKEA also purchases
Roundtable of Sustainable Palm Oil (RSPO) Certificates to cover the palm oil volume used
by IKEA in order to help stimulate more sustainable palm oil production. All coffee sold and
served at IKEA is UTZ Certified. That means it has been produced with care for people and
the environment, and that you can trace the beans all the way back to the plantations through
a code on the packaging. UTZ Certified is an independent non-profit organisation that sets
social and environmental standards for sustainable coffee growing and distribution, and now
also cocoa and tea. Also all stores must offer at least one food dish based on exclusively
organic ingredients. In addition, many markets source organic food for their national menu in
the restaurants. IKEA reduce carbon dioxide emissions from all aspects of operations,
including raw material extraction, product manufacturing, transportation, energy usage in
IKEA buildings, how people are transported to stores, the use of products in customers
homes, and finally at the end of a products life-cycle. This is a great challenge, om which
IKEA team is making progress. IKEA defines renewable energy as energy derived from
resources that are regenerated naturally or cannot be depleted. IKEA has decided not to pay
premium prices for grid electricity from renewable sources. This is one of the reasons why
IKEA invests in alternative solutions, such as solar panel systems and wind turbines, to
supply its buildings with renewable electricity. Investments in more sustainable energy
solutions often represent significant cost savings and relatively short payback periods. Each
54
IKEA market is responsible for reducing carbon dioxide emissions from its buildings and for
increasing its use of renewable energy (IKEA, 2011).
Hewlett-Packard has been evolving through three distinct phases of environmental
sustainability over the past two decades. In the 1980s, the environmental concerns were
primarily pollution control and prevention with a focus on reducing emissions from existing
manufacturing processes. During the 1980s, HP made great strides in pollution control and
prevention, risk management, and facility improvements such as reducing toxic materials and
emissions. In the 1990s, the focus shifted to product stewardship, which focuses on earlier
intervention to minimize environmental impacts associated with the full life cycle of a
product. HP established a Product Stewardship function which focused on developing global
processes for tracking and managing regulatory compliance issues, customer inquiry response
systems, information management, public policy shaping, product take back programs, green
packaging, and integrating "design for the environment" and life cycle analysis into product
development processes. Today, sustainability is about developing technologies that actually
contribute a positive impact to environmental challenges. HP has recognized that pollution
prevention and product stewardship have become baseline market expectations. To be an
environmental leader in the 21st century, HP needs to integrate environmental sustainability
into its fundamental business strategy (Preston, 2001).
Microsoft (Microsoft, 2012) recognizes the tough challenges that data center managers,
cloud and IT service providers face today as they struggle to support their businesses in the
face of rising costs and uncertainty about how to efficiently provide web-scale cloud
infrastructures. Microsoft has followed the practices below for several years now and found
that in addition to helping protect the environment, they lead to optimal use of resources and
help teams stay aligned with core strategies and goals. Provide incentives that support
primary goals: Incentives can help to achieve remarkable results in a relatively short period if
apply them properly. Microsofts charge back mechanism for online services is based on
energy capacity allocation and usage instead of floor space. This provides incentives for
business managers to purchase lower power servers, increase utilization with virtualization,
and defer purchases until they are absolutely needed. Microsoft (according to the same report)
has achieved significant reductions in energy consumption (Figure 1) at its data centers by
providing incentives to data center managers, not just for uptime, but also for improving
energy efficiency as measured by the power usage effectiveness (PUE) of the data center.
PUE is a metric that measures the ratio total data center power consumption relative to the
power used by the IT infrastructure. This metric effectively determines additional power
consumption over and above the power needed to run the servers. The goal for data center
operators is to eliminate as much of this additional power consumption as possible (i.e. to
achieve a PUE as close to 1.0 as possible).
The average Power Usage Effectiveness in 2011 was 1.40 across all of our cloud
infrastructure properties, compared with an estimated industry average of 2.0. Our goal by the
end of 2012 is to construct new data centers that average 1.125 PUE and use 30-50 % less
energy than traditional industry data centers (Microsoft, 2012). They continue to monitor the
existing data center operations and tune our control systems. These efforts have resulted in
some dramatic improvements, for example in Chicago data center they are achieving an
average PUE of 1.07 in the container area for the first half of 2012, compared to the initial
PUE of 1.25 in 2009 (Figure 2).
55
PUE =
IT Equipment Power
IT Load
Demand
from
Servers
Storage, Telecom Equipment
etc
While the industry improvements in PUE are well documented, Microsoft beginning to
reach a point of diminishing returns where each dollar invested to achieve an incremental unit
of PUE reduction achieves a smaller return. In order to continue to drive incentives for
improvements in energy efficiency, Microsoft is one of the first data center operators to
implement an internal carbon fee.
Focus on effective resource utilization: Energy efficiency is an important element in
Microsoft business practices, but equally important is the effective use of resources deployed.
For example, if only 50 % of a data centers power capacity is used, then highly expensive
capacity is stranded in the uninterruptible power supplies (UPSs), generators, chillers, and so
on. In a typical 12 Megawatt data center this could equate to $4-8 million annually in unused
capital expenditure. In addition, there is embedded energy in the unused capacity since it
takes energy to manufacture the UPSs, generators, chillers, and so on. Stranding capacity will
also force organizations to build additional data centers sooner than necessary. This wouldnt
happen had they fully utilized existing data center infrastructure first (Figure 3).
Use virtualization to improve server utilization and increase operational efficiency
(Microsoft, 2012): As noted in the point above, underutilized servers are a major problem
facing many data center operators. In todays budgetary climate, IT departments are being
56
asked to improve efficiency, not only from a capital perspective, but also with regard to
operational overhead.
Reduce
power and
cooling cost
Figure 3. Data Center Capital Costs in the United States Focus on mechanical and electrical expense to
reduce cost significantly.
57
Actual Load
100%
99.6%
90%
90.6%
80%
80.0%
70%
70.2%
60%
60.3%
50%
50.2%
40%
39.9%
30%
30.1%
20%
20.2%
10%
10.1%
Active idie
ssj_ops/ power
ssj_ops
725,620
659,864
583,048
511,207
439,188
366,118
290,866
219,614
147,012
73,322
0
Power
Average Active
Power (W)
172
160
147
136
128
120
112
105
96.6
85.8
53.6
Performance to
Power ratio
4,230
4,136
3,962
3,760
3,428
3,045
2,589
2,097
1,522
854
0
3,052
Figure 5. (Continued).
58
Figure 5. Servers consume a significant amount of power when they are idle, often more than 50% of
peak power. As shown above, moving from 10% load to 50% load delivers 5x the performance for 40%
more power.
A server running virtualization will often need more memory to support multiple virtual
machines, and there is small software overhead for virtualization. However, the overall value
proposition measured in terms of work done per cost and per watt is much better than the
dedicated underutilized physical server case. At times, one data center might have excess
capacity while another has workloads reaching capacity. Microsoft has deployed a very high
bandwidth data center-to-data center network that allows processing mobility to reduce the
stranded capacity and wasted energy used to power idle server. Key benefits of virtualization
include: Reduction in capital expenditures, Decrease in real estate, power, and cooling costs,
Faster time to market for new products and services, Reduction in outage and maintenance
windows. Microsofts Global Foundation Services team is taking significant steps in four
areas important to environmental sustainability (Microsoft, 2012):
(a) Using recycled resources whenever practical: The Microsoft data center in San
Antonio, Texas, for example, uses approximately eight million gallons of recycled
water a month from the citys waste water system during peak cooling months. Our
Quincy, Des Moines, and Boydton data centers building shells are made from
recycled steel. They are also twice as efficient and use only one percent of the water
consumed by more traditional, water-cooled data centers that are still the industry
standard. They also use recycled fiber cement in the new construction projects to
help improve air quality and reduce carbon. For example, one of the data centers
realized a savings of over 198 tons of CO2, the equivalent of taking 90 cars off the
road a year. Additionally, as part of the community commitment to Quincy,
Microsoft entered a public-private partnership with the municipality that enables the
reuse of water from local food processing plants to meet the cooling needs of data
center. This eliminated the need for potable resources while also significantly
recharging the supply returned to ground water with approximately 80 percent of the
treated water now going back to the community aquifer. In October 2011, Microsoft
transferred the plant to the city to extend these sustainability benefits to other
industries in the region. This was the first known transfer of a water treatment plant
to a municipality and is valued at tens of millions of dollars.
59
(b) Using renewable resources to power our data centers: Microsofts commitment to
carbon neutrality means that for every unit of energy that is not already provided by a
renewable generation resource (hydro, wind, solar), Microsoft will purchase
renewable energy to insure that 100 percent of the data center energy consumption is
carbon-free. In addition, the company are actively working on projects that will
demonstrate the ability of Microsoft data centers to run directly on renewable power
resources. Today, the facility in Quincy, Washington, uses 100 percent renewable
hydropower from the Columbia River Basin, and our data center in Dublin, Ireland,
uses outside air for cooling.
(c) Reducing waste in operations: There is opportunity to optimizing supply chain
logistics by not shipping full-assembled racks, which reduces packing materials,
transportation, and shipping wastes and costs, and allows for simplifying the rack
design and manufacturing. In some cases the engineering to protect fully loaded
racks in shipping can add up to 2x the rack cost and adds considerable weight.
Further, the companys found efficiencies in retaining the electrical and mechanical
rack infrastructure when decommissioning the servers themselves, saving the
obvious costs and accelerating the deployment schedule.
(d) Recycling all our servers and electronic equipment: Company send 100 % of their
equipment to a third-party vendor that recycles and/or resells it.
BM&FBOVESPA, Latin Americas leading exchange in number of transactions and one
of the worlds largest in market value, created the Corporate Sustainability Index (ISE
ndice de Sustentabilidade Empresarial) in 2005 with financial support from the International
Finance Corporation (IFC). According to the World Federation of Exchanges, there are now
more than 50 sustainability indexes around the world, across their 51 member exchanges
(World Federation of Exchange, 2009; IFC, 2012). In launching the ISE, BM&FBOVESPA
and its technical partner Fundao Getlio Vargas (FGV) sought to develop an investment
product that could be used by responsible investors to facilitate the investment process, either
by buying securities issued to track the ISE, or by using the analysis performed by the Index
managers as proxies in their own investment decisions. The ISE was designed to create an
efficient investment mechanism to group companies with superior performance that manage
environmental, social, and governance risks and opportunities. ISE has been one of the many
efforts undertaken in Brazil to promote sustainable practices. However, 64 percent of group
companies (always listed on the Index) stated the ISE was the most important factor in
developing sustainable practices over the past five years. Sustainability indexes are
constructed to act as independent, consistent, and rational benchmarks for private and institutional investors on the evaluation of the performance of their sustainability investments
(including funds focused on sustainability companies). As such, liquidity, access to capital,
and stock prices are expected to be favorably impacted. However, in the case of the ISE, no
such evidence could be found (IFC, 2012).
Since the launch of the Index in 2005, sustainability in Brazil made significant progress
overall. This is evidenced by the growth of the Instituto Ethos (an institution promoting
corporate responsible practices in Brazil and Latin America) member companies, which
increased from 200 companies in 2000 to almost 1400 in 2010. It is also reflected in the
number of signatories to the Global Compact (The United Nations Global Compact is a
strategic policy initiative for businesses that are committed to aligning their operations and
60
Access to Capital
Low expectation
Improved
competitiveness
Figure 6. Responses To Evaluation Questionnaire On The Perceived Benefits Of The Index (Companies
That Have Always Been In The Index).
This ninth edition of the BMW Group Sustainable Value Report has been published to
provide stakeholders with comprehensive information about further refinements to the
companys sustainability strategy and the progress made in integrating sustainability into its
corporate processes. Focusing on present and future challenges in the areas of Sustainability
Management, Product Responsibility, Groupwide Environmental Protection, Supply Chain
Management, Employees and Corporate Citizenship, the Sustainable Value Report 2012
describes BMW management approach, the objectives, key figures and specific programmes
making up the companys sustainability performance (BMW, 2012). BMW group review
61
every five year key performance indicators like Return in Capital Employed in %, CO2
emissions of BMW Group vehicles (g/Km) in 27 EU, Research and development expenditure
(in million), Energy consumption pre vehicle produces (in MWh/vehicle), Water
consumption per vehicle produced (in m3/vehicle), Waste for disposal per vehicle produced
(in kg/vehicle), Volatile organic compounds (Voc) per vehicle produced (in kg/vehicle),
Share of women in total workforce of BmW ag (in %), accident frequency at BmW group
(per one million hours worked), expenditure on corporate citizenship by the BmW group in
2012 (in thousand) etc. Sustainability has also been established as a strategic corporate
objective in the BMW Group Balanced Scorecard since 2009. This means that every project
must be measurable in terms of Sustainability as a corporate objective, ensuring that, in
addition to economic factors, environmental and social aspects are also accounted for in the
decision making process, due BMW know that today, the value of a company is not measured
solely by direct financial indicators but also by so-called non-financial performance
indicators. By setting the right course in the early stages of a project, the company saves
resources and any necessary corrective measures down the line, which often entail much
higher costs. In addition, sustainability as a corporate objective cascades down to personal
target agreements for managers and is thus part of their performance-based remuneration
(BMW, 2012). BMW are already demonstrating how sustainability measures have led to cost
savings or generated revenue. Between 2006 and 2012, BMW invested in environmentally
friendly plants and technologies as part of our Clean Production Strategy throughout the
BMW Groups production network. The resulting reduction in energy, water, waste and VOC
emissions of around 36% per vehicle produced led to cost savings of around 100 million.
Due to global megatrends (e. g. urbanisation, climate change and regulation) customer
mobility requirements are also shifting. A range of studies has already shown that
environmental awareness on the part of customers is coming more and more to the fore, while
at the same time their focus remains on design, dynamism and comfort (this creates new
business potential for the BMW Group). Respect for human rights is integrated in the strategy
and culture of the BMW Group. The management process is aligned with the requirements of
the UN Guiding Principles on Business and Human Rights, which were passed by the United
Nations in 2011. They use these principles as the main guide to critical reflection and
continuous improvement of how they entrench human rights requirements within the
company. To ensure that the due diligence processes set down in the UN Guiding Principles
are implemented, a comprehensive internal risk analysis along the entire value chain of the
BMW Group was carried out in the 2012 financial year. To avoid human rights violations, all
employees can consult their line managers or the BMW Group Human Rights Contact
helpline if they have any questions. Employees also have the opportunity to submit
information anonymously and confidentially via the BMW Group SpeakUP Line about
possible human rights violations within the company. The BMW Group SpeakUP Line is
available in a total of 34 languages and can be reached via local free-of-charge telephone
numbers in all of the countries in which BMW Group employees carry out activities.
Looking through the creative lens of innovation, NIKE aim to create breakthroughs that
improve the world and are also better for the athletes and the investors. This is a fundamental
re-writing of the old belief system in which sustainability was so often cast as a cost to
business, or a drag on performance. The evidence tells us this simply does not need to be the
case, and indeed, the combining of sustainability and innovation can trigger advances in both.
A great example is that Nike Flyknit technology. Its a new way to knit a shoe upper out of
62
what is essentially a single thread. Its great for the athlete because it is lighter and offers a
more custom fit. Its good for the planet because it drastically reduces waste from the upper
production process. And shareholders benefit from the reduced cost of production and
increased margins. Its a nascent technology that holds tremendous opportunity to be scaled
over time (NIKE, 2012). At Nike, one way we seek to deliver shareholder value is through
sustainable growth. For NIKE, sustainable growth means the long-term vision to deliver
profitable growth decoupled from constrained natural resources, even as NIKE work to
deliver value to their shareholders in the near term. Meeting these two objectives requires a
careful balance one is what stakeholders expect of NIKE and it remains NIKEs
commitment. NIKE attempt to strike this balance by leveraging significant competitive
advantages, including authentic, emotional connections with consumers; innovative product
and retail experiences that lead the industry; and a strong NIKE, Inc. portfolio that gives
NIKEs tremendous opportunities for growth and profitability (NIKE, 2012). Sustainability
plan in NIKE includes (a) Plan : At the core of business is a plan opportunities, resources
and values; (b) DESIGN: Form. Function. Superior performance. Minimal impact. While the
designers always strive to create products that are faster, lighter and stronger, they also pay
close attention to smarter; (c) MAKE: Ideas dont become reality by magic. For a global
business, it requires people, materials, tools, knowledge, skill and a whole lot of coordination.
NIKE, contract with more than 900 factories globally to make products from their designs;
(d) MOVE: Nike ship products wherever and whenever they are needed, to get to thousands of
partners and millions of consumers around the world. Airplanes, boats, trucks and trains are
the tools NIKE transport providers use to overcome the obstacle of distance every day; (e)
SELL: Nike operates more than 750 retail stores around the world across all NIKEs brands.
Beyond selling products, each location strives to be a rewarding experience for its consumers
and an asset to its community. The stores are in leased space. While NIKE and Affiliate
brands sell primarily through retail partners not owned by NIKE company, NIKE focus is on
the impact of the selling they do in Their own stores; (f) USE: Once you bring home your
new shoes, shirt or shorts, a different footprint starts to take shape. This one belongs to you
according to NIKE; (g) REUSE: Finding innovative ways to reuse NIKE products creating
running tracks, sport courts and even new shoes and clothing helps minimize NIKEs impact
on the environment. At the end as a commitment the companys vision is to build a
sustainable business and create value for Nike and their stakeholders by decoupling profitable
growth from constrained resources (NIKE, 2012).
63
McWilliams & Siegel, 2001). From the perspective of industry and competitive dynamics
(Porter, 1998), benefits may accrue from advantageous effects of sustainability on market
structure including degree of industry consolidation, entry barriers, rivalry dynamics, and
first-mover potential (Porter &. Van der Linde, 1995). From a stakeholder view of the firm
(Freeman, 1984), the potential for sustainability benefits can be understood in terms of
addressing demands from customers, investors, suppliers, governmental and nongovernmental organizations, and activist groups (Clarkson, 1995). Institutional theory (e.g.,
Scott, 1995) draws attention to the potential legitimation benefits of conformance to
sustainability-oriented normative social rules and belief systems prevailing in the
environment (Bansal & Clelland, 2004; Doh, Howton, Howton & Siegel, 2009; Marquis,
Glynn, & Davis, 2007).
Several of these theoretical perspectives on competitive opportunities, stakeholder
pressures, and ethical values informed recent studies specific to sustainability strategy. Basu
& Palazzo (2008) theorized that sustainability decision-making is likely to be influenced by
three types of drivers: performance drivers, using social or environmental investments to
boost performance; stakeholder drivers, meeting specific demands of external stakeholders
and institutions; and motivation drivers, either extrinsic reasons such as to pre-empt legal
sanctions or enhance reputation or intrinsic ones grounded in virtue ethics. This closely
mirrors the empirical findings of Bansal and Roth (2000), who studied the responses of 53
firms to environmental needs and induced three drivers: competitiveness, legitimation (to
burnish their credibility or avoid penalties), and social responsibility. In terms of competitive
advantage, a good sustainability strategy must first be a good business strategy that fits an
organizations unique value-chain opportunities and threats (Porter & Kramer, 2006; Siegel,
2009). What is distinctive about a sustainability strategy is that strategic thinking and action
become more holistic, balanced and complex (Mirchindani & Ikerd, 2008). Planning takes on
a more balanced short and long term view (Slawinsky & Bansal, 2009). A more diverse array
of external stakeholders becomes deeply engaged so that the organization can better discover
opportunities, anticipate challenges, and create mutuality (Mirchindani & Ikerd, 2008). For
instance, a large retailer such as Wal-Mart has to consider not only the design and cost of its
imported merchandise but also the labor practices of its suppliers, the carbon footprint of its
products, the benefit of having its brand associated with green values, and the potential for
public relations embarrassments due to government actions or civic watchdogs (Laszlo,
Sherman, & Whelan, 2005; Sachs, 2007).
Stakeholder and institutional legitimation also is an important motivation for corporate
sustainability, both on the upside of reputation as well as the downside of unprecedented risk.
Many organizations need to beware of violating new regulations, falling into public relations
embarrassments or becoming a target for activist groups. For example, Monsanto saw its
multibillion dollar investment in developing genetically engineered foods derailed by an
unexpected, highly-effective campaign among European consumer groups and farmers in
developing countries that resulted in prohibitive regulations by European Union institutions,
an outcome that Hart & Sharma (2004) suggest might have been avoided if Monsanto had
built bridges to these seemingly fringe stakeholders. The third driver of sustainability
business decisions, social responsibility and virtue ethics, appears to operate more in
conjunction with the other two drivers rather than as the sole basis for action. Very few
companies in Bansal and Roths (2000) study reported social responsibility as the only
motivation. More often it was cited in connection with competitiveness or legitimation. For
64
example, Whole Foods developing networks of local growers to supply produce to its stores
aids the local economies of its own customers in a socially responsible way. Meanwhile the
company publicizes its programs while reducing the cost of inbound shipping and greenhouse
gas emissions from long-distance transport, potentially enhancing its legitimacy and
bolstering its competitive advantage. This integration of social good with enlightened selfinterest is reflected in Goldman Sachs directing investors to consider both
social/environmental indicators as well as financial ones, and in academicians urging
companies to focus on those societal issues instrumental to their own value chains (Porter &
Kramer, 2006; Ambec & Lanoie, 2008)
65
company. With regard to generic ESG measurement aspects, the World Business Council on
Sustainable Development, following a pilot initiative with twenty-two companies from ten
sectors, identified a set of generic standardised measures for eco-efficiency around five key
areas: energy consumption, materials consumption, water consumption, greenhouse gas
emissions and ozone depleting emissions (WBCSD, 2000). Other practitioner research
activities have complemented this view of environmental sustainability indicators by
highlighting the effectiveness of using production-based process output ratios as a
standardised method of presenting sustainability intensity performance, as illustrated
(Schwarz, J., Beloff, B. & Beaver, E. 2002; Ferguson, 2009).
The environmental measures (Table 1) are appropriate for a range of eco-efficiency
attributes, with examples that cover the input, process and output aspects of the companys
possible impacts. The social measures provided illustrate the social impacts from
employment, the impact of the companys product and service, employee welfare and
diversity, and aspects of employee engagement within society-orientated initiatives. The
economic measures illustrate the movement of finance in relation to measuring cost, returns
and payments that relate to stakeholders such as suppliers, government and shareholders. The
governance measures reflect mechanisms that indicate the level of sound corporate
governance activities within the company, which is of interest to institutional investors,
employees and directors. The stakeholder relations measures are an important consideration
for the CRV Process as they measure or describe the strength of stakeholder relations. For the
company, more specific measures should be developed that are orientate towards each of the
prioritised stakeholder relations (Ferguson, 2009).
Table 1. Sustainable Performance Measures
Environmental
Measures
Social Measures
Economic
Measures
Governance
Measures
No of products
with life cycle
assessments
% of recycled
materials used as
inputs
Volume of air and
water emissions
% of Suppliers
covered by ethical
procurement
No of product
recalls
% of businesses
with collective
bargaining
No of employee
volunteer hours
Average payment
times for suppliers
% of indented
directors on the
Board
Existence of
Code of Conduct
for Directors
No of Ethical /
Legal Violations
No of hazardous
materials used in
processes
Volume of landfill
use
% of companies
covered by
EMAS/ISO 14001
No of local jobs
created
% employees with
disabilities
Monies paid in
government tax
contributions
Income generated
from retailing
recycled waste
products
Cost of waste
disposal
% of major
projects meeting
operational goals
% of
compensation
linked to
performance
No of policies
and codes of
conduct in the
company
Stakeholder
Relation
Measures
Employee
satisfactory rates
No of community
complaints
Customer
satisfaction
survey scores
No of awards
received
Rates of +ve/-ve
media coverage
No/type of
challenges from
government
66
A large body of evidence has accumulated from survey and case study research
documenting the benefits that organizations are achieving from implementing sustainability
practices (Willard, 2002; Blackburn, 2007; Esty & Winston, 2006). These can be summarized
as improvements in reputation, productivity, talent acquisition, employee retention and
engagement, cost effectiveness, risk avoidance/mitigation, innovation and market expansion,
and access to capital. A growing set of financial and econometric studies have examined the
relationship between sustainability investments and firm performance. The findings from this
literature can best be described as equivocal. On the one hand, firms specializing in
sustainability metrics such as Innovest Strategic Advisors, Smith Barney, and Dow Jones
(Sustainability Index) all have presented evidence that companies regarded highly for
sustainability management outperform other firms and that an eco-efficiency premium is
more often being built into the stock price of deserving companies (Cohen, 2006). Such
performance has prompted socially responsible investment (SRI) mutual funds to attract
several billions of dollars under management. Several meta-analytic reviews confirmed the
connection between investment choices linked to responsible environmental and social aims
and above average returns, suggesting that firms indeed can do well by doing good (Ambec
& Lanoie, 2008; Guenster, Derwall, Bauer, & Koedijk, 2005; Orlitsky, Schmidt, and Rynes,
2003). On the other hand, a separate meta-analysis of 127 studies did not confirm a
sustainability performance relationship (Margolis & Walsh, 2003). Others suggest that the
key factors driving the sustainability (performance association are strategic and complex)
including degree of industry maturity, market structure, customer demand, institutional
intermediation, and type of business strategy (Siegel, 2009). Barnett (2007) argued for a more
nuanced view of socially responsible investing, particularly in regard to the need for
organizations to assess and properly weight the diverse CSR demands and influence
capacities of various stakeholders to predict the ROI of CSR investments. A report by
Goldman Sachs (2007) found no evidence of a main effect for sustainability strategies alone
but did find better-than-expected returns when factoring in the interaction of sustainability
with such traditional factors as industry positioning, cash flow, and the like. As the urgency
of issues concerning sustainability increases, investors may well pay an increasing premium
for the shares of companies that are capitalizing on such externalities (Mackey, Mackey, &
Barney, 2007). In the meantime, the best conclusion seems to be that sustainability
investments often improve and almost never detract from financial performance (Siegel,
2009).
ABB took further steps in 2012 towards achieving companys strategic goal of becoming
a leader in the field of sustainability through measures to improve our environmental, social,
health and safety and security performance. Some of those steps were unspectacular but vital;
others demonstrated how sustainability considerations are increasingly becoming part of our
day-to-day business and are essential to overall success (ABB, 2012). ABB is a leader in
power and automation technologies that enable utility and industry customers to improve their
performance while lowering environmental impact. The ABB Group of companies operates in
around 100 countries and employs about 145000 people.
In 2012, this progress was evident in different aspects of companys business: (a)
Resource efficiency and emissions reduction have increasingly become a consideration across
ABBs value chain, from research and development and supply chain through to sales (b)
Sustainability experts worked on numerous occasions with sales teams to engage with
customers or respond to customer queries, and to carry out risk assessments of proposed and
67
existing projects (c) Business units increasingly factored in health, safety and security training
and measures as part of their duty of care to employees and contractors, particularly in highrisk environments (d) Sustainability specialists worked more frequently alongside Investor
Relations colleagues to engage with investors on the companys sustainability agenda (e)
Dedicated sustainability staff are now embedded in functions such as supply chain
management, delivering a Supplier Sustainability Development Program, and the mergers and
acquisitions process, carrying out due diligence on the sustainability performance of targeted
companies (ABB, 2012).
CONCLUSION
A variety of concerns, including pollution, climate change, human rights issues and
economic crises, have prompted the development of ongoing public discourse about the role
of business in society and the need for greater transparency, sustainability and responsibility
in business. Many firms that produce sustainability reports have found that doing well and
doing good are not mutually exclusive propositions. By releasing their reports, they engage
with stakeholders outside the company, integrate with local and global communities, and
participate in inclusive discourse that can lead to investments that benefit the company and its
operating environment. Implementing sustainability strategies can usefully be viewed as a
strategic transformation intervention, albeit involving more complex issues and a broader
array of stakeholders than most. Organizations are largely muddling along on their
sustainability journeys. This model identifies how influences outside the direct control of
executives, along with internal factors and decision considerations, are associated with a
variety of sustainability management actions that seem to translate into performance
improvement.
REFERENCES
ABB, 2012. ABB Group Sustainability Performance 2012 Building on strong foundations
https://www02.abb.com/global/abbzh/abbzh258.nsf/0/2d86b807b5ff30f9c1257b27004e2
62a/$file/ABB+Group+Sustainability+Performance+2012.pdf (access on Feb 2014).
Ambec, S., & Lanoie, P. (2008). Does it pay to be green? A systematic overview. Academy of
Management Perspectives, 22, 4, 45-62.
Bansal, P. & Clelland, I. (2004). Talking trash: legitimacy, impression management, and
unsystematic risk in the context of the natural environment. Academy of Management
Journal, 47(1): 93-103.
Bansal, P. & Roth, K. (2000). Why companies go green: A model of ecological
responsiveness. Academy of Management Journal, 43, 717-736.
Barnett, M.L. (2007). Stakeholder influence capacity and the variability of financial returns to
corporate social responsibility. Academy of Management Review, 32, 3, 794-816.
Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of
Management, 17, 99120.
68
69
Esty, D. C., & Winston, A. S. (2006). Green to gold: How smart companies use
environmental strategy to innovate, create value, and build competitive advantage. New
York: Reed Elsevier.
Esty, D. C., Levy, M. A., Srebotnjak, T., de Sherbinin, A., Kim, C. H., & Anderson, B.
(2006). Pilot 2006 Environmental Performance Index. New Haven: Yale Center for
Environmental Law & Policy.
EU. 2005. The new SME definition User guide and model declaration, Enterprise And
Industry Publications, 12-15.
Evangelinos, I.K., Oku, M. 2006. Corporate environmental management and regulation of
mining operations in the Cyclades, Greece. Journal of Cleaner Production. 14, 262-70.
Ferguson, D., 2009. Enhancing business value from the selection, measurement and analysis
of Corporate Sustainability Performance characteristics. Measuring Business Value and
Sustainability Performance, Doughty Centre for Corporate Responsibility EABIS CR
Measurement
series
http://www.som.cranfield.ac.uk/som/dinamic-content/media/
EABIS%20paper%20final.doc.pdf Access on Feb 2014.
Freeman, R.E. (1984). Strategic management: A stakeholder approach. Boston: Pitman.
Goldman Sachs Group (2007). GS sustain. New York: Goldman Sachs Global Research.
Goldman Sachs Group (2007). GS sustain. New York: Goldman Sachs Global Research.
Gottsman, L., Kessler, J. 1998. Smart screened investments: environmentally screened equity
funds that perform like conventional funds. Journal of Investing. 7(3), 15-24.
Gray, B.W., Shadbegian, J.R. 2004. Optimal pollution abatementdwhose benefits matter,
and how much? Journal of Environmental Economics and Management. 47, 510-34.
Gray, W., Deily, M.E. 1996. Compliance and enforcement: air pollution regulation in the U.S.
steel Industry. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management. 31(1), 96-111.
Guenster, N., Derwall, J.,Bauer, R., & Koedijk, K. (2005). The Eco-Efficiency Premium
Puzzle. Financial Analysts Journal, 61 (2), 51-63.
Hart, S. (1995). A natural resource-based view of the firm. Academy of Management Review,
20, 986-1014.
Henriques, I., Sadorsky,. P. 1996. The determinants of an environmentally responsive firm:
an empirical approach. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management. 30, 381395.
IFC, 2012, BM&FBOVESPA Sustainability Index & the Responsible Practices of Brazilian
Corporations ISSUE BRIEF, International Finance Corporation, World Bank Group,
http://www.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/7bcb180048855365aedcfe6a6515bb18/fly_Boves
paBrief.pdf?MOD=AJPERES access on January 2014
IKEA, 2011. The IKEA Group approach to sustainability How we manage sustainability in
our business http://www.ikea.com/ms/en_SA/pdf/sustainability_report/group_approach_
sustainability_fy11.pdf access in March 2014.
ISO 14001:2004 Environmental Management System.
ISO 9001:2008. Quality Management System.
Laszlo, C., Sherman, D., & Whalen, J. (2005). Expanding the value horizon. JCC, Winter,
Greenleaf Publishing.
Mackey, A., Mackey T.B., and Barney J.B. (2007). Corporate social responsibility and firm
performance: Investor preferences and corporate strategies. Academy of Management
Review, 32, 3, 817-835.
70
Marcus, A. A., & Fremuth, A. R. (2009). Green management matters regardless. Academy of
Management Perspectives, 23, 3, 17-26.
Margolis, J. D. & Walsh, J. P. (2001). People and profits? The search for a link between a
companys social and financial performance. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Marquis, C., Glynn, M. A., & Davis, G. F. (2007). Community isomorphism and corporate
social action. Academy of Management Review, 32(3), 925-945.
May, P.J., Winter, S. 1999. Regulatory enforcement and compliance: examining Danish agroenvironmental policy. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management. 18(4),625-651.
McWilliams, A., & Siegel, D. (2000). Corporate social responsibility and fin.
McWilliams, A., & Siegel, D. (2001). Corporate social responsibility: A theory of the firm
perspective. Academy of Management Review, 26(1), 117127.
Meegeren, P. 2001. Blue bags or refuse tourism: social acceptance of closed policymaking.
Society and Natural Resources. 14, 77-86.
Mendivil, R., Fischer, U., Hungerbuhler, K. 2005. Impact of technological development,
market and environmental regulations on the past and future performance of chemical
processes. Journal of Cleaner Production. 13, 869-880.
Microsoft, 2012. Microsofts Top 10 Business Practices for Environmentally Sustainable
Data Centers, 2012. http://cdn.globalfoundationservices.com/documents/MSFTTop10
BusinessPracticesforESDataCentersAug12.pdf access on Febrouary 2014.
Mirchandani, D. & Ikerd, J. (2008). Building and maintaining sustainable organizations.
Organization Management Journal, 5, 40-51.
Mutagwaba, W. 2006. Analysis of the benefits and challenges of implementing environmental
regulatory programmes for mining: Tanzania case study. Journal of Cleaner Production.
14, 397-404.
NIKE, 2012, NIKE, INC. FY10/11 Sustainable Business Performance Summary,
http://www.nikeresponsibility.com/report/files/report/NIKE_
SUSTAINABLE_
BUSINESS_REPORT__FY10-11_FINAL.pdf access on January 2014
Orlitsky, M., Schmidt, F. & Rynes, S. (2003). Corporate social and financial performance: A
metaanalysis. Organization Studies, 24: 403-441.
Pargal, S., Wheeler, D. 1996. Informal regulation of industrial pollution in developing
countries: evidence from Indonesia. Journal of Political Economy. 4(6), 1314 - 1327.
Porter, M. E., & van der Linde, C. (1995). Toward a new conception of the environment
competitiveness relationship. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 9(4), 97118.
Porter, M., & Kramer, M. (2006, December). Strategy and society: The link between
competitive advantage and corporate social responsibility. Harvard Business Review, 78
92.
Porter, M., (1998). Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analyzing Industries and
Competitors. NY: Simon & Schuster.
Preston, L., 2001. Sustainability at Hewlett Packard: Fromtheoryto Practice, Galifornia
Management Review VOL. 43, NO. 3 SPRING 2001. http://greenhrm.org/data/hp.pdf
access on March 2014.
Regulation (EC) No 1221/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of
25 November 2009 on the voluntary participation by organisations in a Community ecomanagement and audit scheme (EMAS).
Reijnders, L. 2003. Policies influencing cleaner production: the role of prices and regulation.
Journal of Cleaner Production. 11, 333-338.
71
Sachs, J.D. (2005). The end of poverty: Economic possibilities for our time. New York:
Penguin.
Savitz, A., with Weber, K. (2006). The Triple Bottom Line. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Schwarz, J., Beloff, B. & Beaver, E. (2002); Use of Sustainability Metrics to Guide Decisionmaking; Chemical Engineering Progress; 98,7.
Siegel, D.S (2009). Green management matters only if it yields more green: An
economic/strategic perspective. Academy of Management Perspectives, 23, 3, 5-16.
Slawinsky, N., & Bansal, P. (2009). Short on time: The role of time in business sustainability.
Paper presented at the Academy of Management Annual Meeting, Chicago.
Stafford, S. 2002. The effect of punishment on firm compliance with hazardous waste
regulations. Journal of Environmental Economics and Management. 44(2), 290-308.
The Economist Intelligent Unit, 2009, IT and Sustainability: Bringing best practices to the
business. A report from the Economist Intelligent Unit Sponsored by Orade.
Triebswetter, U., Hitchens, D. 2005. The impact of environmental regulation on
competitiveness in the German manufacturing industryda comparison with other
countries of the European Union. Journal of Cleaner Production. 13, 733-45.
WBCSD (2000); Measuring Eco-Efficiency - a guide to reporting company performance;
World Business Council for Sustainable Development (Geneva).
Weber, P. 1990. Green sales of approval heading to market. World Watch. 3, 7-8.
Willard, R. (2002). The Sustainability Advantage: Seven Business Case Benefits of a Triple
Bottom Line (Conscientious Commerce). Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society
Publishers.
Willard, R. (2009). The Sustainability Champion's Guidebook: How to Transform Your
Company. Gabriola Island, BC, Canada: New Society Publishers.
World Federation of Exchanges, Exchanges and Sustainable Investment, August 2009.
Zhu, Q.H., Sarkis, J., Lai, K.H. 2007. Green supply chain management: pressures, practices
and performance within the Chinese automobile industry. Journal of Cleaner Production.
15, 1041 -1052.
Zorpas Antonis, Tsartas Paris, Aristidis Goumas, Theoharous Olga. 2008. Mediterranean
standard for Sustainable tourism (ME.S.S.T) - general requirements, objectives and the
philosophy of MESST. Sustainable Tourism 2008, Wessex Institute of Technology, 3 - 5
September 2008, Malta.
Zorpas, 2010. Environmental Management Systems as Sustainable Tools in the Way of Life
for Micro-Enterprises, Bioresource Technology, Vol 101, pp 1544 1557.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 6
ABSTRACT
The urban palm groves of Elche (Alicante, Spain) were recognized as World
Heritage by the UNESCO in 2000: The Palmeral of Elche (n 930). The origin of this
landscape in the municipality of Elche is from Muslims that elaborated and developed an
important irrigation system and the cultivation of palm trees (Phoenix dactylifera L.). The
use of this agricultural structure is based on the benefices obtained and the sustainable
adaptation to the semiarid conditions of this area. The plants of interest for agriculture
were cultivated inside a square orchard where the palm tree constitutes the marginal
plant. However, from the palm trees many materials were obtained and the use of them
was a sustainable practice over nine decades. The industrial revolution in Spain and the
increment of the town joined to the presence of new materials collapsed The Palmeral
and nowadays, poor sustainable use is associated to this agrosystem added to the poor
economic benefit. Moreover, imported palm trees from other parts of the world have
produced the arrival of new plagues in Spain, which were not presented in this area
constituting a new risk. Therefore, new sustainable uses can be implemented in order to
protect The Palmeral and guarantees a future of this World Heritage serving as an
example for other palm groves situated along the world.
74
1. INTRODUCTION
The Phoenix dactylifera L. (date palm) has been known as long as recorded history for its
important uses as a food and fiber source, and also in medicine, chemistry, and religion.
Palm trees are believed to have originated around the Persian Gulf area and in Western India.
Little is known about the origin and ancient history of the date palm. It is difficult to establish
the exact origin because apart from some wild plants still presented in areas around Jordan
and the Iraq-Iran border, all date plants known nowadays are fully domesticated. In general,
the origin and domestication of date palm is still problematic mainly because its wild ancestor
has yet not been clearly identified. On the one hand, it has been suggested that the cultivated
date palm may have its ancestor from a wild species of the Phoenix genus, different from
dactylifera. Phoenix sylvestris L. Roxb., the sugar date palm, has been considered as a
possible ancestor because of its proximity in morphological and genetic characters with the
cultivated date palm. On the other hand, it has been suggested than date palm resulted from
the hybridization of wild Phoenix dactylifera species (Tengberg, 2012) due to a high number
of private alleles detected in recent genetic works. Despite its economic and symbolic
importance in the arid regions little is still known about the early cultivation of the date palm
(Tengberg, 2012). The earliest cultivated finds dated around 4000 BC were from Eridu,
Lower Mesopotamia in the Bronze Age (Kwaasi, 2003). The earliest examples of the use of
date palm in the Middle East come from two sites in the Persian Gulf region, island of Dalma
and Sabiyah in Kuwait, and dated in the Mid-Holocene (Beech, 2003; Tengberg, 2012). The
date palm was naturalized in Arabia and spread through Northern Africa, Spain, the drier
parts of the Nile valley, and around the Euphrates River. From Spain and the Barbary Coast
(Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia) Phoenix dactylifera planting material was introduced to
America, until the late nineteenth century that were introduced in the US, plants from Iraq
and other Middle East countries (Rivera et al., 2012).
Date palm is the most common fruit tree grown in semiarid and arid-regions of the
Middle East and North Africa (Kassem, 2012). Agrosystems with high water requirements
under the increased occurrence of extreme drought events have forced irrigation with poor
quality water from both irrigation drainage and groundwater sources (Prez-Sirvent et al.,
2003). Salinity causes osmotic imbalance, reduces water uptake and transpiration, and
reduces yields of crops (Grattan and Grieve, 1999; Dogan et al., 2010). Thus, agriculture in
arid and semi-arid zones characterized by salinity is limited by the salt tolerance of the plant
with specification to agricultural management.
75
The most of the urban area of The Palmeral is recognized by UNESCOs World
Heritage List under the common label The Palmeral of Elche. World Heritage List
recognizes the great diversity of the interactions between humans and their environment in
order to protect living traditional cultural landscapes. The uniqueness of this area was
classified in the category of cultural property, the only Spanish cultural landscape with this
distinction. The Palmeral agrosystem takes up about 1% of the municipality surface (urban
and rural palm orchards). The Palmeral of Elche is a landscape of palm groves, which
presents a definite pattern linked to the irrigation channels (Gracia, 2006). Most of the
traditional date palm groves are rectangular plots bounded by single or double palms along
the channels in order to generate a microclimate for hosting a wide array of associated crops
such as Medicago saltiva L. and Punica granatum L. inside, organized horizontally and
vertically. This type of organization in the landscape has been described in the date palm
garden cultivation in the Middle East (Tengberg, 2012). The uppermost level consists of date
palms, and fruit trees of lower growth and low-growing annual crops from the second and
third level respectively below the date palms. This type of landscape is believed to be
structured in the VIII century A.D., when a large part of the Iberian Peninsula was under
Muslim rule (Glick, 1991). This area is a unique example of Arab agricultural techniques in
Europe. The main recognized values of the palm grove in Elche are the transfer of a typical
landscape from Africa to Europe and the conservation of its operation to this day.
76
The customs and practices on the management of irrigation water were introduced during
the period of Arab rule and they were assumed with poor modifications by the Christian
conquerors from the XIII century (Gonzlvez, 1977). It is possible to distinguish two periods
related to the irrigation system of Elche. There was a fundamental historical irrigation system
with a great social complexity, based on the utilization of the waters from the Vinalop River
by Mayor and Marchena channels from the Islamic period to the nineteenth century, and
other contemporary irrigation system developed since the early twentieth century to the
present (Guinot Rodrguez and Selma Castell, 2002). The collection and distribution in the
systems of irrigation have been diversified and expanded significantly since the beginning of
last century, with new water supplies from outside (new irrigation communities and waters
with waters coming from the Segura River or the transfer of the Tagus River and aquifers).
There was a strong link between land and water at the Islamic period, but after the
Reconquest this situation began to disappear, turning the water into a separate property
susceptible of commercial traffic.
There was a small amount of water of public property and private use for sale or leasing.
The water from the Mayor and Marchena channels was distributed among the owners. The
water distribution was equivalent to the proportions of land, being both properties together.
Water equitable was made daily in a public place, in which irrigators gathered for the sale of
lots of water. This situation lasted until 1906, when it was introduced the daily sale of the
waters at public auction, thus reaching the full separation of land and water (Bru, 1992;
Municipal Archives of Elche, 2003).
The irrigation system is linked to The Palmeral setting its landscape. During the Muslim
period landscape perspective was different because the arrangement of the date palms was
more open than at present. From the Christian period there was a process of date
concentration around the city. Moreover, there was a great development of the palm groves
from the construction of the reservoir in Elche and especially in the eighteenth century,
increasing the date palm activity. This development resulted in an image of an agricultural
crowns system departing from the downtown described by Madoz (1847).
77
Figure 1. Historical distribution of the irrigation channels and the urban palm groves of Elche.
78
production. Thus, this traditional irrigation system fully adapts to conditions of severe water
shortage. The irrigation water conductivity is about 14 S cm-1 with a salt content of 9 g l-1.
Salinity causes osmotic imbalance, reduces water uptake and transpiration, and consequently
reduces yields of crops (Tripler et al., 2011). Information regarding the response of each
specific crop to the conditions of salinity is therefore essential for understanding plant-soil
interactions and proper management of saline irrigation water (Tripler et al., 2011).
Date palm has been classified as a perennial crop tolerant to salinity with a threshold of
4.0 dS m-1 in soil saturated paste electrical conductivity under which there is no significant
response to salinity (Carr, 2013), and a subsequent reduction of 3.6% in biomass production
for every increase of saturated paste electrical conductivity equals 1 dS m-1 (Tripler et al.,
2011). In this sense, Furr et al. (1966) did not find relationship between soil water salinity and
Na and Cl concentration in leaf matter, suggesting an inherent ability for the palm to inhibit
uptake of salt into plant tissues. However, prolonged irrigation with very high electrical
conductivity of irrigation water (8 and 12 dS m-1) was found to be commercially impractical
as growth and yield, since salinity acted with a long-term consequence of increasing relative
negative response to water consumption and plant growth.
This negative response may be explained either as an accumulated effect or increasing
sensitivity to salinity (Tripler et al., 2011).
The soils in this area are characterized by unorganized raw soils, developed on calcium
substrate in most of the municipality. The soils in this area are classified as Fluvisols and
Calcisols (European Commission, 2005) according to FAO/ISRIC/IUS and the nomenclature
revision (IUSS Working Group, 2006), with a clay loam-texture based on the Bouyoucos
method (Gee and Bauder, 1986). Moreover, the soils near the wetlands of the municipality (El
Hondo and Las Salinas de Santa Pola) have high concentrations of salts, with more
difficulties for the development of crops that have low resistance to these salinity conditions.
79
The date palm crops over the centuries have provided many products derived from stipes
(trunks), date fruits and leaves (whole leaves and the sheath at the leaf base) that are useful.
Through the centuries the use of palm products equaled or even became more important than
the date crop (Barreveld, 1993). The main use of the stipe is as wood due to the great tensile
strength. Its use is therefore oriented to exploit this characteristic: furniture, poles, beams,
rafters, lintels and pillars have been manufactured with the palm trunk for both outdoor and
indoor uses. The trunks have been also used as firewood. In addition to these uses, in time of
food scarcity the inside of the trunk was used for human consumption.
The leaves are the part with most profitable uses. Each date palm produces between 1020 leaves per year (Pahsa, 1998). Whole palm leaves have a special meaning at religious
festivals, being white palm which has produced the biggest agricultural benefits in this area.
Date leaves have also been used traditionally to manufacture roofing to give shade and other
crafts. Where mud is used in house construction whole date leaves may be laid across the
beams, that are made of the stipe, in a thick bedding upon which a layer of mud is poured to
form the first floor or roof cover (Barreveld, 1993).
Leaves are used in plaits which are sewn together to obtain woven products such as a
wide array of baskets, sacks, mats and hats between others. Using the same raw materials,
sturdy baskets, vase shaped containers and trays have been made by a different technology. In
this sense, this technique consists of first forming cores of finely divided fibers of the date
fruit stalk. These cores are wrapped over with shredded leaflets at the same time linking them
with the former spiral.
80
Therefore containers for domestic use with many types of shapes have been made
(Barreveld, 1993). The leaves have been also used for making strings after plaiting for
temporary fixing jobs in horticulture.
Usually, a two-strand string is made with a thickness of about 7 to 10 mm. When new
date palm leaves come out from a tender cover tissue remains at its base attached to its lateral
edges, and surrounding the trunk of the palm. Many types of rope of different diameters were
made from sheath fiber from the leaf base. These ropes were widely used for transport and
reinforcement of baskets among others. Other utilities of the date leaves were to make brooms
by arranging and tying the leaves in flat bundles and also used as bedding for animals. Spines
are situated at the lower end of the leaves with the function of protecting the central tender
parts of the palm. These parts have been used in the making of utensils where a sharp pointed
is needed as toothpicks or fishing traps (Barreveld, 1993).
Reproductive organs from the date palm have been also used over the centuries. Spathes
have been boiled and distilled resulting in a liquid used for flavoring hot or cold drinks.
Spathes can be also effective as a digestive (Mikki et al., 1989). Indeed, empty bunches like
the other fibrous parts of palm have a fuel value (Chao and Krieger, 2007).
The primary product from the date palms is the date fruit, which can be eaten in various
processed forms. Date fruit is available in different forms, including fresh, dehydrated pieces,
diced, extruded date pieces, and macerated fruit. Dates have played significant roles in the
economy, society and environment in many areas (Chao and Krieger, 2007).
81
Dates are used for human consumption but also if the date quality is low, these are a
useful source for animal feeding.
82
At the present time, the palm sale is regulated and consequently the number of nurseries
dedicated to the palm production with the purpose of marketing has increased. Landscape
parameters in these nurseries are completely different from the characteristic parameters of
the traditional palm groves. In these nurseries, the palms are placed in parallel rows very
close together and are characterized by a very high density of plants.
Therefore, the profits of the palm groves as an agrosystem are low and the maintenance
cost is high. Many old cultural landscapes have high qualities, but the management regime is
no more feasible economically. This poses a complex pressure on cultural landscapes,
threatening landscape qualities (Vos and Meekes, 1999). The increase of urban land surfaces
at the expense of a large loss of quality agricultural soil is a process that higher threat to many
environments including The Palmeral. Cultural landscapes are the result of reorganization of
the land in order to adapt its use and spatial structure better to the changing societal demands
(Antrop, 2005). Landscapes always change because they are the expression of the dynamic
interaction between natural and cultural forces in the environment.
These landscape changes are seen as a threat, a negative evolution, because the current
changes are characterized by the loss of diversity, coherence and identity, which were
characteristic for the traditional cultural landscapes (Antrop, 2005). Urban palm grove must
be maintained as a cultural landscape but soft uses may be improved, mainly the use as a
cropping system joining the society to the palm care. Neighborhood associations, retirees and
school can take advantage of urban gardens and keep inside the city the ancient system while
rural orchards can still be used as agrosystems with important benefits.
In consequence, there have been several purposes to find new outlets for the products
derived from the date crop. Utilization of date crop and processing waste products is
important because they can become low-value products (Johnson, 2012). Technical research
on the utilization of palm by-products has been focused on using the palm oil fruit bunches as
fuel, often mixed with other combustible material, to generate electrical energy and yield a
fine ash with industrial uses due to its exceptional qualities (Johnson, 2012).
The biomass of agricultural waste is one of the most important sources of energy, being
considered the first renewable resource that has been used to produce heat on the human
evolution. In this sense, the main purpose of many studies is to transform the biomass found
in agricultural residues in biogas (Cioabl et al., 2009) and other resources as fuel. The
possibility of using date seed as a cheap feedstock for biodiesel production has been also
investigated, concluding that date seed oil can be successfully used as biodiesel in the internal
combustion engine (Amani et al., 2013). Indeed, date palm leaves and stems have shown
potential in the manufacture of paper, panel board and particle board among others (Johnson,
2012).
Another possible alternative to the use of palm byproducts could be as soil amendments
after application of the shredded date palm leaves, which could provide a good horticultural
substrate with high crop yield. Abo-Rady et al. (1987) obtained positive results in growth and
yield of tomato by the use of shredded date palm leaves as a substrate in horticulture. In this
sense, Ali (2008) also reported that the use of date palm leaves from agricultural waste for the
preparation of compost showed a significant impact on seed germination, plant growth and
production of many ornamental plants.
Recently, it has been reported the potential of date palm leaf ash obtained from the
agricultural waste as adsorbent for the removal of Pb ions from aqueous solutions (Ghorbani
et al., 2012).
83
The main advantages of this agricultural waste in the form of residue are its abundant
availability, high adsorption capacity and low cost (Ghorbani et al., 2012) allowing the use of
palm ash for cleaning up.
CONCLUSION
The socioeconomic changes in Elche along the past century have derived in risks on the
preservation of the palm groves and many losses of the area dedicated to The Palmeral. A
proper landscape management and the maintenance of several traditional uses with new
alternative sustainable uses of the date crop are necessary for a sustainable future of these old
cultural landscapes. The distinction received by The palmeral and the protection derived
(Law 1/1986, may 9th of the Valencian Government) should avoid the actions that undermine
the groves and involve loss of historical authenticity. This statement recognizes the whole
landscape and the historical infrastructures which have enabled its functionality for centuries,
including the cultural influences throughout its history.
REFERENCES
Abo-Rady, M. D. K., Khalil, M. M. and Ahmed, H. S. (1987). The use of shredded date palm
leaves as a substrate in horticulture. Growth and yield of tomato and cucumber. Date
Palm Journal, 5 (2): 153-163.
Ali, Y. S. S. (2008). Use of Date Palm Leaves Compost as A Substitution to Peatmoss.
American Journal of Plant Physiology, 3 (4): 131-136.
Amani, M. A., Davoudi, M. S., Tahvildari, K., Nabavi, S. M., and Davoudi, M. S. (2013).
Biodiesel production from Phoenix dactylifera as a new feedstock. Industrial Crops and
Products, 43 (1): 40-43.
Antrop, M. (2005). Why landscapes of the past are important for the future. Landscape and
Urban Planning, 70 (1-2): 21-34.
Barreveld, W. H. (1993). Date palm products. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Agricultural Services Bulletin n 101, Food and Agricultural
Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy.
Beech, M. (2003). Archaeobotanical Evidence for Early Date Consumption in the Arabian
Gulf. In: ECSSR (ed.), The Date Palm - From Traditional Resource to Green Wealth (pp.
11-31). Emirates Center for Strategic Studies and Research, Abu Dhabi.
Bru, C. (1992). Los Caminos del Agua: El Vinalop. Confederacin Hidrogrfica del Jcar,
Ministerio de Obras Pblicas y Transportes. Valencia.
Carr, M. K. V. (2013). The water relations and irrigation requirements of the date palm
(Phoenix dactylifera L.): A review. Experimental Agriculture, 49 (1): 91-113.
Chao, C. T. and Krueger, R. R. (2007). The Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera L.): Overview of
Biology, Uses, and Cultivation. HortScience, 42 (5): 1077-1082.
Cioabl, A. E., Ionel, I., Padurean, I., Tenchea, A., Popescu, F., and Savu, A. (2009). Biogas
production from agricultural residues test rig and results. Metalurgia International, 14
(3): 40-44.
84
De Groot, R., (2006). Function-analysis and valuation as a tool to assess land use conflicts in
planning for sustainable, multi-functional landscapes. Landscape and Urban Planning,
75 (3-4): 175-186.
Diputacin Provincial de Alicante. (2003). Mapa hidrolgico provincial de Alicante.
Memoria y mapa hidrolgico escala 1:150.000. Alicante, Spain.
Dogan, M., Tipirdamaz, R. and Demir, Y., (2010). Salt resistance of tomato species grown in
sand culture. Plant, Soil and Environment, 56 (11): 499-507.
European Commission. (2005). Soil Atlas of Europe. Office for Official Publications of the
European Communities: Luxembourg, Luxembourg.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). Date Palm Cultivation.
(2002). http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/y4360e/y4360e00.htm.
FAO statistics (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations). (2011). http://
faostat3.fao.org/home/index.html#DOWNLOAD.
Furr, J. R., Ream, R. L. and Ballard, A. L. (1966). Growth of young date palms in relation to
soil salinity and chloride content of the pinnae. Date Growers Institute, 39: 11-13.
Gee, G. W. and Bauder, J. W., (1986). Particle size analysis. In: Klute, A., (ed.). Methods of
Soil Analysis. Part 1. Physical and Mineralogical Methods (pp. 383411). WI: Soil
Science Society of America, Madison.
Ghorbani, F., Sanati, A. M., Younesi, H., and Ghoreyshib, A. A. (2012). The potential of
date-palm leaf ash as low-cost adsorbent for the removal of Pb (II) ion from aqueous
solution. International Journal of Engineering, Transactions B: Applications, 25 (4):
269-278.
Glick, T. F. (1991). Cristianos y musulmanes en la Espaa medieval (711-1250). Alianza
Editorial, Madrid.
Gonzlvez, V. (1974). La centuriatio de Ilici. Estudio sobre las centuriaciones romanas en
Espaa (pp. 101-103). Madrid.
Gonzlvez, V. (1977). El Bajo Vinalop. Geografa agraria, Valencia.
Gracia, L. (2006). Indicadores Ambientales y Paisajsticos del Palmeral de Elche. PhD thesis.
Department of Agrochemistry and Environment. Universidad Miguel Hernndez de
Elche.
Grattan, S. R. and Grieve, C. M. (1999). Salinity-mineral nutrient relations in horticultural
crops. Scientia Horticulturae, 78 (1-4): 127-157.
Greiner, D., (1994). Station Phoenix, Elche, Espagne, du 15/12/93 al 30/06/94. Biblioteca
Estacin Phoenix. Elche.
Guinot Rodrguez, E. and Selma Castell, S. (2003). Las acequias de Elche y Crevillente.
Camins dAigua, n 4. Conselleria dAgricultura, Peixca I Alimentaci, Valencia.
IUSS Working Group WRB. (2006). World Reference Base for Soil Resources. Second
edition. World Soil Resources Report, 103. Rome, Italy.
Jan, G. (1994). Les Palmeres del Migjorn Valenci. Generalitat Valenciana. Consell
Valenci de Cultura, Valencia.
Johnson, D. V. (2012). Enhancement of date palm as a source of multiple products: Examples
from other industrialized palms. Emirates Journal of Food and Agriculture, 24: 408-414.
Kassem, H. A. (2012). The response of date palm to calcareous soil fertilisation. Journal of
soil science and plant nutrition, 12: 45-58.
Kwaasi, A. A. A. (2003). Date palms. In: B. Caballero, L. Trugo, P. Finglas (eds.),
Encyclopaedia of Food Sciences and Nutrition. Academic Press, London.
85
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 7
ABSTRACT
In 1992, for the first time, the United Nations Conference on Environment and
Development (UNCED) gave an analytical approach to the concept of sustainable
development while the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD), in 2002,
further provided its analytical tool. The multiple challenges to development in Africa
have necessitated the use of a holistic approach that integrates economic, social and
environmental dimensions, and generates new knowledge, policies and actions. African
countries have been growing at a relatively fast rate since the beginning of the new
millennium, which in turn has led to improvements in several areas such as trade,
mobilization of government revenue, infrastructure development, and the provision of
social services and vice versa. Africa is endowed with rich and diverse renewable and
non-renewable natural resources, yet its people remain among the poorest in the world.
Improving the welfare of people in Africa requires sustainable development supported
with peace and stability, and with human, institutional and organizational capacities to
address immediate challenges, such as poverty and diseases.
1. INTRODUCTION
African countries have been growing at a relatively fast rate since the beginning of the
new millennium, which in turn has led to improvements in several areas such as trade,
mobilization of government revenue, infrastructure development, and the provision of social
services and vice versa. Indeed, over the period 20012008, Africa was among the fastest
growing regions in the world economy, and it is interesting to note that this improvement in
88
Antonis A. Zorpas
growth performance has been widespread across countries. Despite the progress that has been
made by the region over the last decade, the current pattern of growth is neither inclusive nor
sustainable. There are various reasons for this.
Firstly, African countries are heavily dependent on natural resources as drivers of
economic growth. But most of these resources (fossil fuels, metallic and non-metallic
minerals) are non-renewable and are being depleted at a very rapid rate with negative
consequences for future growth and sustainability. The dependence on resource-based growth
is also of concern to African policymakers because commodity prices are highly volatile and
subject to the caprices of global demand. Such price instability has negative consequences for
investment and makes macroeconomic planning challenging.
Secondly, per capita agricultural output and productivity in the region are still low
compared to the global average, with dire consequences for food security and social stability.
The African Development Bank estimates that Africas per capita agricultural output is about
56 per cent of the global average. Furthermore, about 30 per cent of sub-Saharan Africas
total population is estimated to have been undernourished in 2010 (Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and World Food Programme (WFP), (FAO and
WFP 2010). There have been some positive signs of rising agricultural productivity during
the last decade (Block, 2010). But in the past, agricultural output growth has been driven
largely by an expansion of cropped area rather than an increase in productivity. With rising
rural population densities, farm sizes have been declining and more and more people have
been compelled to move to more fragile lands. The sustainable intensification of agricultural
production is necessary to boost agricultural productivity and output and enhance food
security in the region.
A third feature of Africas current pattern of growth is that it has been accompanied by
deindustrialization, as evidenced by the fact that the share of manufacturing in Africas gross
domestic product (GDP) fell from 15 per cent in 1990 to 10 per cent in 2008. The most
significant decline was observed in Western Africa, where it fell from 13 per cent to 5 per
cent over the same period. Nevertheless, there has also been substantial deindustrialisation in
the other sub-regions of Africa. For example, in Eastern Africa the share of manufacturing in
output fell from 13 per cent in 1990 to about 10 per cent in 2008 and in Central Africa it fell
from 11 to 6 per cent over the same period. Furthermore, in Northern Africa it fell from about
13 to 11 per cent and in Southern Africa it fell from 23 to 18 per cent. The declining share of
manufacturing in Africas output is of concern because historically manufacturing has been
the main engine of high, rapid and sustained economic growth (UNCTAD and the United
Nations Industrial Development Organization UNIDO, 2011).
Furthermore, Africa has experienced rapid urban growth. The share of the urban
population in total population is currently about 40 per cent and is projected to rise to about
60 per cent by 2050.1 Historically, industrialization and an industry-led agricultural
transformation have been important drivers of urbanization, making it possible to absorb
labour moving from the rural to the urban and modern sectors of the economy. However,
Africas urbanization has not been driven by either industrialization or an agricultural
revolution. Jedwab (2012), state that the dramatic urban growth observed in Africa over the
past few decades has been driven by natural resource exports rather than an industrial or
agricultural revolution. He argues that, because natural resource rent in Africa are spent
mostly on urban goods and services, they make cities relatively more attractive and pull
labour out of the rural areas.
89
The current pattern of Africas economic growth is particularly worrisome given the fact
that the region has a young and growing population and will, according to the United Nations
Population Division, account for about 29 per cent of the worlds population aged 1524 by
2050. Furthermore, population projections indicate that the working age population in Africa
is growing by 15.3 million people per annum, and this number is expected to increase over
the coming decades. While having a young and growing population presents opportunities in
terms of having an abundant labour supply with much creative potential, it also means that
African countries will need to engage in growth paths that generate jobs on a large scale to
absorb the additional labour. In particular, they will need to move away from jobless growth
strategies and towards inclusive growth paths that are labour-intensive and create learning
opportunities for young people. Recent events in North Africa, have shown that a
development pathway that generates growth without significant improvements in employment
has the potential to create social and political unrest with dire consequences for efforts to
promote sustainable development (UNCTAD, 2012a).
Also, Africa has experienced a process of structural change over the last 30 years, but
that it has not been productivity-enhancing structural change. This is because it has been
associated with the increasing importance of the commodity economy and also the rising
importance of low-productivity informal economic activities in the service sector. Such
structural change has actually slowed rather than enhanced the economic growth process, as it
has not involved a shift from low-productivity to high-productivity sectors (McMillan and
Rodrik, 2011). Consequently, if African countries want to achieve high and sustained
economic growth, they have to go through the process of structural transformation involving
an increase in the share of high productivity manufacturing and modern services in output,
accompanied by an increase in agricultural productivity and output.
In recent years, African leaders have responded to the challenge of resource-based
growth by renewing their political commitment to structural transformation and adopting
several initiatives, at the national and regional levels, aimed at diversifying their production
and export structures (UNCTAD and UNIDO, 2011). But structural transformation is a
double-edged sword: while it is necessary for sustained growth and poverty reduction, it also
imposes significant costs on ecological systems, especially when deliberate and appropriate
actions are not taken by governments to reduce environmental damage to protect the
environment. Fischer-Kowalski and Haberl (2007) argue that, historically, the transition from
an agrarian to an industrial socio-ecological regime has been a major factor behind the rapid
increase in environmental pressures. Resulting problems range from climate change, waste
pollution, deforestation, desertification and degradation of freshwater resources, to the loss of
biodiversity. It is crucial that the renewed focus on structural transformation in Africa is not
achieved at the expense of social and environmental sustainability. Therefore, as they ratchet
up efforts to transform their economies, African governments should also seek to improve
resource use efficiency and address the adverse environmental impacts of structural
transformation.
In summary, Africa needs to rethink its growth strategies and find ways and means to
make them more compatible with the objective of sustainable development. Sustainable
development as recognized in the Brundtland report amounts to development that meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own
needs, (Brundtland et al (1987). As acknowledged at the United Nations World Summit in
2005, sustainable development consists of three interdependent and mutually reinforcing
90
Antonis A. Zorpas
Sustainability Idea
The international community has come a long way to reach a common global
understanding on the concept of sustainable development that now figures prominently on the
agenda of all significant international development initiatives, in particular the major UN
conferences and summits (see The international agenda on sustainable development,
below). This development paradigm resulted from a gradual shift in development theories and
their focus. In the 1950s and 1960s, development mainly focused on economic growth and
increases in outputs based on efficiency theories. A main tenet of this development concept
91
was that strong economic growth would have trickle-down effects thus benefiting all
segments of society. However, observations in the 70s of the growing gap between the rich
and the poor, between and within regions resulted in the shift to addressing equity issues with
emphasis on social development and income distribution as key elements. At around the same
time, observations on the impact of economic growth on the environment brought into focus
the importance of integrating environmental concerns in the development agenda. These
observations led to the questioning of the traditional perception of development, which
jeopardizes the integrity of the environment, fosters social inequalities and injustice and
disregards the welfare and needs of future generations. Therefore, the sustainable
development paradigm took the international community well beyond the traditional
compartmentalized treatment of social, economic and environmental concerns, and advanced
a more holistic and integrated approach to development. It has led to profound changes in the
way development is understood, conceptualized and measured worldwide. Munasinghes
illustration aptly depicts the interlinkages and interactions among the economic, social and
environmental pillars of sustainable development (Figure 1).
92
Antonis A. Zorpas
society would need to encourage and incorporate pluralism and grassroots participation into a
more effective decision-making framework for socially sustainable development. The
environmental view of sustainable development focuses on the constancy of biological and
physical systems (Munasinghe and Shearer, 1995). Of particular importance is the viability of
subsystems that are critical to the global stability of the overall ecosystem. Furthermore,
natural systems and habitats may be interpreted broadly to also include man-made
environments like cities. The emphasis is on preserving the resilience and dynamic ability of
such systems to adapt to change, rather than conservation of some ideal static state. Natural
resource degradation, pollution, and loss of biodiversity reduce system resilience. Reconciling
these various concepts and operationalizing them is a major challenge, since all three pillars
must be given balanced consideration. The interfaces between the three pillars are also
important.
The economic and social elements interact to give rise to issues such as intra-generational
equity (income distribution) and targeted relief for the poor. The economic environmental
interface has yielded new ideas on valuation and internalization of environmental impacts.
Finally, the social-environmental linkage has led to renewed interest in areas like
intergenerational equity (rights of future generations) and popular participation. However,
tradeoffs will always be necessary depending on the complexity of issues being addressed, the
circumstances and the current state of knowledge. The foregoing suggests a broad integrated
conceptual approach in which the net benefits of economic activities are maximized, subject
to the maintenance of the stock of productive assets over time, and providing a social safety
net to meet the basic needs of the poor. Sustainable development therefore calls for
integrating economic growth, social development and environmental management as
interdependent, mutually supportive and reinforcing pillars of long-term development. It calls
for participatory and multi-stakeholder approaches to dealing with development issues,
involving a wide range of actors- government, private sector, civil society organizations,
institutions of higher learning and research and development partners. It is therefore
encouraging to note that at WSSD, African Ministers reiterated their commitment to address
all three components of sustainable development in a balanced way, and as interdependent
and mutually reinforcing pillars. The Ministers noted that achieving sustainable development
objectives requires concrete global partnerships between governments on the one hand, and
between governments, business and civil society on the other.
93
the Heads of State and Government Implementation Committee (HSGIC) in March 2003
(ECA 2003). With the support of UN Agencies and other development partners, the
Secretariat has elaborated Action Plans in key areas. The seven (see Table 1 at the end) RECs
recognized by the African Union, as the implementing bodies of NEPAD (New Partnership
for Africas Development), have been involved in the design and implementation of
programmes and sub-regional projects. The African Capacity Building Foundation is
conducting capacity building needs assessments for all RECs. This includes determination of
funding required to implement programmes.
Table 1. NEPAD Priorities
a. Establishing the conditions for sustainable development by ensuring:
Peace and security;
Democracy and good, political, economic and corporate governance;
Regional co-operation and integration;
Capacity building
b. Policy reforms and increased investment in the following priority sectorsAgriculture;
Human development with a focus on health, education, science and technology and skills
development;
Building and improving infrastructure, including Information and Communication
Technology (ICT), Energy, Transport, Water and Sanitation;
Promoting diversification of production and exports, particularly with respect to agro
industries, manufacturing, mining, mineral beneficiation and tourism;
Accelerating intra-African trade and improving access to markets of developed countries;
and The environment.
c. Mobilizing resources by Increasing domestic savings and investments;
Improving management of public revenue and expenditure;
Improving Africas share in global trade;
Attracting foreign direct investment; and
Increasing capital flows through further debt reduction and increase ODA flows.
Source: NEPAD http://www.nepad.org/2005/files/inbrief.php
[1 Arab Maghreb Union (AMU); Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS); Common
Market of Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA); Southern African Development Community
(SADC); Intergovernmental Authority for Development (IGAD); Economic Community of West
African States (ECOWAS); Economic and Monetary Union of West Africa (UEMOA); and the
Customs and Economic Union of Central Africa (UDEAC)].
At the national level, many African countries have taken steps to create national NEPAD
focal points for co-ordination, monitoring and integrating NEPAD programmes and their
national development plans at country level. Examples of these countries include Algeria,
Rwanda, Nigeria, Mozambique, South Africa, Senegal, Ghana, Kenya and Gabon. These
94
Antonis A. Zorpas
countries have designated ministers or set up ministries as focal points for NEPAD in their
respective countries, (NEPAD Secretariat, 2004).
The transformation of the organization of African Unity (OAU) to the African Union
(AU) in July 2002, under the banner Peace, Prosperity, and Development (NEPAD
Secretariat, 2003), is a significant development in the implementation of Africas sustainable
development agenda. The Union has made key changes in the way it leads the resolution of
conflicts and manage peace building in war torn and conflict countries. Key organs of the
Union have been reinforced in terms of their mandates, budgets and leadership (Nkuhlu, WL,
2005). African Civil Society Organizations (ACSOs) have over the years, become more
involved in sustainable development issues. The Informal Regional Network of African NonGovernmental Organizations was launched in 2002. The WSSD process served as a valuable
lesson for African CSOs on the need to be better organized in terms of pushing the
continental agenda forward, (NESDA/WSSD Civil Society Secretariat, 2003). Furthermore,
the NEPAD Secretariat continues to interact with civil society groups at various levels.
A civil society desk has been established at the NEPAD Secretariat with a view to having
a one-stop focal point for civil society (NEPAD Secretariat, 2004). The NEPAD Business
Group (NBG) was also launched in 2002 under the leadership of the African Business
Roundtable. As the regional arm of the UN in Africa, ECA has supported these initiatives and
has played an important role in fostering Africas development within the United Nations
system. In addition to the national and regional initiatives, the international community has
reaffirmed, in the context of several major conferences and summits, its determination to
support these efforts. So far, these initiatives have led to some improvement.
African countries have recorded higher growth rates since the late 1990s; they have held
many democratic elections and overall improved their governance structures. However, for a
majority of countries, and more specifically sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), the progress achieved
remains insufficient to reach the development goals of the region, including the MDGs.
Therefore, it is imperative to strengthen these efforts and strive for better outcomes.
95
96
Antonis A. Zorpas
Appropriation of Net Primary Production (HANPP). This Report presents some of the first
Africa-wide applications of these methods.
Table 2. Domestic material extraction per capita from 1980 since 2008
Country
1980
1985
Algeria
7.5
8.7
Cameroon
4.9
5.4
Cted'Ivoire
3.1
2.9
Egypt
3.5
5.0
Ethiopia
6.9
6.4
Kenya
5.4
5.1
Madagascar
7.2
6.6
Malawi
2.2
2.2
Mali
6.5
4.7
Morocco
5.9
5.7
Nigeria
3.8
3.3
Senegal
4.6
4.6
Seychelles
4.8
4.5
South
16.5
16.9
Africa
Sudan
7.1
7.0
Togo
3.9
3.5
Africa
5.9
5.7
World
8.6
8.4
Source: UNCTAD (2012b).
1990
7.9
4.9
2.7
5.0
5.9
5.2
6.0
1.8
5.3
5.2
3.6
4.6
5.1
16.1
1995
7.8
4.4
2.8
5.5
4.6
4.3
5.3
1.7
5.5
4.6
3.7
4.8
5.1
15.0
2000
8.5
4.7
2.8
6.2
4.4
3.5
4.6
2.1
6.1
5.1
3.7
4.8
6.1
14.0
2005
10.0
4.5
2.6
6.2
4.8
3.8
4.0
1.8
6.4
7.2
3.8
5.2
6.7
14.2
2008
10.4
4.2
2.7
7.3
4.8
3.4
3.7
2.0
6.2
6.9
3.6
5.1
6.6
14.4
6.3
4.0
5.4
8.5
6.6
3.1
5.2
8.4
7.6
3.0
5.2
8.7
7.7
3.1
5.4
9.5
7.4
3.2
5.4
10.2
97
98
Antonis A. Zorpas
The relationships between HANPP and its components are useful in various manners.
The ratio of harvest per unit of HANPP serves as an indicator of efficiency. In turn, the ratio
of productivity losses to harvest is a stringent indicator for the efficiency of the land use
system. Increasing the harvested fraction and minimizing land change productivity losses can
therefore help in limiting the expansion of agricultural systems into sensitive natural
ecosystems (e.g. forests and drylands) by increasing the harvest output of already existing
agricultural land. This is particularly crucial for countries where food security will be
jeopardized in the coming decades and which are currently facing high productivity losses.
HANPP also allows accounting for trade. Embodied HANPP (or eHANPP) is the amount
of net primary production consumed within a country. In this sense, it accounts for the
domestic appropriation (extraction) plus imports minus exports. Embodied HANPP is a
means for calculating the magnitude of all organic flows produced in the global production
chain of traded biomass.
Domestic material extraction in Africa has increased by 87 per cent over the past three
decades, but has declined in per capita terms.
Although Africa has very low levels of domestic material extraction per capita, total
domestic material extraction in the region increased from 2.8 billion tons in 1980 to 5.3
billion tons in 2008, representing an approximately 87 per cent increase in resource use over
the past three decades (Table 3). It should be noted that a large part of this increase occurred
after 1995. Furthermore, the increase in material extraction is evident in all material
categories, as well as in most countries in the region. It is interesting to note that the absolute
increase in material extraction in Africa is in line with trends in material extraction at the
global level, although the growth in extraction in the former has been slightly faster than in
the latter. Consequently, Africas share in global extraction increased marginally from 7.5 per
cent in 1980 to 7.8 per cent in 2008.
Table 3. Global and African material extraction, 19802008
1980
1985
1990
1995
2000
2005
2008
African
extraction
(billions of tons)
2.8
3.2
3.4
3.7
4.2
4.9
5.3
African
extraction
(1980=100)
100.0
111.7
121.2
130.9
148.5
173.8
186.8
Africas share in
global extraction
(%)
7.5
7.8
7.7
7.7
8.0
8.0
7.8
While there has been an absolute increase in domestic material extraction in Africa, per
capita extraction decreased by about 8 per cent over the past three decades due largely to high
population growth. Interestingly, Africa also experienced deindustrialization during this
period of declining per capita extraction. The share of manufacturing in Africas GDP fell
from 12 per cent in 1980 to about 10 per cent in 2008. The decline in the share of
manufacturing in GDP is more pronounced in West Africa, where it fell from 17 per cent to 5
per cent. Central Africa also experienced a significant decline, from 12 per cent to 6 per cent
over the same period (UNCTAD and UNIDO, 2011).
99
Biomass accounts for over half of the material extraction in Africa, but the share of nonrenewable resources in total material extraction has increased from 38 per cent in 1980 to 47
per cent in 2008. In terms of the categories of materials extracted, biomass (from agriculture,
forestry and fishing) is the most dominant, accounting for 53 per cent of overall material
extraction in Africa in 2008.
However, there has been a significant change in the composition of material extraction in
Africa in recent years, with non-renewable resources playing a relatively more important role
in extraction than in the past. The increase in biomass extraction in Africa from 1.7 to 2.8
billion tons between 1980 and 2008 is mainly driven by an increase in the category of animal
feed, particularly grazing activities, which accounted for 58 per cent of biomass extraction in
2008. The largest extractions for feed in absolute terms are in countries with savannah areas,
where livestock breeding accounts for a high share in total land use. For example, Ethiopia,
Nigeria and Sudan extracted 257, 133 and 228 million tons respectively in 2008, which is 36
per cent of total grazing and 21 per cent of total biomass extraction in Africa. Although
biomass is the dominant form of domestic extraction in the region, its share of domestic
extraction varies across African countries. For example, while biomass is the dominant form
of extraction in Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria and Sudan, in countries such as Algeria, Egypt and
Morocco, non-metallic minerals dominate other material categories in terms of domestic
extraction (Table 4).
Table 4. Materials extraction in several African countries in millions of tons
for the year 2008
Algeria
Cameroon
Cte dIvoire
Egypt
Ethiopia
Kenya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Morocco
Nigeria
Senegal
Seychelles
South Africa
Sudan
Togo
Africa
World
Biomass
53.0
59.6
37.4
161.1
358.0
109.7
66.1
24.2
72.8
66.4
347.7
37.6
0.1
178.6
261.5
12.7
2,827.4
18,827.3
Fossil Fuel
145.3
4.6
3.4
76.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
0.0
129.5
0.0
0.0
254.7
23.9
0.0
887.4
12,710.4
Metals
2.1
37.4
1.1
1.9
0.9
0.1
0.1
0.0
10.3
2.5
0.4
0.2
0.0
140.4
0.7
3.0
329.0
6,614.2
Others
156.7
0.2
10.3
333.1
20.7
21.7
5.8
4.5
6.8
147.9
67.9
22.5
0.5
127.6
19.9
2.8
1,245.6
29,966.8
Fossil Fuels Are the Dominant Material Export and Import of Africa
Fossil fuels, dominated by petroleum (crude oil), hard coal, and for a short time natural
gas, are African countries main exports in physical terms. After a decrease during the first
100
Antonis A. Zorpas
half of the 1980s, exports of fossil fuels reached a peak in 2005, and amounted to 534 million
tons in 2008. The share of fossil fuels in total exports increased from 72 per cent in 1980 to
75 per cent in 2008, which is well above the global average of 50 per cent. In physical terms,
all African countries account for about 10.5 per cent of fossil fuels supply to the world
market. This represents a decline in Africas share relative to the situation in 1980, when the
region accounted for 13.2 per cent of global supply. Metals, clearly dominated by iron ores
and concentrates, and followed by manganese and chromium ores and concentrates, are
Africas second-largest export flows, with around 78 million tons exported in 2008. South
Africa is the dominant exporter, with around 55 million tons of exports in 2008. It is
interesting to note that the share of metal exports in total exports declined from 13 per cent in
1980 to 11 per cent in 2008, due, in part, to rising exports of fossil fuels. Furthermore,
Africas share of global metal exports fell from 8 per cent in 1980 to 3.8 per cent in 2008.
Mineral exports are African countries third-largest export group, with a volume of 52.3
million tons in 2008. The main exporter is Morocco, which mainly exports natural calcium
phosphates and phosphatic chalk, followed by Egypt, Tunisia and South Africa. The share of
mineral exports in Africas total exports decreased from 10 per cent in 1980 to 7 per cent in
2008. At the global level, the share of minerals in total exports has been relatively constant, at
around 12 per cent. In 2008, African countries accounted for around 4.4 per cent of global
mineral exports, compared to 8.8 per cent in 1980. The last material category, biomass, has
the lowest share of African exports. The region exported about 14.5 million tons in 2008,
representing about 2 per cent of total exports. Fruits, timber, products made of biomass (e.g.
paper and paperboards), and crops (e.g. coffee, cocoa and tobacco) are the main biomass
exports (UNCTAD, 2012a).
101
per capita in the region, due largely to high population growth. While average per capita
DMC in Asian and Latin American countries increased during the period under consideration,
it decreased slightly in Africa-from 5.6 tons in 1980 to 5.3 tons in 2008. In fact, since 1995,
Africas average per capita DMC has been the lowest, compared to all other regions of the
world. Within Africa, there are countries that have very high DMC per capita. For example,
Seychelles and South Africa have higher DMC per capita than the global average.
Table 5. Africas share of global production and reserves of selected minerals
Mineral
Aluminium
Cement
Share of World
% Reserves
3
-
Share of World
% Production
4
4
Chromites
Coal
Cobalt
12
4
41
37
3
60
Copper
Iron ore
Diamond
1
56
3
49
Gold
Graphite
Lead
Natural gas
Manganese
Oil
Phosphate rock
Raw steel
Uranium
34
0.4
1
8
10
53
15
18
1
3
6
23
12
25
1
17
Source: Computed on the basis of data from U.S. Geological Survey, British Petroleum, and OECD.
The level of domestic material consumption (DMC) per capita in Africa is about half the global
average (10.4 tons per capita), and has decreased slightly from 5.6 tons per capita in 1980 to 5.3
tons per capita in 2008.
Energy Use in Africa Is Low and Has Been Increasing Much Less Rapidly
Than Material Use
Energy use in Africa is quite low relative to other regions of the world. For example, in
2009, per capita electricity consumption in Africa was only 561 kilowatt-hours (KWh),
compared to 741 KWh for Asia, 1,884 KWh for Latin America, and 2,730 KWh for the world
(IEA 2011). Although the level of energy use in Africa is low, it increased by about 16.3 per
cent in the period from 1980 to 2008. Interestingly, the increase in energy use observed in
Africa in 19802008 is far below the 92 per cent increase in material use over the same
period (Figure 2).
It should be noted, however, that the low energy use observed in Africa reflects the fact
that the region has a very low level of industrial development. The experience of
industrialized economies suggests that industrialization is typically associated with high use
102
Antonis A. Zorpas
of modern energy. This implies that if African countries want to successfully promote
industrial development, they will have to improve access to modern energy and increase its
use.
Figure 2. Trends in GDP, material use and energy use, in Africa, 19802008(Index 1980 = 100) Source:
UNCTAD (2012a).
103
90 % by 2100. It is also estimated that the proportion of arid and semi-arid lands in the region
may increase by 5-8 % by 2080. Furthermore, the study suggests that between 75 and 250
million people in Africa are expected to be at risk of increased water stress by 2020.
Table 6. Population, output and carbon emissions, across regions in 2009
Population
(millions)
World
OECD
countries
Middle East
Asia
Latin America
Africa
Africa
(share of
global)
CO2 emissions
(Mt of CO2)
CO2 / GDP
(Kg CO2/2000$)
6,761
1,225
GDP
(Billions of
2000 $)
39,674
29,633
28,999
12,045
4.3
9.8
0.7
0.4
195
3,546
451
1,009
15 %
782
5,655
1,957
896
2.3 %
1,509
10,030
975
928
3.2 %
7.8
2.8
2.2
0.9
1.9
1.8
0.5
1.0
Source: International Energy Agency (2011), Key World Energy Statistics. Notes: Mt = million tons; t
= metric ton; kg = kilogram.
Other studies have estimated the impact of climate change in Africa too, and have arrived
at qualitatively similar results (Boyd and Tompkins, 2009). For example, Wheeler (2011)
provides an estimate of the vulnerability of countries to climate change resulting from
increasing weather-related disasters, sea-level rise, and loss of agricultural productivity. The
results show that the loss of agricultural productivity will be higher in Africa compared to
other regions. In particular, the loss is expected to be higher in Central Africa, with a loss in
agricultural productivity over the period 20082050 of as much as 20 %. Collier, Conway and
Venables (2008) have also argued that Africa is likely to be affected more severely by climate
change than other regions.
The loss of biological diversity - encompassing the total variety of plant and animal
species- is increasingly a major concern for African governments and the international
community. Africas social and economic systems depend heavily on the continents rich and
varied biological resources. These resources are important sources of food, energy,
medicines, and clean air and water. They also contribute to industrial production,
construction, tourism and psychological well-being. Africa accounts for one third of global
biodiversity. In particular, one quarter of the worlds mammal species and one fifth of the
existing species of birds are in Africa. Furthermore, the region is home to between 40,000 and
60000 plant species. Despite its rich biological resources, there are indications that human
activities have led to significant declines in biodiversity in Africa. It is estimated that over
120 plant species in the region are extinct, and that about 1771 are under threat. African
forests are also disappearing at an alarming rate, and several birds and animal species are
either under threat or have been driven to extinction (UNEP, 2008 and 2010). For example, in
Egypt, the expansion of economic activities is creating significant hazards to birds. In
Comoros and Seychelles, large numbers of bird species are now classified as endangered. In
Somalia, overhunting, drought and loss of habitat have resulted in a significant reduction in
the species of long-necked antelopes (gerenuks). Africa is also experiencing a decline in its
fish stocks, because of illegal fishing by foreign vessels coupled with excessive fishing by
104
Antonis A. Zorpas
local fishermen and legal commercial fleets. It is estimated that illegal fishing costs Africa
about $1 billion every year (United Nations, 2009). In recent years, efforts have been made at
different levels to protect Africas biodiversity through an increase in the number of protected
areas. However, the percentage of protected areas remains low in a large number of countries.
In 2009, the proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected to total territorial area was
less than 10 % in 31 of the 54 African countries. In particular, the ratio of protected to total
area was less than 1 per cent in Djibouti, Lesotho, Libya, Mauritius, Seychelles and Somalia.
Land degradation - defined as a reduction in the capacity of the land to provide
ecosystem goods and services over a period of time - is one of the key environmental
sustainability challenges facing the Africa region. UNEP (2008) argues that 65 % of Africas
agricultural land, 31 % of its pasture lands, and 19 % of its forests and woodlands are
degraded. Furthermore, Requier-Desjardins (2006) shows that the economic cost of land
degradation in Africa ranges from 1-18 % of GDP. Land degradation has very serious
consequences for Africa, given its heavy dependence on its natural resource base. Although
natural events (such as droughts) can exacerbate land degradation, it is generally assumed that
the main causes are deforestation, desertification, erosion (water and wind), and poor
agricultural practices such as the unbridled use of irrigation and fertilizers. However, it should
be noted that high population growth (and hence density) are important drivers of these
human activities associated with land degradation. Although Africa has a significant amount
of forest resources, it also has a very high rate of deforestation. In 2010, Africas forest area
was 674 million hectares, representing 16.7 % of the worlds total forest area of about 4
billion hectares. However, the region lost about 10 % of its forest area between 1990 and
2010. A large part of this loss occurred in the period 1990-2000 when the total forest area
declined by 4.1 million hectares per year, compared with a decline of 3.4 million hectares per
year in the period 20002010. In fact, Africa and South America are the only regions in the
world where forests are disappearing at a rapid rate. South America lost about 4 million
hectares of forest area per year between 2000 and 2010 (United Nations, 2011). Within
Africa, Burundi, Comoros, Ghana, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Togo and Uganda are the
countries with the highest net loss of forest area in percentage terms. However, in absolute
terms, the most significant losses were observed in Cameroon, the Democratic Republic of
the Congo, Mozambique, Nigeria, Sudan, the United Republic of Tanzania, and Zimbabwe.
The main causes of deforestation in Africa are logging, land conversion for agriculture and
settlements, wildfires, cutting for firewood and charcoal, and civil unrest (UNEP, 2008).
105
are the African countries with annual freshwater withdrawals of more than 10 billion cubic
metres over the period 2000-2005. Furthermore, in 2008, only 60 % of the population of subSaharan Africa had sustainable access to an improved water source, compared with 92 % in
North Africa. An increase in water consumption and withdrawal, due largely to population
growth and decreasing water supply, are the main reasons for water scarcity and stress in
Africa. In general, water consumption and withdrawal could be for agriculture, industrial or
domestic use. However, given Africas low level of industrial development, a large part of
water use is for agriculture (Table 7). Nevertheless, there are differences across countries in
terms of the importance of these sectors in water use. For example, in Lesotho 40 per cent of
water use is in industry, and in Seychelles and Togo, domestic use accounts for 65 per cent
and 53 per cent of water use respectively.
Table 7. Depletion and Forest Area in Africa
Algeria
Angola
Benin
Botswana
Burkina Faso
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
Chad
Comoros
Congo
Dem. Rep. of Congo
Cte d'Ivoire
Egypt
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Gabon
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
Lesotho
Liberia
Libya
Madagascar
Malawi
Mali
Mauritania
Mauritius
Morocco
Mozambique
Agricultural
64.9
60.0
45.4
41.2
86.3
77.1
73.7
90.9
4.0
82.6
47.0
8.7
30.6
64.5
86.4
0.9
94.5
93.6
41.7
65.4
66.4
90.1
82.3
79.2
20.0
54.5
82.8
95.7
80.2
90.1
88.2
67.7
87.4
87.3
Industrial
13.2
17.1
23.1
18.0
0.8
5.9
8.1
1.8
16.0
5.0
21.7
16.7
11.8
5.9
15.7
0.2
0.4
8.3
11.8
9.7
2.0
4.6
3.7
40.0
18.2
3.1
1.5
5.0
0.9
2.9
2.8
2.9
1.6
Domestic
21.9
22.9
31.5
40.7
13.0
17.0
18.2
7.3
80.0
17.4
48.0
69.6
52.8
23.7
7.8
83.3
5.3
6.0
50.0
22.9
23.9
7.9
13.1
17.2
40.0
27.3
14.1
2.8
14.9
9.0
8.8
29.5
9.8
11.1
106
Antonis A. Zorpas
Table 7. (Continued)
Namibia
Niger
Nigeria
Rwanda
Senegal
Seychelles
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
Sudan
Swaziland
Togo
Tunisia
Uganda
United Rep. of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
World
Source: FAO, Statistical Yearbook 2010.
Agricultural
71.0
95.4
68.8
68.0
93.0
7.3
92.1
99.5
62.7
96.7
96.5
45.0
76.0
40.0
89.4
75.9
78.9
70.0
Industrial
4.7
0.5
10.1
8.0
2.6
27.6
2.6
0.1
6.0
0.7
1.2
2.4
3.9
16.7
0.5
7.5
7.1
20.0
Domestic
24.3
4.1
21.1
24.0
4.4
65.0
5.3
0.5
31.2
2.7
2.3
52.7
12.8
43.3
10.2
16.7
14.0
10.0
CONCLUSION
Where should Africa fit into this global context? How should African policymakers
position themselves in relation to negotiation of such a global consensus on material resource
use? What national policies should they adopt in relation to the decoupling of natural resource
use and environmental impacts from economic growth?
From the outset, it must be stressed that given the current living standards of the majority
of the population in Africa and also the urgency of creating jobs for its growing young labour
force, it is critical that African countries seek to achieve accelerated economic growth and a
type of economic growth that maximizes broad-based improvements in human well-being.
Notions of no growth or degrowth, which are sometimes put forward in sustainability debates,
are simply not relevant in Africa.
Given this development imperative, one option for African countries would be to
prioritize economic growth, catching up and structural transformation, ignoring
environmental constraints, a strategy some describe as grow now, clean up later. Not only
are the livings standards of the majority of the population in Africa extremely low but levels
of material consumption are too. It could be argued therefore that there is scope for Africa to
go for economic growth without the continent impinging unfairly on global ecological
sustainability. Further, taking account of the environment now may be costly and thus could
slow down economic growth and poverty reduction. This would occur, for example, if the
adoption of decoupling policies forces producers to use more expensive or less productive
technologies. It is difficult to make estimates of the additional costs associated with structural
transformation with decoupling policies, compared with structural transformation with no
decoupling. However, such costs are recognized as significant in the economic debate on
107
REFERENCES
Block, S. (2010). The decline and rise of agricultural productivity in sub-Saharan Africa since
1961. Working Paper 16481. National Bureau of Economic Research. Cambridge, M.A.
Boko, M., Niang, I., Nyong, A., Vogel, C., Githeko, A., Medany, M., Osman-Elasha, B.,
Tabo, R., and Yanda, P. (2007). Africa. Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and
vulnerability. In Parry M L, Canziani O F, Palutikof J P, van der Linden P J and Hanson
C E (eds). Contribution of working group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge,
UK. pp. 433 467.
Boyd, E., and Tompkins, E. (2009). Climate change: A beginners guide. Oneworld
Publications. Oxford.
Brundtland et al. (1987), Our Common Future, World Commission on Environment and
Development (The Brundtland Report), Oxford University Press.
Collier, P., Conway, G., and Venables, T. (2008). Climate change and Africa (Summer 2008).
Oxford Review of Economic Policy, Vol. 24, Issue 2, 2008.
ECA. (2003). Summary Conclusions of The Fifth Regional Consultations of Un Agencies
Working in Africa, 16 to 17 May 2003, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
FAO and WFP. (2010). The state of food insecurity in the world: Addressing food insecurity
in protracted crises. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome.
FAO, (2010). Statistical Year Book.
Fischer-Kowalski, M., and Haberl, H. (2007). Socioecological transitions and global change:
Trajectories of social metabolism and land use. Edward Elgar. Cheltenham and
Northampton, MA.
Haberl, H., Erb, K., and Krausmann, F. (2010). Global Human Appropriation of Net Primary
Production. Encyclopedia of Earth. April.
Huberty, M., Gao, H., Mandell, J., Zysman, J., Kelseym N., Riiskjaer, Nygrd, J., Pilaar, J.,
Seow, A., Fox, P., Madden, A., with Gao, J., Goldman, K., Choi, I., Chang, C., and
Allen, B. (2011). Green growth: from religion to reality, Chapter I. Prepared for Green
growth leaders.
IEA (2011). Key world energy statistics. Paris.
Jedwab, R. (2012). Why is African urbanization different? Evidence from resource exports in
Ghana and Ivory Coast. Manuscript. Paris School of Economics.
Maler, K-G. (1990). Economic Theory and Environmental Degradation; A Survey of Some
Problems. Revista de Analisis Economico, Vol. 5, No. 2, pp. 7-17
McMillan, MS., and Rodrik, D. (2011). Globalization, structural change and productivity
growth. Working Paper 17143. National Bureau of Economic Research. Cambridge, MA.
Munasinghe, M., and McNeely, J. (1995). Protected Area Economics and Policy, World
Conservation Union (IUCM) and World Bank, Geneva and Washington, D.C.
108
Antonis A. Zorpas
Munasinghe, M., and Shearer, W. (1995). Defining and Measuring Sustainability: The
Biogeophysical Foundations. United Nations University and World Bank, Tokyo and
Washington, D.C.
NEPAD Secretariat. (2004). New Partnership for Africas Development Annual Report
2003/2004.
NESDA/WSSD Civil Society Secretariat (2003). Forum for African Civil Society on
Sustainable Development (FACS-SD) Concept Paper.
Nkuhlu, W.L. (2005). The New Partnership for Africas Development: The Journey So Far.
OECD (2008). OECD environmental data compendium. Environmental performance and
information division. OECD. Paris.
OECD (2011). Towards green growth. Paris.
Requier-Desjardins, M. (2006). The economic costs of desertification: A first survey of some
cases in Africa. International Journal of Sustainable Development, 9(2): 199-209.
Solow, R.(1986). On the Intergenerational Allocation and Natural Resources. Scandinavian
Journal of Economics. Vol. 88, No. 1.
UNCTAD (2010a). Economic Development in Africa Report 2010: SouthSouth
cooperation: Africa and the new forms of development partnership. United Nations
publication. Sales no. E.10.II.D.13. New York and Geneva.
UNCTAD (2012b). Resource use and resource efficiency in Africa: A pilot study on trends
over the past 28 years. Written by Dittrich M and Giljum S, Lugschitz B, Polzin C and
Lutter S from the Sustainable Europe Research Institute (SERI) of Vienna. Paper
commissioned by UNCTAD. Geneva
UNCTAD and UNIDO (2011). Economic Development in Africa Report: Fostering industrial
development in Africa in the new global environment. United Nations publication. Sales
No E.11.II.D.14. New York and Geneva.
UNCTAD, 2012a. Economic Development in Africa Report: Structural transformation and
Sustainable Development in Africa. United Nations publication. Sales No E.12.II.D.10.
New York and Geneva.
UNEP (2008). Africa: Atlas of our changing environment. United Nations Environment
Programme. United Nations publication. Nairobi.
UNEP (2010). State of biodiversity in Africa. United Nations Environment Programme.
United Nations publication. Nairobi.
UNEP (2011). Towards a green economy: Pathways to sustainable development and poverty
eradication. United Nations Environment Programme. United Nations publication.
Nairobi
United Nations (2009). Africa renewal. 23 July.
United Nations (2011). The Millennium Development Goals Report 2011. United Nations.
New York.
Wheeler, D. (2011). Quantifying vulnerability to climate change: Implications for adaptation
assistance. Center for Global Development. Working Paper No. 240. January 2011.
Washington D.C.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 8
ABSTRACT
The continuous loss of biodiversity has mobilized the international community
towards the formulation and implementation of conventional frameworks for the
conservation of biodiversity across all scales. The Natura 2000 network is the European
Unions major contribution to implementing the Convention on Biological Diversity for
the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity in protected areas, by setting up wellmanaged national and regional systems of protected sites on land and in marine areas.
Natura 2000 is an example of mixed blessing in nature conservation with documented
successes and failures, responsible not only for intensifying existing conflicts between
sustainable economic development and biodiversity conservation, but for creating new
ones as well. The top-down approach on designating and managing the Natura 2000 sites,
the lack of transparency and landowners involvement, the inadequate cross-sectoral
coordination and poor funding are the foremost important factors impeding the
implementation of the process hitherto. Nature protection is strongly affected by decision
making in other sectors and so far the insufficient integration of biodiversity issues into
broader policies, strategies, programmes and actions, is largely responsible for failing to
halt the loss of biodiversity by 2010. Future challenges in reconciling sustainable
economic development with nature conservation at all ecological and administrative
levels dictate the need for a better understanding of the underlying drivers of conflict that
lead to biodiversity loss, along with new approaches to governance, management and
physical planning in protected areas and their surrounding landscapes. Protected areas
worldwide have a valuable contribution to the efforts for halting the loss of biodiversity
whilst their role as instruments in ensuring sustainability is strategic. Thus, for landscapes
Email: maria.zomeni@ouc.ac.cy.
110
Maria Zomeni
with balanced socio-economic development and nature conservation in the present and
most importantly for the future, more work is needed to earn local communities support
and appreciation for the benefits brought by protected areas whilst providing them the
opportunity to be included in their management.
1. INTRODUCTION
Sustainable development, a concept introduced in the Brundtland Report, has been
dominating the global agenda for more than two decades (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/
eussd/), aspiring to ensure a socially balanced and environmentally sustainable model for
economic development that will improve the living conditions for humans whilst
safeguarding the natural environment for the present and more importantly for the future
(WCED, 1987). Many conceptual frameworks are available aiming to define, explain and
represent the three commonly accepted components of sustainability and their interrelations.
The three pillars of sustainability i.e. economy, society and the environment are usually
depicted in the triple-bottom-line with intercepting circles (Elkington, 1997), while recently
new concepts have been introduced such as the 3-D sustainability concept (Mauerhofer,
2008) and the five-dimensional sustainability framework that includes space, time (fourth
dimension), persons (a fifth human dimension), and the relationships amid them (Seghezzo,
2009) (Figure 1).
The multitude of different frameworks, along with issues of time, scale and context
perplexing the decision making process even more, basically underline the great difficulty of
111
112
Maria Zomeni
implementation of Natura 2000 and what are the drivers of conflict between nature
conservation and development? These questions, dominating the European agenda, are
introduced in the next sections followed by some examples of balanced nature conservation
and economic development and future challenges.
Figure 2. The Natura 2000 network across the EU; SCIs (Habitats Directive sites) are shown in blue
and SPAs (Birds Directive sites) in red (http://natura2000.eea.europa.eu/).
113
recreation and infrastructure projects, are not ruled out of the sites that are part of the Natura
2000 network (Bastian et al., 2010). Instead, they are allowed to the extent that they can be
reconciled with the nature conservation priorities of the Natura 2000 site for the protection of
species and their habitats without causing harm. On the contrary, the scheme does not endorse
planned activities that are ascertained to put the sites conservation objectives in danger and
for this purpose assessment reports, called Appropriate Assessment (AA) reports, have to be
prepared before decision-making. Judging the impact of human activities on Natura 2000
sites is not an easy task, whereas uncertainty due to insufficient knowledge, the stochasticity
of natural systems and the sciencepolicy debate (Opdam et al., 2009) impede the process
further. In fact, the Habitats Directive has received much criticism particularly for its vague
definition of sustainable development (Pinton, 2001). Nevertheless, the Habitats Directive
makes implicit use of the precautionary principle by stating that the conservation objectives
of the Natura 2000 site must prevail where there is uncertainty. Article 6 of Habitats Directive
(reconciling Natura 2000 and development) sets out the decision-making process to be
followed for planned projects, by promoting a hierarchy of avoidance, mitigation and
compensatory measures (EC, 2002). In other words, the aim of the AA process is to avoid or
mitigate negative impacts of the project so that it can be carried out without harming the
Natura 2000 site (Article 6.3). However, a plan or project assessed negative, can proceed if
there are no alternative solutions and the plan or project is considered to be of overriding
public interest. In such cases the negative effects must be compensated (Article 6.4).
114
Maria Zomeni
Typical clashes occur during the designation of site boundaries, in cases where nature
conservation is to be forced on private land and over the management restrictions within the
sites (Krott et al, 2000; Visser et al., 2007; Grodzinska-Jurczak & Cent, 2011). One of the
most extreme examples of opposition occurred in Finland, where local landowners went on
hunger strike to protest against the designation of a specific area (Hiedanp, 2002). The
hunger strike received ample public attention and resulted in the withdrawal of almost half the
areas from the Natura 2000 proposal.
Inadequate cross-sectoral coordination is also a factor responsible for the problematic
implementation of the Directives leading to failed enterprises of joint sustainable
development and biodiversity protection (e.g. Papageorgiou & Vogiatzakis, 2006; Sarvaov
et al., 2012). Nature conservation cannot be pursued as a detached policy goal, but has to be
incorporated into other interrelated land-use policies in order to bring the anticipated
outcomes. Poor funding is also considered accountable since thus far, within Natura 2000 no
attractive compensation programme has been developed for the owners of private land that is
included in the network (with only some exceptions e.g. Alphandry & Fortier 2001). The
case of Schinias, a Greek Natura 2000 site and also a national park and Olympic canoeing
centre, is a case of conflict between development and conservation as well as a failed example
of collaborative governance for sustainability as the government deliberately concealed the
environmental and socioeconomic consequences of the project during the assessment process
in order to launch the event as `Green Olympics' (Apostolopoulou & Pantis, 2010).
Major drivers of biodiversity conflicts in Europe include agricultural and silvicultural
intensification, land abandonment, recreation and hunting, alongside with policies for
agriculture and forestry (Young et al., 2005). The Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) is the
oldest common policy of the EU and probably the most controversial, accountable for the
polarity between high-intensity agriculture and land abandonment (Zomeni et al., 2008).
Despite CAP reforms aiming to decouple subsidies from agricultural production, conflicts are
common between farmers and conservationists. The case of turloughs in Ireland, a marginal
grazing land of high ecological value also included in Natura 2000 as a Priority Habitat
(Annex I of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC) is such an example (Visser et al., 2007).
Forestry and Natura 2000 interact, in such a way that for both to coexist one must not
negatively affect the other. The Birds and Habitats Directives are the major EU laws for the
conservation of high nature value forests. Conflicts with protection of forest biodiversity in
Europe are mostly due to changing demands concerning forests and forestry, changes in
ownership patterns, transportation systems and planning strategies, along with a futile
compensation process that so far has failed to provide sufficient payments for the restricted
management of forest land in protected areas (Young et al., 2005; Mola-Yudego & Gritten,
2010). Although the designation of forest areas in the Natura 2000 focuses on implementing
activities that are compatible with habitats and species conservation without banning all
economic activities in and around forests, still, conflicts between users (owners) and nonusers (ecologists/conservationists) do arise. Examples exist when human activity and in
particular forestry is considerably limited or even banned in Natura 2000 sites e.g. in Slovakia
where non-intervention zones have been imposed (Sarvaov et al., 2012).
Tourism is consistently referred to as one of the biggest threats to nature conservation and
protected areas, yet one of the largest opportunities to provide additional funding for local
people and protected areas (Bonilla-Moheno & Garca-Frapolli, 2012; IEEP, 2013). Although
ecotourism may represent one of the best options for the economic improvement in protected
115
areas by creating investment opportunities and employment, however, experience so far has
shown that balancing the socioeconomic benefits and the costs in biodiversity conservation
has not been as fertile as anticipated (Lpez-Espinosa de los Monteros, 2002). Among the
negative impacts of tourism are vegetation trampling, wildlife disturbance, littering, transfer
of pathogens and weeds, exportation of protected and endangered species, climate change and
dissemination of invasive species (Pickering & Hill, 2007).
Failed examples of coupling sustainable development and biodiversity conservation are
also related to the wind energy problem and the trend of European energy policy toward
sustainable renewable energies. Suitable locations for wind farms can, and often do, overlap
with regions of special environmental status (Ariza-Montobbio & Farrell, 2012) and have
documented effects on nature and biodiversity, such as disturbing birds and bats.
And the list of conflicts continues. But how do we move on and turn conflict into
compromise?
4. CONFLICT RESOLUTION
People are positive towards nature conservation and do not usually oppose such activities
given they do not affect their constitutional right to use their land, and profit from economic
development (Young et al., 2005; Allendorf, 2007; Bonilla-Moheno & Garca-Frapolli, 2012).
The fears and doubts of local people about nature conservation activities either justified or
merely ascribed to ignorance, can play a major role in nature conservation by affecting their
acceptance for the protected areas boundaries or management restrictions. Overlooking the
cultural differences of various stakeholders including local communities, or the mechanisms
and drivers of biodiversity loss is most certain to result in conflict. Obviously, being proactive
is important seeing that averting the rise of a conflict is more sensible and can be more
effective that trying to resolve it. This can be achieved by increasing our understanding of the
requirements of the habitats and species affected, and the social and cultural context of both
the potential conflict and the options for managing it (Alessa et al., 2008; Bouwma et al.,
2010; Mola-Yudego & Gritten, 2010). In order to reach a sustainable management of conflict,
the components of conflict must be identified at an early stage, and the early involvement of
all key stakeholders must be supplemented with effective two-way communication and
knowledge sharing between parties, awareness raising and supported processes for their
continued involvement (Krott et al., 2000; Berkes, 2009). The public has to be included in the
decision making process and have a genuine opportunity to express their own views on the
aims of planning, the alternatives available and expected impacts. Public participation is
encouraged towards a more democratic policy making process anticipated to alleviate existing
conflicts between development and conservation (Apostolopoulou & Pantis, 2009; Buono et
al., 2012).
Legislation also has a prevalent role in conflict management. In Europe, policies
providing incentives for biodiversity conservation and directives carrying legislation for the
conservation of biodiversity are used in attempts to reduce conflicts. The most important
incentives are agri-environmental schemes that have been in place under the CAP by
reallocating financial incentives that encourage environmental measures rather than
production support. Despite the negative side of CAP and its role in creating conflicts
116
Maria Zomeni
between farmers and conservationists, these schemes have been recorded with biological
benefits e.g. increase in population numbers of sensitive species (Kleijn et al., 2006), as well
as social benefits such as extending knowledge networks (Mills, 2012). Visser et al. (2007)
highlight the importance of communication as it allows for genuine bottom up decisionmaking in agri-environmental policies. They also propose a marketing approach that values
agricultural produce from marginal land for its intrinsic qualities; this has the potential to turn
the conflict between production and conservation into a compromise. However, what is
troubling is the recognition that balancing biodiversity conservation and agricultural
production outside Natura 2000, or other protected areas in general, seems rather idealistic
since the proper rural practices for maintaining a favourable conservation status of high
nature value farmland in Natura 2000 are not expected to be adopted or continued outside the
network particularly in those areas focusing on food production. This highlights the
importance of incorporating nature conservation goals into other relevant policies for
sustainable land use.
Sustainable tourism is used extensively as a framework for balancing economic
development and biodiversity conservation. It is promoted and supported though several
European initiatives with explicit reference to the protection of endangered habitats and
species. The Protected Area Network (PAN Parks) (http://www.panparks.org) and The
European Charter for Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas (http://www.europeancharter.org) are the two most relevant initiatives offering a framework for synergy between
nature conservation and sustainable tourism in Natura 2000 sites. Tourism, by bringing
economic benefits to local communities, can win more local support for the designation and
management of Natura 2000 sites. By promoting and increasing accessibility to specific sites
and aspects of nature it can also contribute to a wider understanding and appreciation of
nature conservation while at the same time it improves the management of visitors and
minimizes adverse impacts from visitor pressure (EC, 2001).
In the case of infrastructure plans, environmental assessments can help solve or reduce
conflicts by identifying early on the causes of potential clashes and searching for alternative
solutions. Therefore, environmental assessments can help avert negative effects of a project,
both long-term and short-term (EC, 2002).
Moreover, one must not overlook the significant role of scientific research and
knowledge in conflict identification, management and monitoring (Opdam, 2009; MolaYudego & Gritten, 2010).
117
network sites that help maintain a favourable conservation status for these sites is one of
many such examples (e.g. Litskas et al., 2013).
The merging of development and conservation has given rise in the past few years to
community-based natural resource management (Berkes, 2009). Pacheco et al. (2012) use a
case study from Senegal to present different ways on sustainable resource conservation in
Community Nature Reserves. The examples offered prove that, combining local peoples'
traditional knowledge of their environment and scientific knowledge can lead to increased
biodiversity and better management of the protected areas, whilst at the same time it improves
socioeconomic development and human well-being. Live fencing, namely linear strips of
planted trees, is presented as an alternative to current fencing options with numerous benefits
such as the protection of high-value agricultural products, the trade of live fencing byproducts that offers communities direct income, and biodiversity protection by providing
habitat and movement corridors to birds and other animal groups.
Ecologically based land-use planning is strategic but considering the wide range of
conflicting land uses in the present and the uncertainty entailed in projecting different landuse settings in the future, essentially connecting nature and development is not an easy task at
the landscape scale. The two networks strategy is proposed as a new sustainable way of
development that represents a blue and grey approach (as opposed to the red and green
approach i.e. the culture vs. nature paradigm), in which carrying structures constitute a frame
for economic and ecological processes. The Chaining Waters case described in Tjallingii
(2000) shows the potential of using the water and traffic networks as instruments of spatial
planning for sustainable development. The traffic network is seen as a carrier of
manufacturing industry, trade and commerce, mass recreation and most types of agriculture,
whilst the water network is seen as a carrier of functions like quiet recreation and wildlife, for
sustainable production of drinking water etc. With this approach ecology can function as a
tool for working with nature in all land-use functions; away from the strict nature vs. urban
model and forward collaborative nature conservation.
The concept of coupled socialecological systems (SES), with a long history in resourcedependent societies but rather novel to the West world, is proposed as a tool with managerial
and ecological implications (Alessa et al., 2008). The method, by being transparent and more
inclusive of the communities of interest, focuses on avoiding rather than trying to resolve
conflict. Socialecological hotspots i.e. areas where physical and ecological values overlap
those perceived by people (i.e. aesthetic, cultural, economic, historic, recreation and
wilderness values), are spatially denoted as a first step towards developing sustainable land
management plans. The approach carries the potential to cope with the complexities of the
systems and changing social values and emphasizes the crucial role of areas with lower risk
of conflict for conservation called SES warm spots, as they are characterized by high
ecological value and low expressed social value.
118
Maria Zomeni
that both the vague character and the anthropocentrism of the concept that favors economic
benefits over environmental or social ones could lead to policy making with detrimental
consequences for environmental sustainability and social justice (e.g. Pinton, 2001; Rosa &
da Silva, 2005). Although the three components of sustainability are commonly accepted, it is
extremely difficult if not impossible to define true sustainable development by different
parties/actors fighting for conflicting land-uses (Connelly, 2007; Mauerhofer, 2008). The
strong competition between different land-uses is the ultimate predicament in conservation in
our fast changing landscapes, because apparently only certain human activities and land uses
may be suited for sustainable and resilient systems.
The Natura 2000 network is viewed as a starting point in the process of land-use
allocation and regulation, giving the opportunity to stakeholders to interact and negotiate
(Bouwma et al., 2010). However, because of the multitude of interests involved, sustainable
outcomes risk being a fantasy, unless more attention is drawn to the human/landscape
relation. It is now a commonly shared belief that managing biodiversity protection has to be
complemented with significantly more effective interdisciplinary initiatives that involve the
widest possible group of actors at various levels (Paavola, 2004; Grodzinska-Jurczak & Cent,
2011). Successful conservation enterprises, including Natura 2000, require the active
participation of local communities as well as other members of society (e.g. tourists) in the
decision-making processes and the management of protected sites (Berkes, 2009; Buono et
al., 2012). It is crucial that planners and decision makers have a concrete idea about the
perceptions and attitudes of local communities in relation to economic development
combined with biodiversity conservation and their willingness to get involved in such joint
efforts (Allendorf, 2007). Public support and full transparency are necessary for the scheme to
succeed. Inter-sectoral coordination and collaboration are essential for sustainable solutions
(Papageorgiou & Vogiatzakis, 2006), building more effective relationships and
communication between science, policy and justice (Bonilla-Moheno & Garca-Frapolli,
2012). The effective integration of nature conservation goals and biodiversity concerns in all
EU land planning policies (Beunen, 2006; Sarvaov et al., 2012; Litskas et al., 2013) is of
crucial importance for environmentally and socially sustainable solutions.
Finally, harmonizing nature and biodiversity conservation with sustainable development
has much to benefit from using the EU programmes resources more efficiently, particularly
by wider and more active participation in communication programmes such as the LIFE+
programme (http://ec.europa.eu/environment/life) (Krott et al., 2000). The LIFE+ programme
plays an important role in the practical implementation of EUs biodiversity policy goals as
expressed in the EU Biodiversity Action Plan and the Birds and Habitats Directives (Silva et
al., 2009). It works as a tool for integrated land use planning and nature conservation that
does not reject development and by better informing all groups of people about Natura 2000 it
can reduce opposition and conflict and improve the schemes success through the continuous
documentation and exchange of experiences and best practices.
CONCLUSION
Sustainability is commonly placed at the intersection of three pillars combining
economic, environmental and social priorities, aiming for them to coexist, in balance and with
119
consideration for future generations (Connelly, 2007; Seghezzo, 2009). But how realistic or
practical is it aiming equally for social equity, environmental sustainability and economic
growth? Moreover, considering issues of scale, time and changing social values it becomes
easier to comprehend the underlying difficulty in defining sustainable development
accurately. Nonetheless, the continued loss of biodiversity worldwide forces us to distance
ourselves from trying to explain sustainable development in strict terms and invest more time
and effort to gaining better understanding of the manifold objectives of sustainability. In the
case of nature conservation, the guiding principle of sustainable development that certain
development activities can secure environmental sustainability, highlights its role as a
strategy for environmental sustainability (Dobson, 1996). However, sustainable development
must be defined in the context of specific areas and objectives, depending on the priorities in
place. In addition, signs of conflict between development and conservation can be
constructively used as they can provide guidelines for sustainable development in the future.
The Birds and Habitats Directives have increased the scope for nature conservationists to take
legal action against plans and projects with possible negative effects on nature values. In the
vast majority of cases, with careful planning and involvement of all stakeholders early in the
development debates, harmful activities are avoided, alternative solutions are found and
negative impacts are compensated (Bouwma et al., 2010). However, the sustainability of
current practices and the longevity of recent successes in nature-biodiversity conservation
will be an ongoing matter of examination to be appraised ultimately by future generations.
REFERENCES
Alessa, L. N., Kliskey, A. A., & Brown, G. (2008). Socialecological hotspots mapping: A
spatial approach for identifying coupled socialecological space. Landscape and Urban
Planning 85, 2739.
Allendorf, T. D. (2007). Residents attitudes toward three protected areas in southwestern
Nepal. Biodiversity Conservation 16, 2087-2102.
Alphandry, P., & Fortier, A. (2001). Can territorial policy be based on science alone: the
system for creating the Natura 2000 network in France. Sociologia Ruralis 41, 311328.
Apostolopoulou, E., & Pantis, J. D. (2009). Conceptual gaps in the national strategy for the
implementation of the European Natura 2000 conservation policy in Greece. Biological
Conservation 142, 221237.
Apostolopoulou, E., & Pantis, J. D. (2010). Development plans versus conservation:
explanation of emergent conflicts and state political handling. Environment and Planning
A 42, 982-1000; doi:10.1068/a42163
Ariza-Montobbio, P., & Farrell, K. N. (2012). Wind Farm Siting and Protected Areas in
Catalonia: Planning Alternatives or Reproducing 'One-Dimensional Thinking'?
Sustainability 4, 3180-3205.
Bastian, O., Neruda, M., Filipov, L., Machov, I., & Leibenath, M. (2010). Natura 2000 sites
as an asset for rural development: the German-Czech Ore Mountains Green Network
Project. Journal of Landscape Ecology 3, 4158.
Berkes, F. (2009). Evolution of co-management: role of knowledge generation, bridging
organizations and social learning. Journal of Environmental Management 90, 1692-1702.
120
Maria Zomeni
Beunen, R. (2006). European nature conservation legislation and spatial planning: For better
or for worse? Journal of Environmental Planning and Management 49:4, 605-619.
Bonilla-Moheno, M., & Garca-Frapolli, E. (2012). Conservation in Context: A Comparison
of Conservation Perspectives in a Mexican Protected Area. Sustainability 4, 2317-2333.
Bouwma, I. M., van Apeldoorn, R., & Kamphorst, D. A. (2010). Current Practices in Solving
Multiple Use Issues of Natura 2000 Sites: Conflict Management Strategies and
Participatory Approaches. Alterra, Wageningen, Netherlands.
Buono, F., Pediaditi, K., & Carsjens, G. J. (2012). Local community participation in Italian
National Parks Management: theory versus practice. Journal of Environmental Policy &
Planning 14 (2), 189-208.
COM (2011). Final communication from the commission to the European parliament, the
council, the economic and social committee and the committee of the regions: our life
insurance, our natural capital: an EU biodiversity strategy to 2020. EUROPEAN
COMMISSION Brussels.
Commission of the European Communities (CEC). Council directive 79/409/EEC on the
conservation of wild birds. Off J 1979:L103 25 April.
Commission of the European Communities (CEC). Council Directive 92/43/EEC on the
conservation of natural habitats and of wild fauna and flora. Off J 1992:L206 22 July.
Connelly, S. (2007). Mapping Sustainable Development as a Contested Concept, Local
Environment. The International Journal of Justice and Sustainability 12(3), 259-278.
Crofts, R. (2004). Linking Protected Areas to the Wider World: A Review of Approaches.
Journal of Environmental Policy & Planning 6(2), 143-156.
Dobson, A. (1996). Environment sustainabilities: An analysis and a typology, Environmental
Politics, 5(3), 401-428.
Elkington, J. (1997). Cannibals With Forks: The Triple Bottom Line of 21st Century Business.
Oxford. Capstone Publishing Ltd.
European Commission (2001). Sustainable tourism and Natura 2000. Guidelines, initiatives
and good practices in Europe. Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the
European Communities, 2001. 63 pp. ISBN 92-894-1443-X
European Commission (2002). Assessment of plans and projects significantly affecting
Natura 2000 sites: Methodological guidance of the provisions of the Article 6(3) and 6(4)
of the Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC. Office for official publications of the European
communities, Luxembourg.
European Commission (2006). Assessment, monitoring and reporting under Article 17 of the
Habitats Directive: explanatory notes and guidelines. Final draft 5, October 2006.
European Communities, Brussels.
Grodzinska-Jurczak, M., & Cent, J. (2011). Expansion of Nature Conservation Areas:
Problems with Natura 2000 Implementation in Poland? Environmental Management 47,
1127.
Hiedanp, J. (2002). European-wide conservation versus local well-being: the reception of
the Natura 2000 Reserve Network in Karvia, SW Finland. Landscape and Urban
Planning 61, 113123.
Institute for European Policy (IEEP) (ten Brink, P. et al.) (2013). The Economic benefits of
the Natura 2000 Network. Luxembourg. Publications Office of the European Union 2013
74 pp. ISBN 978-92-79-27588-3 doi:10.2779/41957.
121
Kleijn, D., Baquero, R. A., Clough, Y., Daz, M., Esteban, J. De., Fernndez, F., Gabriel, D.,
Herzog, F., Holzschuh, A., Jhl, R., Knop, E., Kruess, A., Marshall, E. J. P., SteffanDewenter, I., Tscharntke, T., Verhulst, J., West, T. M., & Yela, J. L. (2006). Mixed
biodiversity benefits of agri-environment schemes in five European countries. Ecology
Letters 9, 243254.
Krott, M., Julien, B., Lammertz, M., Barbier, J.-M., Jen, S., Ballestreros, M., & de Bovis, C.
(2000). Voicing interests and concerns: Natura 2000: an ecological network in conflict
with people. Forest Policy and Economics 1, 357-366.
Litskas, V. D., Karaolis, C. S., Menexes, G. C., Mamolos, A. P., Koutsos, T. M., Kalburtji, K.
L. (2013). Variation of energy flow and greenhouse gas emissions in vineyards located in
Natura 2000 sites. Ecological Indicators 27, 17.
Lpez-Espinosa de los Monteros, R. (2002). Evaluating ecotourism in natural protected areas
of La Paz Bay, Baja California Sur, Mxico: Ecotourism or nature-based tourism?
Biodiversity Conservation 11, 15391550.
Mauerhofer, V. (2008). 3-D Sustainability: an approach for priority setting in situation of
conflicting interests towards a sustainable development. Ecological Economics 63, 496
506.
Mills, J. (2012). Exploring the social benefits of agri-environment schemes in England.
Journal of Rural Studies 28(4), 612621.
Mola-Yudego, B., & Gritten, D. (2010). Determining forest conflict hotspots according to
academic and environmental groups. Forest Policy and Economics 12, 575-580.
Opdam, P. F. M., Broekmeyer, M. E. A. & Kistenkas, F. H. (2009). Identifying uncertainties
in judging the significance of human impacts on Natura 2000 sites. Environmental
Science & Policy 12, 912921.
Paavola, J. (2004). Protected areas governance and justice: theory and the European Unions
Habitats Directive. Environmental Sciences 1(1), 5977.
Pacheco, L., Fraixedas, S., Fernndez-Llamazares, A., Estela, N., Mominee, R., & Guallar, F.
(2012). Perspectives on Sustainable Resource Conservation in Community Nature
Reserves: A Case Study from Senegal. Sustainability 4, 3158-3179.
Papageorgiou K., Vogiatzakis I. N. (2006). Nature protection in Greece: an appraisal of the
factors shaping integrative conservation and policy effectiveness. Environmental science
& policy 9, 476 486.
Pickering, C. M., & Hill, W. (2007). Impacts of recreation and tourism on plant biodiversity
and vegetation in protected areas in Australia. Journal of Environmental Management 85,
791-800.
Pinton, F. (2001). Conservation of biodiversity as a European Directive: the challenge for
France. Sociologia Ruralis 41, 329342.
Rosa, H. D., & da Silva, J. M. (2005). From environmental ethics to nature conservation
policy: Natura 2000 and the burden of proof. Journal of Agricultural and Environmental
Ethics 18, 107-130.
Sarvaov, Z., lka, J., & Dobinsk, Z. (2012). Mechanism of cross-sectoral coordination
between nature protection and forestry in the Natura 2000 formulation process in
Slovakia. Journal of Environmental Management, (In Press, Corrected Proof),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2012.06.005
Seghezzo, L. (2009). The five dimensions of sustainability. Environmental Politics, 18(4),
539-556.
122
Maria Zomeni
Silva, J. P., Toland, J., Jones, W., Eldridge, J., Hudson, T., Thorpe, E., & OHara, E. (2009).
Protecting Europes nature: learning from LIFE. Nature conservation best practices.
Office for Official Publications of the European Communities, Luxembourg, 68 pp.
Tjallingii, S. P. (2000). Ecology on the edge: Landscape and ecology between town and
country. Landscape and Urban Planning 48, 103-119.
Visser, M., Morana, J., Regana, E., Gormallya, M., & Skeffington, M. S. (2007). The Irish
agri-environment: How turlough users and non-users view converging EU agendas of
Natura 2000 and CAP. Land Use Policy 24, 362373.
WCED (World Commission on Environment and Development) (1987). Our common future.
Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Young, J., Watt, A., Nowicki, P., Alard, D., Clitherow, J., Henle, K., Johnson, R., Laczko, E.,
McCracken, D., Matouch, S., Niemela, J., & Richards, C. (2005). Towards sustainable
land use: identifying and managing the conflicts between human activities and
biodiversity conservation in Europe. Biodiversity and Conservation 14, 16411661.
Zomeni, M., Tzanopoulos, J., & John, J. D. (2008). Historical analysis of landscape change
using remote sensing techniques: An explanatory tool for agricultural transformation in
Greek rural areas. Landscape and Urban Planning 86 (1), 38-46.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 9
ABSTRACT
Genetic resources of wild species are often used as donors of valuable characters for
cultivated species. Furthermore, natural vegetation creates a safe habitat for many
beneficial organisms and often has an exceptional medicinal and aromatic interest. Many
wild species are already used as human or domestic animal food especially when grown
under extremely unfavourable conditions, while some of them can be also used as
phytoremediants to collect and remove toxic substances such as heavy metals from the
environment. In the bottom of the line, the presence of rich and diverse natural vegetation
can be potentially useful and provide sustainability to agroecosystems. Moreover, in all
similar approaches, the potential economic value of the in situ conservation and
management of natural vegetation and genetic resources is a realistic challenge and
should not be overlooked, especially for regions with exceptional biodiversity like the
Mediterranean basin.
1. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, there is a big discussion about the worth of natural vegetation not only for the
environment but also for the agroecosystems themselves. Therefore, a balance between
conservation of diverse natural vegetation but in a way that would not harm but rather benefit
the main crop is of major importance for enabling farmers to move towards more sustainable
land use options. Interest in integrated approaches to crop and pest (including natural
vegetation) management should be driven not only by declining crop prices coupled with
email: bilalis@aua.gr.
124
increased input costs but also by consumer concerns about the environment, and health effects
of pesticides. In particular, Integrated Weed Management (IWM) essentially means the
integration of several practices, to reduce the negative impact of weeds on crops (Anderson,
2007). Weed management in agriculture aimed at the reduction of herbicide use needs to
comprise multiple strategies, among them the use of plant species with improved competitive
traits or enhanced allelopathic activity and the maintenance of natural vegetation among the
lines of perennial crops (Jordan, 1993; Christensen, 1995; Didon and Hansson, 2002; Travlos
et al., 2008; 2011).
Especially some specific regions, such as the Mediterranean Basin, are among the
worlds richest places in terms of plant diversity. The Mediterranean is particularly noted for
the diversity of its plants, since more than 20,000 species are native to the region, and more
than half of these are endemic. Consequently, the Mediterranean is recognized as one of the
first Global Biodiversity Hotspots (Myers et al., 2000; Cuttelod et al., 2008) and this is an
additional reason for higher attention to be paid to the management of natural vegetation in
the agroecosystems.
125
soil pH. Chenopodium album L., Amaranthus retroflexus L. and many other weeds indicate
soils rich in nitrogen. Natural vegetation is often used as human or domestic animal food and
many wild plants can grow under extremely unfavourable conditions, under which cultivated
plants cannot be grown (Lipecki, 2006). Weeds such as Amaranthus sp., Sonchus oleraceus,
Portulaca oleracea belong to this category. In general, wild plants preserve the biological
balance in orchards and other crops. The presence of vegetative cover provides habitats to
encourage biodiversity. The wildlife will include predators of insect pests, which would
otherwise have to be controlled chemically.
Natural vegetation creates a safe habitat for many beneficial organisms (even some
harmful, too). The use of beneficial insects is one of the main techniques of Integrated Pest
Management (IPM), which is the employment of environment-friendly methods to control
plant insects and disease. Thus, the use of beneficial insects and good horticultural practices
can often replace the application of chemical pesticides for certain pests. Many predators and
parasitoids are attracted to flowering plants and the role of natural vegetation seems to be
very important. Pollinating insects also play a critical role in maintaining natural plant
communities, and they also pollinate most crop plants grown for their fruits, vegetables, nuts,
seeds, and fiber (Flint and Dreistadt, 1998; Gardiner et al., 2006).
There is much evidence that native vegetation acts as a reservoir of natural enemies,
which have the potential to colonize and suppress pest populations in crops. Predator densities
in native vegetation are in many cases consistently higher throughout the year in native
vegetation than in crops and beneficial insects (e.g. whitefly parasitoids and flying egg
predators) inflict higher pest mortality in and near native vegetation than in fields far from
native vegetation. In many major crops like cotton native vegetation is associated with
reduced colonization rates of thrips and aphids, and has a neutral effect on colonization rate of
Helicoverpa species, leaf hoppers and whiteflies. Thus, native vegetation is not a source for
cotton pests and, depending on the species, can result in reduced pest colonization in fields
(Schellhorn et al., 2008).
Many other studies reveal that non-crop areas can increase the abundance of natural
enemies and assist in invertebrate pest control. Thomson and Hoffmann (2009) investigated
the abundance of natural enemies in vineyards with edges consisting of different types of
vegetation. There was a positive influence of adjacent wooded vegetation on several
beneficial insects such as predatory thrips, predatory mites, spiders, ladybird beetles and
Hymenoptera parasitoids including Trichogramma egg parasitoids in the canopy and/or at
ground level. Moreover, it was shown that the abundance and distribution of vineyard natural
enemies and parasitism of pest moth eggs is increased adjacent to edges with wooded
vegetation, leading to beneficial effects for pest control. The conservation of natural
vegetation around vineyards may therefore have direct economic benefits in terms of pest
control, whereas on-crop pasture may not produce such benefits (Thomson and Hoffmann,
2009). Various types of local vegetation may therefore encourage a range of predators and
parasitoids, increasing predation and control of a common vineyard pest and similar results
can encourage individual landholders to maintain vegetation even when there are costs in
terms of a reduction in crop area as well as maintenance of the vegetation (Thomson and
Hoffmann, 2010).
Many crop wild relatives are found as weeds of agriculture. As a consequence, especially
in the areas where the crop was first domesticated, a weed may be of the same species as the
crop with which it grows. In such close proximity crop plant and weed may interbreed. The
126
crop and its weedy wild relative are therefore not genetically isolated and form a crop-weed
complex with an extended gene pool and a shared evolutionary history (Hawkes 1993).
Therefore it is necessary to broaden the genetic base of crop plants requiring access to a large
amount of genetic diversity. Although, the results of some surveys (Brown, 1983; Chang,
1994) indicate that the genetic base of several important crops has begun to increase over the
years, breeding programmes of many important crops continue to include only a small part of
genetic diversity available (Ramanatha Rao and Hodgkin, 2002). In our days, plant genetic
resources are considered to be among the most essential of the worlds natural resources and
during the last decades, major advances have been made in conserving them (Frankel and
Bennet, 1970; Holden and Williams, 1984; Plucknett et al., 1987). Consequently, a key issue
with direct practical implications for conservation management is the relation between crop
species and their wild relatives (Jarvis and Hodgkin, 1999) and it should be clearly taken into
account.
For most species it is likely that wild populations contain far more genetic diversity than
the crops themselves. This is because they have not been selected from a larger population to
be domesticated, and may occur in a wide range of environments with contrasting soils,
climate and other factors. In addition wild species must continue to adapt to the environments
they are found in, as climate and other environmental factors change (Hopkins and Maxted,
2010). Gene Pool 1 as defined by Harlan and de Wet (1971) contains the crop itself and the
close related wild forms of the crop including those which grow as agricultural weeds. The
exchange of genetic material between species by hybridisation is increasingly being
recognised as an important process in the natural evolution of wild plants and therefore
conservation of natural vegetation is essential (Arnold, 2006).
As stated by Hopkins and Maxted (2010): the most widespread use of Crop Wild
Relatives has been and remains in the development of disease and pest resistance, with 39%
of use associated with improving disease resistance, 17% with pest resistance, 13% with
abiotic stress, 10% with yield increase, 11% with quality improvement (Maxted and Kell,
2009). Large-scale cultivation of genetically uniform cultivars has increased the genetic
vulnerability of many major agricultural crop species, often with serious consequences
(Ramanatha Rao and Hodgkin, 2002). A well-known case is the Irish potato famine of 1840s,
because of the sensitivity of potato varieties to the leaf blight disease. Unfortunately,
increasing uniformity continues and more unpleasant cases may occur. For example, the
vineyards in California are being invaded by new biotype of phylloxera. Since many wine
grapes in specific regions are grafted on susceptible rootstock, the grape crop is seriously
threatened and the possibility of the spread of the disease is considered very likely (Granett et
al., 1991). An early example of such successful breeding is the crossing in the 1900s of
domesticated potatoes with the wild Mexican potato species Solanum demissum to produce
varieties resistant to potato blight, which in the mid19th century caused famine in Ireland and
parts of Scotland (Hawkes, 1990). In the 1970s corn blight Helminthosporium maydis in the
USA destroyed maize production and the problem was solved by introducing blight resistance
genes into the crop from wild Mexican maize plants (Shand, 1993). Sources of resistance of
sugar beet to rhizomania were found in wild sea beet Beta vulgaris ssp. maritima (Doney and
Whitney, 1990). Indicative of the rising attention to the wild plants as gene donors is the
observation of Maxted and Kell (2009) that there were only five reported uses of wild plants
in the 1960s rising to over 100 cited uses since 2000.
127
Natural vegetation can be also used to collect and remove toxic substances such as heavy
metals from the environment (Baker and Brooks, 1989; Reeves and Baker, 2000).
Phytoremediation can be considered as the use of vegetation to treat, in situ, soils, sediments
and water that have been polluted with organic matter, nutrients or metals and has been
suggested as a promising and relatively cheap method to clean up contaminated soils (Salt et
al., 1998; Pilon-Smits, 2005). In phytoremediation the microorganisms are commonly used to
treat organic soil pollution, while the plants are mainly utilized for heavy metals removal
(Lasat, 2002; Gardea et al., 2005). More than 400 plant species from about 45 families have
been reported as heavy metals hyper-accumulators or phytoextractors by now and many of
them are capable of accumulating more than one heavy metals (Lasat, 2002; Gardea et al.,
2005). Pesticides have become an integral part of todays intensive agriculture. Widespread
and large scale use of pesticides during the past decades has led to global problem of
pollution of soil and water resources, while there are many long-term contaminated sites with
abnormally high levels of pesticides (Wehtje et al., 1983; Perkovich et al., 1996). Vegetation
also has a decisive effect on the fate of soil-applied pesticides and organic contaminants often
disappear quickly from the planted soil compared to unplanted soil (Reddy and Sethunathan,
1983; Cunningham et al., 1996). Trace element levels in soils have increased in many soils
since the beginning of human industrial activity. Trace element-contaminated soils can pose
an environmental risk for humans and other organisms: thus, reclamation activities are
frequently recommended (Mench et al., 2010). Revegetation is the main aim of ecological
restoration projects, and in Mediterranean environments native plants are desirable to achieve
successful restoration (Moreno-Jimnez et al., 2008). Several phytoremediation experiments
to assess the potential use of native shrub species such as Myrtus communis, Retama
sphaerocarpa, Rosmarinus officinalis and Tamarix gallica have been conducted were planted
and left to grow without intervention (Moreno-Jimnez et al., 2011).
It has also to be noted that the inclusion of plants like legumes is even more critical for
sustainable production of the infertile savannah soils and agroecosystems of the tropics and
subtropics but still being lagged due to lack of information, seed costs etc. (Graham and
Vance, 2003). Species from several genera (Aeschynomene, Arachis, Centrosema,
Desmodium, Macroptilum and Stylosanthes) offer promise for improved tropical pasture
systems. Moreover, presently underutilized and neglected crop and pasture crops could still
emerge. Plants such as marama bean (Tylosema esculentum), sword beans (Canavalia
gladiata) and annual medics could offer solutions (Dakora et al., 1999; Howieson et al. 2002;
Travlos et al., 2007). For example, marama bean, a wild perennial legume indigenous in
southern Africa, produces protein- and oil-rich seed (comparable to soybean and groundnut
respectively) and tubers of relatively high protein and carbohydrate content. Moreover, it is a
typical drought-avoiding species since it uses its tubers as water reservoirs and its stomata and
leaflet closure to save water. Therefore, it has been characterized of great potential for use as
human food and animal fodder (Dakora et al. 1999; Travlos et al. 2007). According to
Graham and Vance (2003) legumes play a critical role in natural ecosystems, agriculture,
and agroforestry, where their ability to fix N in symbiosis makes them excellent colonizers of
low-N environments.
Another noticeable case is that of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), a pseudocereal
that has been cultivated in Andean region for thousands of years, which is believed to have
been domesticated in the Peruvian Andes from wild populations of Chenopodium quinoa
(Bhargava et al., 2006). There are non-cultivated quinoa plants (Chenopodium quinoa var.
128
melanospermum) which grow in the same area where it is cultivated. Quinoa is an excellent
example of functional food that aims at lowering the risk of various diseases (Vega-Glvez
et al., 2010). It has remarkable nutritional properties; not only its protein content (15%) but
also its great amino acid balance. It is an important source of minerals and vitamins, and it
has been found to contain saponins and compounds like polyphenols, phytosterols, and
flavonoids with possible nutraceutical benefits (Abugoch James, 2009; Bilalis et al., 2012b).
The objectives of conserving crop genetic resources and managing natural vegetation
should not stay in a theoretical level but to take advantage of natural vegetation and genetic
diversity. In several cases indices for species number, distribution and abundance have been
used in the analysis of resources (Krebs, 1978; Booth et al., 2003; Bilalis et al., 2012a).
Increased awareness for a systematic vegetation management is especially required due to the
widely adopted techniques of conservation tillage techniques (including minimum tillage and
no-tillage) which minimize the impact on soil structure and CO2 emissions compared to
conventional tillage (Cook, 2006; Hernanz et al., 2009). Conservation of weed diversity on
agricultural systems is of great importance as plant diversity is generally low and mostly
enhanced by weed occurrence (Hernandez Plaza et al., 2011). Weeds are also known to
represent valuable resources for other taxa (food, cover or reproductive sites) as described by
Storkey and Westbury (2007) and could be certainly considered as ecological goods
(Gerowitt et al., 2003). The use of conservation tillage techniques in semiarid soils in
southern Europe has evolved over the last decades, largely as an effort to reduce soil erosion,
as well as to increase soil moisture availability and crop yield (Dorado and Lopez-Fando,
2006). The adoption of conservation tillage practices such as no-tillage (NT) or minimum
tillage (MT) has been shown to shift weed communities (Bilalis et al., 2001; Blackshaw et al.,
2001; Shrestha et al., 2002; Legere and Samson, 2004) or in other cases not to affect at all
weed flora (Derksen et al., 1993; McCloskey et al., 1996).
Another typical example of management of natural vegetation towards sustainability is
the maintenance of plant cover between olive grove lines (and other perennial crops) until the
beginning-middle of spring as a soil management alternative that is gradually being adopted
by olive growers. As well as protecting the soil from erosion, plant covers have other
advantages such as improving the physicochemical properties of the soil, favouring its
biodiversity and contributing towards the capturing of atmospheric carbon and its fixation in
the soil (Repullo-Ruiberriz de Torres et al., 2012).
CONCLUSION
Natural vegetation creates a safe habitat for many beneficial organisms and often has
high medicinal and aromatic interest. Many wild species are used as gene donors, human or
animal food and phytoremediants. The presence of rich and diverse natural vegetation can be
potentially useful and provide sustainability to agroecosystems. Consequently, in all similar
approaches, the potential economic value of the in situ conservation and management of
natural vegetation and genetic resources is a realistic challenge and should not be overlooked,
especially for regions with exceptional biodiversity like the Mediterranean basin. However,
any models focusing on sustainability through natural vegetation management should be casespecific taking into account several interacting factors such as the main crop, the plant
129
species, their density and abundance, the soil and climatic conditions, the year season, social
and other factors. Sometimes, there may be some level of conflict between the perception of
both agricultural and ecological value in sites with natural vegetation.
As stated by Cary and Williams (2000): a strategy sometimes observed within
agricultural and environmental extension is to initially emphasise the agricultural value of
native vegetation systems to landholders, and then gradually introduce information
concerning the ecological concerns.
In all cases, plant species are part of our natural heritage and we owe it to future
generations to preserve and protect them (Cuttelod et al., 2008) and furthermore to manage
them in a profitable and sustainable way.
REFERENCES
Abugoch, J., (2009). Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): composition, chemistry,
nutritional, and functional properties. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research 58: 1
31.
Anderson, R.L., (2007). Managing weeds with a dualistic approach of prevention and control.
Agronomy Sustainable Development? 27: 1318.
Arnold, M.L., (2006). Evolution through genetic exchange. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Baker, A.J.M., and Brooks R.R., (1989). Terrestrial higher plants which hyperaccumulate
metallic elements: a review of their distribution, ecology and phytochemistry.
Biorecovery 1: 81126.
Bhargava, A., Shukla, S., and Ohri, D., (2006). Chenopodium quinoa-An Indian perspective.
Industrial Crops and Products 23: 7387.
Bilalis, D., Karkanis, A., Pantelia, A., Patsiali, S., Konstantas, A., and Efthimiadou, A.,
(2012a). Weed populations are affected by tillage systems and fertilization practices in
organic flax (Linum usitatissimum L.) crop. Australian Journal of Crop Science 6 (1):
157163.
Bilalis, D., Kakabouki, I., Karkanis, A., Travlos, I., Triantafyllidis, V., and Hela, D., (2012b).
Seed and saponin production of organic quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) for
different Tillage and Fertilization. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca 40
(1): 4246.
Bilalis, D., Efthimiadis, P., and Sidiras, N., (2001). Effect of three tillage systems on weed
flora in a 3-year rotation with four crops. Journal of Agronomy & Crop Science 186:
135141.
Blackshaw, R.E., Larney, F.J., Lindwall, C.W., Watson, P.R., and Derksen, D.A., (2001).
Tillage intensity and crop rotation affect weed community dynamics in a winter wheat
cropping system. Canadian Journal of Plant Science 81: 805813.
Booth, B.D., Murphy, S.D., and Swanton, C.J., (2003). Weed ecology in natural and
agricultural systems. CABI Publishing, UK. Pp. 255274.
Brown, W.L., (1983). Genetic diversity and genetic vulnerability an appraisal. Econ. Bot.
37 (1): 412.
130
Cary, J. and Williams, K., (2000). The Value of Native Vegetation: Urban and rural
perspectives. National Research and Development Program on Rehabilitation,
Management and Conservation of Remnant Vegetation, Research Report RR 3/00, 56 p.
Cetojevic-Simin, D.D., (2010). Antioxidative and antiproliferative activities of different
horsetail (Equisetum arvense L.) extracts. J. Med. Food. 13 (2): 452459.
Chang, T.T., (1994). The biodiversity crisis in Asian crop production and remedial measures.
In: Peng CI & Chou CH (eds) Biodiversity and Terrestrial Ecosystems. Taipei, Institute
of Botany, Academia Sinica, Monograph Series No. 14: 2541.
Christensen, S., (1995). Weed suppression ability of spring barley varieties. Weed Research
35: 241247.
Cook, R.J., (2006). Towards cropping systems that enhance productivity and sustainability.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103 (49): 1838918394.
Cunningham, S.D., Anderson, T.A, Schwab, A.P., and Hsu, F.C (1996). Phytoremediation of
soil contaminated with organic pollutant. Adv. Agron. 56: 55114.
Cuttelod, A., Garca, N., Abdul Malak, D., Temple, H., and Katariya, V., (2008). The
Mediterranean: a biodiversity hotspot under threat. In: J.-C. Vi, C. Hilton-Taylor and
S.N. Stuart (eds). The 2008 Review of The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN
Gland, Switzerland.
Dakora, F.D., Lawlor, D.W., and Sibuga, K.P., (1999). Assessment of symbiotic nitrogen
nutrition in marama bean (Tylosema esculentum L.) a tuber-producing underutilized
African grain legume. Symbiosis 27: 269277.
Derksen, D.A., Lafond, G.P., Thomas, A.G., Loeppky, H.A., and Swanton, C.J., (1993).
Impact of agronomic practices on weed communities: tillage systems. Weed Science 41:
409417.
Didon, U.M.E., and Hansson, M.L., (2002). Competition between six spring barley (Hordeum
vulgare ssp. vulgare L.) cultivars and two weed flora in relation to interception of
photosynthetic active radiation. Biological Agriculture and Horticulture 20: 257274.
Doney, D.L., and Whitney, E.D., (1990). Genetic enhancement in Beta for disease resistance
using wild relatives: A strong case for the value of genetic conservation. Economic
Botany, 44: 445451.
Dorado, J., and Lopez-Fando, C., (2006). The effect of tillage system and use of a paraplow
on weed flora in a semiarid soil from central Spain. Weed Research 46: 424431.
Ernst, O., Betancour, O., and Borges, R., (2002). Descomposicin de rastrojo de cultivos en
siembra sin laboreo: trigo, maz, soja y trigo despus de maz o de soja. AgrocienciaUruguay VI (1): 2026.
Flint, M.L., and Dreistadt, S.H., (1998). Natural Enemies Handbook: the Illustrated Guide to
Biological Pest Control. Publication 3386. Berkely, CA: University of California Press,
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Frankel, O.H., and Bennett, E. Genetic Resources in Plants Their Exploration and
Conservation. IBP Handbook No. 11. Blackwell, Oxford and Edinburgh.
Gardea, J.L., Peralta, J.R., De la Rosa, G., and Parsons, J.G. (2005). Phytoremediation of
heavy metals and study of metal coordination by X-ray absorption spectroscopy.
Coordination Chemistry Reviews 249: 17971810.
Gardiner, M., DiFonzo, C., Brewer, M., and Noma, T. (2006). Identifying Natural Enemies in
Crops and Landscapes. Extension bulletin E-2949. East Lansing, Mich.: Michigan State
University.
131
Gerowitt, B., Bertke, E., Hespelt, S.K., and Tute, C. (2003). Towards multifunctional
agriculture weeds as ecological goods. Weed Research 43: 227235.
Graham, P.H., and Vance, C.P., (2003). Legumes: importance and constraints to greater use.
Plant Physiol. 131: 872877.
Granett, J., DeBenedictus, J.A., Wolpert, J.A., Weber, E., and Goheen, A.C., (1991).
Phylloxera on rise: deadly insect pest poses increased risk to north coast vineyards. Calif.
Agric. 45 (2): 3032.
Hawkes, J.G., (1990). The potato: evolution, biodiversity and genetic resources. London:
Belhaven Press.
Hawkes, J.G., (1993). The diversity of crop plants. Cambridge Mass. U.S: Harvard University
Press.
Hernandez Plaza, E., Kozak, M., Navarrete, L., and Gonzalez-Andujar, J.L., (2011). Tillage
system did not affect weed diversity in a 23-year experiment in Mediterranean dryland.
Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 140: 102105.
Hernanz, J.L., Snchez-Girn, V., and Navarrete, L. (2009). Soil carbon sequestration and
stratification in a cereal/leguminous crop rotation with three tillage systems in semiarid
conditions. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 133: 114122.
Holden, J.H.W., and Williams, J.T., (1984). Crop Genetic Resources: Conservation and
Evaluation. George Allen and Unwin, London.
Hopkins, J. and Maxted, N., (2010). Crop Wild Relatives: Plant conservation for food
security. Natural England Research Reports, Number 037. Natural England, Sheffield.
Howieson, J.G., OHara, G.H., and Carr, S.J., (2000). Changing roles for legumes in
Mediterranean agriculture: developments from an Australian perspective. Field Crops
Res. 65: 107122.
Ibrara, M., Hashim, S., and Marwat, K.B., (2003). Ethnobotanic study of the weeds of five
crops in district Abbottabad, N-W. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research 9: 229
240.
Jarvis, D.I., and Hodgkin, T., (1999). Wild relatives and crop cultivars: detecting natural
introgression and farmer selection of new genetic combinations in agroecosystems. Mol.
Ecol. 8: 159173.
Jordan, N., (1993). Prospects for weed control through crop interference. Ecological
Applications 3: 8491.
Krebs, C.J., (1978). Species diversity. In C.J. Krebs (ed.) Ecology. The Experimental Analysis
of Distribution aand Abundance, pp. 449487. Harper & Row, New York.
Lasat, M., (2002). Phytoremediation of toxic metals: biological mechanisms. Journal of
Environmental Quality 31: 109120.
Legere, A., and Samson, N., (2004). Tillage and weed management effects on weeds in
barley-red clover cropping systems. Weed Science 52: 881885.
Lipecki, J., (2006). Weeds in orchards pros and contras. J. Fruit Ornam. Plant Res. 14:
1318.
Maxted, N., and Kell, S.P., (2009). Establishment of a Global Network for the In Situ
Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives: Status and Needs. Rome: FAO.
McCloskey, M., Firbank, G., Watkinson, A.R., and Webb, D.J., (1996). The dynamics of
experimental arable weed communities under different management practices. Journal of
Vegetation Science 7: 799808.
132
Mench, M., Lepp, N., Bert, V., Schwitzgubel, J.P., Gawronski, S.W., Schder, P., and
Vangronsveld, J., (2010). Successes and limitations of phytotechnologies at field scale:
outcomes, assessment and outlook from COST action 859. J. Soils Sediments 10: 1039
1070.
Moreno-Jimnez, E., Pealosa, J.M., Carpena-Ruiz, R.O., and Esteban, E., (2008).
Comparison of arsenic resistance in Mediterranean wild shrubs used in revegetation.
Chemosphere 71: 466473.
Moreno-Jimnez, E., Vzquez, S., Carpena-Ruiz, R.O., Esteban, E., and Pealosa, J.M.,
(2011). Using Mediterranean shrubs for the phytoremedation of a soil impacted by
pyretic wastes in Southern Spain: A field experiment. Journal of Environmental
Management 92: 15841590.
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., Da Fonseca, G.A.B., and Kent, J., (2000).
Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature 403: 853858.
Perkovich, B.S., Anderson, T.A., Kruger, E.L., and Koats, J.R., (1996). Enhanced
mineralization of 14C-atrazine in Kochia scoparia rhizosphere soil from pesticide
contaminated site. Pesticide Science 46: 391396.
Pilon-Smits, E., (2005). Phytoremediation. Annual Review of Plant Biology 56: 1539.
Plucknett, D.L., Smith, N.J.H., Williams, J.T., and Anishetty, N.M., (1987). Genebanks and
Worlds Food. Princeton University Press, Princeton.
Ramanatha Rao, V. and Hodgkin, T., (2002). Genetic diversity and conservation and
utilization of plant genetic resources. Plant Cell, Tissue and Organ Culture 68: 119.
Reddy, B.R., Sethunathan, N., (1983a). Mineralization of parathion in rice rhizosphere. Appl.
Environ. Microbiol. 45, 826829.
Reeves, R.D., and Baker, A.J.M., (2000). Metal accumulating plants, pp. 193229. In:
Raskin, I. and B. Ensley (eds.) Phytoremediation of Toxic Metals: Using Plants to Clean
up the Environment. New York: Wiley.
Repullo-Ruiberriz de Torres, M.A., Carbonell-Bojollo, R., Alcantara-Brana, C., RodriguezLizana, A., and Ordonez-Fernandez, R., (2012). Carbon sequestration potential of
residues of different types of cover crops in olive groves under mediterranean climate.
Spanish Journal of Agricultural Research 10 (3): 649661.
Salt, D.E., Smith, R.D., and Raskin, I., (1998). Phytoremediation. Annual Review of Plant
Physiology and Plant Molecular Biology 49: 643668.
Saluk-Juszczak, J., Olas, B., Pawlaczyk, I., Gancarz, R., and Wachowicz, B., (2007). Effects
of the extract from Conyza canadensis on human blood platelet aggregation. Gen.
Physiol. Biophys. 26 (2): 150152.
Schellhorn, N.A., Macfadyen, S., Bianchi, F.J.J.A., Williams, D.G., and Zalucki, M.P.,
(2008). Managing ecosystem services in broadacre landscapes: what are the appropriate
spatial scales? Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 48 (12): 15491559.
Shands, H., (1993). Harvesting Natures Diversity. Rome: FAO.
Shrestha, A., Knezevic, S.Z., Roy, R.C., Ball-Coelho, B.R., and Swanton, C.J., (2002). Effect
of tillage, cover crop and crop rotation on the composition of weed flora in a sandy soil.
Weed Research 42: 7687.
Singh, V.K., and Khan, M.A., (1989). Use of folk medicinal in the context of primary health
care programme in North India: Liver disorders. Int. Conf. Rec. Adv. Med. Aroma and
Spice Crops. New Delhi, Anst. No. 68.
133
Storkey, J., and Westbury, D.B., (2007). Mini-review: managing arable weeds for
biodiversity. Pest Management Science 63: 517523.
Thomson, L.J., and Hoffmann, A.A., (2009). Vegetation increases the abundance of natural
enemies in vineyards. Biological Control 49 (3): 259269.
Thomson, L.J., and Hoffmann, A.A., (2010). Natural enemy responses and pest control:
Importance of local vegetation. Biological Control 52 (2): 160166.
Travlos, I. S., Economou, G., and Kanatas, P. J., (2011) Corn and barnyardgrass competition
as influenced by relative time of weed emergence and corn hybrid. Agronomy Journal
103: 16.
Travlos, I.S., (2013). Weeds in perennial crops as an unexpected tool of integrated crop
management. In: Weeds and their Ecological Functions (Ed. A.Taab), pp.114. Nova
Science Publishers, Inc., Hauppauge, New York.
Travlos, I.S., Paspatis, E., and Psomadelli, E., (2008). Allelopathic potential of Oxalis pescaprae tissues and root exudates as a tool for integrated weed management. Journal of
Agronomy 7 (2): 202205.
Travlos, I.S., Economou, G., and Karamanos, A.I., (2007). Germination and emergence of the
hard seed coated Tylosema esculentum (Burch) A. Schreib in response to different presowing seed treatments. Journal of Arid Environments 68: 501507.
Travlos, I.S., Economou, G., and Kanatas, P.J., (2011). Corn and barnyardgrass competition
as influenced by relative time of weed emergence and corn hybrid. Agronomy Journal
103: 16.
UNEP. (2006). Africa Environment Outlook 2 - Our Environment, Our Wealth. United
Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi, Kenya.
Vega-Glvez, A., Miranda, M., Vergara, J., Uribe, E., Puente, L., and Martnez, E.A., (2010).
Nutrition facts and functional potential of quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.), an
ancient Andean grain: a review. Journal of Science of Food and Agriculture 90: 2541
2547.
Wehtje, G.R., Spading, R.F., Burnside, O.C., Lowry, S.R., and Leavitt, J.C.R., (1983).
Biological significance and fate of atrazine under acquifer conditions. Weed Science 31:
610618.
Yadav, S.S., and Patel, H.S., (2001). Traditional medicines and health care system of tribals
of Saptuda Region, Maharastra State. Plant Archives 1: 111118.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 10
ABSTRACT
A significant development has been achieved at present for the treatment of waste.
This achievement was attained because of the increased concern of protecting the
surrounding environment. With the improvement and availability of different treatment
technologies, waste treatment sustainability has reached a new era. Waste treatment
sustainability depends on several associated factors including waste characteristics and
volume of generation, waste collection system, and treatment method of wastes. Waste
characteristics and generation is highly heterogenic in nature and varies in context with
demography, user pattern, and geography. In this chapter, waste disposal and treatment
systems are summarized with an introduction to waste characteristics and waste
generation. Design sustainability or improvement of process design of different
municipal solid waste treatment systems is discussed in an easy to understand manner.
Sustainability in resource recovery from municipal solid waste is also discussed.
1. INTRODUCTION
Waste is an integral part of human society. Wherever in the world there is a community,
there is generation of waste. Waste is generated from every possible consumable. The aspect
of waste type and generation is unique to economic, demographic and geographic factors, so
are the treatment methods. Because of these reasons indicators of waste treatment
sustainability varies country to country.
* Email: mhmalack@kfupm.edu.sa.
136
Waste is generally the most unwanted substance that people or organizations want to get
rid of. Waste excludes products or materials that are reused by the people or organization that
generated them. Waste might be generated during the extraction of raw materials, during the
processing of those materials to intermediate and final products, and the consumption of final
products.
Disposal methods of waste have changed considerably. In the 19th century in the United
States, refuse was dumped into the sea at some distance from the bay. But now after decades,
the public is aware of the problem of solid waste disposal and a degree of technological
sophistication has been achieved to manage waste in a sustainable manner. The concept of
sustainability has compelled the scientists, engineers and policy makers to come up with a
solution to reuse and treat the wastes and to protect the environment. In developed countries,
such as Australia, governments have recognized the difficulties of high consumption patterns
of waste generating consumables, and among other policy responses, have either adopted
ambitious targets for reducing waste to landfill or adopting zero waste policies. Solid waste
should be managed in a sustainable way. For example, if more waste is recycled, this may
have a negative impact on the landfill economy because less waste will be landfilled. As
landfill has some fixed cost to carry on, a drop in incoming waste can have severe monetary
consequences. A strategic decision should be taken by regulatory authorities to form and
implement an integrated solid waste management system (Australian Bureau of Statistics,
2006; Vesilind et al., 2002).
Municipal solid waste: Waste from this category includes mixed household waste,
recyclables such as cardboard and newspaper, glass, aluminium and steel cans,
plastic bottles and container, plastic bags, food scraps and waste and garden waste
and cuttings.
b. Commercial and industrial solid waste: This category of waste is composed of metal,
plastic and timber
c. Construction and demolition solid waste: Wastes from this category are mainly inert
material such as timber, bricks, plaster off cuts, concrete, rubble, steel, and excavated
earth.
Composition and quantity of generation of waste depends on characteristics and number
of population, gross domestic product (GDP) and location (Sharholy et al., 2007; Wang and
Nie, 2001; Ogwueleka, 2009; Sujauddin et al., 2008). Even in the same country, generation
137
and composition of waste may vary among different territories. Figure 1 shows a typical
composition of solid waste characteristics in a developed country.
Typically, municipal solid waste composition is mostly dominated by organics such as
food and garden waste (46%) followed by different types of paper (22%). In commercial
waste, contribution of organic waste is only 13% and metals and paper (both 22%) constitutes
most of it. Construction and demolition waste composition is dominated by concrete (82%),
whereas the organic contribution is only 1%. The typical solid waste generation rate of
Australia is shown in Table 1.
Timber
1%
Concrete
3%
Metals
5%
Glass
7%
Organics
13%
Other
12%
Other
23%
Organic
s (Food
and
garden)
46%
Paper
22%
Timber
9%
Plastics
4%
Concrete
3%
Paper
22%
Metals
22%
Plastics
Glass 6%
2%
b
Timber
4%
Other
6%
Organics (Food
and garden)
1%
Concrete
82%
Metals
7%
c
Figure 1. Typical composition of waste in Australia, 2002-03, a. Municipal waste, b. Commercial and
industrial waste, c. Construction and demolition waste (Productivity Commission, 2006).
It is evident from Table 1 that generation of waste varies in different parts of a country. In
Australia for the year 2002-03, New South Wales generated about 30 times more municipal
waste compared to the Capital Territory. The reason for this excessive number is because of
138
the variation in population size of these two territories. If compared between the per person
waste generation rate, the Capital Territory has a higher generation rate than New South
Wales. The generation of waste from a community varies throughout the year, even with the
day of the week.
Table 1. Typical solid waste generation in Australia, 2002-03
(Department of the Environmental and Heritage, 2006)
Territory
New South
Wales
Victoria
Queensland
Western
Australia
South
Australia
Australian
Capital
Territory
Total
Municipal
solid waste
(kilotonnes)
Commercial
and industrial
(kilotonnes)
Construction
and demolition
(kilotonnes)
Total
Per person
(kilotonnes)
(kilograms)
3,326
4,196
4,649
12,171
1,820
2,291
1,742
2,743
959
3,575
1,166
8,609
3,973
1,751
1,046
833
744
1,945
3,522
1,804
600
677
2,156
3,433
2,248
111
150
250
674
2,087
8,903
9,469
13,741
32,382
1,629
Every country generates waste but it is very difficult to compare the waste generation rate
of one country to others. These difficulties include: differences in economic structures, the
lack of comparable waste data and inconsistencies in the application of data definitions
between countries. Figure 2 shows a waste generation rate of some developed countries.
800
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
Figure 2. Waste generation rate of some developed countries in 2003 (Productivity Commission, 2006).
Collection, classification and reporting issues make waste data difficult to compare
between countries. Waste source and type of classification used in each countrys data
139
collections are often inconsistent and do not necessarily match with one other. There are
many other reasons why the weight and composition of waste generated in each country may
differ. These include:
There are a number of concerns related to the environment due to waste generation and
disposal. One of them is greenhouse gas (GHG) emission. GHG emissions from the waste
sector include emissions from landfills, waste incineration and the biological treatment of
solid waste. The emissions mainly consist of methane, which is an end-product of organic
matter decays under anaerobic conditions. Emissions of carbon dioxide from the decay of
organic matter under aerobic conditions do not count in national GHG. This is because an
equivalent amount of carbon dioxide appears to be removed from the atmosphere during the
life cycle of the living biomass. Figure 3 shows typical GHG emissions in Australia.
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Year
Solid waste disposal on land
In Australia, in the year to September 2012, the waste sector accounted for 3% of
Australias national GHG emission inventory. Before September 2012, annual emissions
from waste increased by 0.2%. Since 1990, emissions from the waste sector have declined by
around 19.1%, to 14.1 Mt CO2-e in the years before September 2012, compared to 17.4 Mt
140
CO2-e in 1990 (year to September). Although methane generation has increased since 1990,
emissions of waste methane from landfills have been significantly reduced through growth in
methane recovery (Department of Climate Change and Energy Efficiency, 2012).
141
areas designated by local jurisdiction. The fifth phase of the collection system involves the
location of the final destination such as a materials recovery facility, transfer station or
disposal site.
Avoidance
Reuse
Recycling
Recovery of energy
Treatment
Containment
Maximum
Conservation
of Resources
Disposal
The waste management process can be divided into three main steps:
Collection of waste
Recycling and reuse of waste
Treatment of waste
142
% Household
Common items recycled or reused by households were paper, cardboard and newspapers
(95%), glass (93%), plastic bottles or containers (93%), aluminum or steel cans (91%), and
plastic bags (84%).
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1996
2000
2003
2006
2009
2012
Year
Recycling
Reusing
Figure 5. Trend of waste recycling and reuse in Australia (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010).
In Australia, waste is disposed of in three different ways. These include collecting the
waste from the household, taking the waste to a designated area or collection point, and
reusing the waste at home. During March 2011 to March 2012, the most common way for
households to recycle their paper, cardboard or newspapers was to have the items collected
from the house (94%). This method was also the most common for glass (94%), aluminum
cans (91%), steel cans or tins (96%) and plastic bottles or containers (93%). Just over 24% of
Australian households recycled or reused electronic equipment. Of those households, 48%
took their electronic equipment to a special area at the dump or waste transfer station or to a
central collection point, while 30% had the items collected from the house as part of
municipal curbside recycling (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2012).
143
collection system. The collection system that separates the two liners is a leak detection
system, which consists of placing a series of pipes between the liners to collect and monitor
any leachate that leaks through the top liner. Landfills have low operating costs compared to
waste reprocessing systems and are normally located near the urban centers they serve. When
constructing, landfill siting must take into account soil conditions, hydrology and topography,
climate, local environmental issues, hauling distances, land use and other issues.
Methane
Monitoring
Gas control
Final Cover
Groundwater
monitoring
Waste
Liner
Leachate
collection
Groundwater
The landfill ecosystem is quite diverse due to the heterogeneous nature of waste and
landfill operating characteristics. Figure 7 shows the composition of wastes disposed to
landfill in a developed country. Approximately two-thirds of the landfilled materials are
biodegradable and one-third is recalcitrant. In the biodegradable portion, food and garden
waste can be fractioned as readily biodegradable, and paper and cardboard as moderately
biodegradable.
There exist some real or perceived social disadvantages of landfills such as traffic, noise,
dust, odors and leachate, which may create strong opposition from the surrounding
community. Balancing conflicting considerations may be difficult. While one area may
provide an ideal landfill location from a geological point of view, public concerns over land
use and other impacts may make the selected area unsuitable.
These factors increase the need to maximize the use of landfill space in already approved,
best practice facilities. Problems arising from landfills may depend upon the nature of landfill
controls, the site and the materials disposed. High density, inert materials are likely to be less
costly to manage and cause fewer environmental impacts, followed by less dense and
biodegradable materials, with hazardous household waste likely to cause the greatest impact.
Table 2 lists some of the problems arising from different components of the waste stream.
3.3.2. Incineration
Incineration or burning municipal waste has been accepted for many years as a process to
reduce the quantity of waste generated by households, trades, and agricultural practices.
Incineration is also recognized as a process to provide fuel for heating and cooking.
144
Waste component
Plastic bags and film
Timber and wood products
Paper / cardboard
Plastics
Electronics and appliances
Batteries
Garden and food organics
Household chemicals
Impact to environment
Contribute to litter around landfills
Contribute to methane emissions
Contributes to methane emissions
Potential to impact on the health of humans and other
organisms.
Contain heavy metals and flame retardants, which may be
present in leachate.
Contain heavy metals, which may be present in leachate.
Contribute to methane emissions
Oil, paints and pesticides contain toxic substances, which may
be present in leachate.
Glass 7%
106.4 Kilotonnes
Plastics 8%
117 Kilotonnes
Building Rubble
and soil 2%
35.5 Kilotonnes
Other 1%
17.7 Kilotonnes
Metals 7%
109.9 Kilotonnes
Paper and
Cardboard 10%
152.5 Kilotonnes
Timber 6%
99.3 Kilotonnes
Reduction in the volume and weight of bulky solids, which have high combustible
content.
Destruction and detoxification of some wastes for final disposal, such as combustible
carcinogens, pathologically contaminated materials, toxic organic compounds, or
biologically active materials which might affect the sewage treatment plant.
145
146
matured for subsequent use in secondary aggregate applications; whereas the flue gas treated
residues are sent to the landfill (McLanaghan, 2002).
The combustion systems can be of two types, namely, mass burn units or refuse
derived fuel (RDF) units. The difference between these two systems relies on the preprocessing of the wastes. A mass burn system has no pre-processing of the solid waste before
feeding into the combustion unit. In an RDF system the solid waste is processed before
combustion to remove non-combustible items and to reduce the size of the combustible
fraction. This pre-processing provides the production of a more uniform fuel at a higher heat
value and the amount of excess required for combustion is reduced. The amount of
combustion air is essential because if there is insufficient oxygen in the combustion chamber,
a reducing atmosphere is created, which leads to corrosion problems.
147
The main challenges with bioreactor landfills are operational. Existing landfill practices
result in barriers to water contact and moving uniformly through the waste. In some cases the
infiltration of moisture resulting from rainfall is insufficient to meet the desired waste
moisture content for optimal decomposition, and supplemental water may be required. To
confirm the optimal moisture content distribution, all the wastes may need water to bring it to
field capacity. The most efficient approach to reach field capacity is to increase moisture
content through wetting of the waste at the working face and then uniformly to reach field
capacity through water surface application or injection. Furthermore, infrastructure for the
injection and drainage of fluid through the landfill is prone to biochemical fouling. Any
excess leachate requires treatment prior to disposal (Reinhart et al., 2002; Benson et al., 2007)
Pre-Treatment Landfill
Pre-treatment landfills are landfills where the biodegradable waste undergoes mechanical
and biological pre-treatment to reduce the pollution potential of the waste over the lifecycle of
the landfill. Mechanical processes include sorting and shredding of materials with the
extraction of ferrous metals. The shredding of waste is designed to increase the surface area
of materials so as to enhance the biological processes. The screening process separates the
high calorific materials such as plastic and paper from organic components. The product is
ultimately disposed of in a landfill rather than being used as compost or reapplied to land
(Municipal waste advisory council, 2009).
148
Figure 9 shows the difference among the combustion processes. When the burning of the
wastes is performed in the presence of limited air, the combustion process is called
gasification, and when the combustion process performed in the absence of air or oxygen is
termed as pyrolysis. These processes have a number of advantages over conventional
incineration or landfill disposal of wastes. Depending on the technology, the waste can be
converted to energy, gas or oil products. As shown in Figure 9, the conventional combustion
produces only flue gas and ash. However, from gasification and pyrolysis it is possible to get
gas, ash and tar, and gas, oil and char respectively. It is possible to store and use these end
products later in different industries such as energy production or for the waste treatment
process.
Among the end products of this reaction, carbon in solid form, ethylene in liquid form
and methane occurs in gaseous form. A wide variety of pyrolysis technologies are available
including fluidized beds, fixed-bed reactors, ablative pyrolysis at hot surfaces, rotary kilns,
entrained flow reactors and vacuum pyrolysis (Vesilind et al., 2002, 25-27). The designs of
these processes are determined by the type of pyrolysis being undertaken, for example, fast or
slow heating rates and temperatures to produce the targeted end product (Table 3).
Table 3. Variables in pyrolysis process (Vesilind et al., 2002)
Heating Rate
Temperature
Slow
<1
Low
500 to 750
Intermediate
5 to 100
Intermediate
750 to 1000
High
1000 to 1200
Very high
>1200
C/sec
Rapid
500 to 10
Flash
>106
Gasification is different from pyrolysis. In this system, air or oxygen is reacted at high
temperatures with the available carbon in the waste producing a gas, ash and a tar product.
Partial combustion occurs to produce heat and the reaction proceeds exothermically to
produce a low to medium calorific value fuel gas. The operating temperatures are relatively
high compared to pyrolysis, at 80011000C with air gasification, and 100014000C with
oxygen. The produced gases are removed by a vacuum pump and condensed to produce an oil
product. Product gases, which are non-condensable are combusted to produce energy (Arena,
2012).
149
Biodegradable waste
Biogas
Post-treatment
Compost product
Landfill
Figure 10. Schematic diagram of the anaerobic digestion process (McLanaghan, 2002).
The solid residue arising from anaerobic digestion can also be cured and used as a
fertilizer. The process produces energy in the form of a quality natural gas to use as vehicle
150
fuel. Biogas can also be successfully compressed for use as an alternative transportation fuel
in light and heavy-duty vehicles. Anaerobic digestion has been used to treat sewage sludge
and agricultural wastes for many years and has also been developed for municipal solid
wastes and industrial wastes.
The microorganisms responsible for anaerobic decomposition can be of two types,
namely, acid formers and methane formers. Acid former microorganisms ferment the
complex organic compounds to more simple organic forms like acetic and propionic acids.
They are either facultative or strict anaerobes. Methane former microorganisms are strictly
anaerobes and have very slow growth rates. Methane formers are very sensitive to various
environmental factors such as temperature change, stable and neutral pH not below 6.8, and
presence of toxic metal such as heavy metals and pesticides.
The process flow diagram of anaerobic digestion is shown in Figure 10. At first,
biodegradable wastes are separated from the main waste stream. The biodegradable waste
fraction is collected at the reception area and stored before processing. Next in pre-treatment
stage, contaminants are removed and waste is homogenized to enhance efficient anaerobic
digestion.
In the anaerobic digestion stage, wastes are heated and mixed to generate biogas. The
biogas is a combination of methane and carbon dioxide. The methane is combusted to
produce energy, which provides heat for the anaerobic digestion process and also for export
to provide heat and power. In the post-treatment phase, more contaminants like glass and
plastics are removed and residue is further stabilized to produce a composted product.
4.4. Composting
Composting is a natural process of solid waste treatment in the presence of air and the
end-product is the partially decomposed organic fraction. Composting is practiced on a small
scale at individual households as well as on a large scale under a composting scheme carried
out by local governments. Composting is an aerobic process where aerobic microorganisms
extract energy from the organic matter through a series of exothermic reactions that break the
material down to simpler materials. A critical variable in composting is the moisture content.
If the moisture content is too low, the microorganisms cannot survive and the biodegradation
stops. If the moisture content is too high, there is lack of oxygen in the soil, as air cannot
penetrate the soil. This will lead to an anaerobic environment. The pH of the compost pile
shows an initial drop and is then increased to between 8.0 to 9.0, and finally settles down to
7.0 to 8.9. The time required for a compost pile to be fully degraded depends on different
factors including decaying of the feed, the insulation and aeration provided, the ratio between
carbon and nitrogen, the particle size, and other conditions. Usually 4-6 weeks time is
considered for the adequate composting of shredded municipal waste (Suler and Finstein,
1977; Strom, 1985).
A process flow diagram of a composting process is shown in Figure 11. For composting,
biodegradable wastes including parks and household garden wastes are first separated from
other inert wastes. The composting process includes three stages (Williams, 2005). In the first
stage, simple carbohydrates and proteins are biologically degraded by mesophilic
microorganisms followed by thermophilic microorganisms and the temperature rises above
450C. The second stage is a stabilization stage where biodegradation occurs by thermophilic
151
microorganisms and the temperature reaches up to 700C. The high temperature of this phase
helps to destruct weed seeds and pathogenic microorganisms. In the third stage, which is a
maturation stage, further biodegradation occurs at low temperature and takes several weeks
for completion. Finally, the compost is sieved and graded to remove un-composted materials
as well as contaminants like glass, plastics and metals, and ready to be used as an end
product.
Biodegradable waste
Composting
Stage 1: Decomposition
Stage 2: Stabilization
Stage 3: Maturation
Landfill
End product
market
152
produce gas and compost. All of these by-products and end-products are commercially
important and have diversified utilization.
Landfill gas can be used in boiler combustion applications including boiler firing,
space heating, cement and brick kilns, sludge drying, and leachate drying and
incineration. This gas can be an alternative to conventional fuel such as oil, propane
and natural gas used for this type of application.
Another use of landfill gas is to generate electricity. Between 1990 and 2003, the
proportion of methane generated in Australia's landfills that were captured for fuel or
electricity generation grew from almost zero to approximately 24%. Up to 75% of
landfills servicing major urban areas and capital cities used gas capture technologies.
Growth in landfill gas capture has occurred for a variety of reasons. These include
government incentives and regulatory requirements promoting the generation of
electricity from renewable resources, and attempts to reduce greenhouse gas
emissions from landfills.
Can be used as vehicle fuel, if upgraded to natural gas quality.
Can be converted to synthetic fuels and chemicals.
The gas can be used for the development of a fuel cell.
153
Different combustion processes produce end-products of char and oil [25, 36]. From the
pyrolysis of municipal solid waste it is possible to get a 35% char product, which has a high
ash content of 37%. The chars have much beneficial value. Chars can be
154
5.3. Compost
Compost is the end product of the composting process of municipal waste. The compost
can be added to the soil for improving the soil structure of clay type soils or can be used as
fertilizer for improving the nutrient content in soil. The ranges of nitrogen, phosphorus, and
potassium in finished compost from municipal waste are shown in Table 5. Compost can also
be used for land restoration and landscaping (Oudraogo et al., 2001; Sb and Ferrini, 2006;
Sikora and Enkiri, 2000).
Table 5. Fertilizer value of compost from municipal solid waste (Vesilind et al., 2002)
Nutrient
Nitrogen
Phosphorus
Potassium
CONCLUSION
We all want to live in a hygienic world, which is free from pollutants or at least where the
pollution is manageable. Sustainability in waste management systems will hopefully allow us
to achieve this ambition. Municipal solid waste, which was a curse once upon a time, has now
become an asset to many communities. Sustainability is present in every step of a good waste
management system including collection, disposal, treatment and resource recovery from
waste. With the development of waste treatment processes, different options are becoming
available for sustainable use of the end-product. This is why engineers and scientists are
considering using oil and gas converted from waste in vehicles instead of conventional fuel,
using waste treatment combustion heat to warm residential and commercial facilities, and
using compost instead of conventional fertilizer. Thus, waste sustainability is playing an
important role in achieving a sustainable environment.
REFERENCES
Agarwal, A., et al., (2005). Municipal solid waste recycling and associated markets in Delhi,
India. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 44(1): p. 73-90.
Alhumoud, J.M. (2005). Municipal solid waste recycling in the Gulf Co-operation Council
states. Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 45(2): p. 142-158.
Arena, U. (2012). Process and technological aspects of municipal solid waste gasification. A
review. Waste management, 32(4): p. 625-639.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2006). Australia's Environment Issues and Trends,
Catalogue no. 4613.0: Canberra.
Australian Bureau of Statistics.(2010). Measures of Australia's Progress [cited 2013 May
20]; Available from: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Lookup/by%20Subject/
1370.0~2010~Chapter~Household%20recycling%20(6.6.7.1).
155
156
Scott, J., et al, (2005). Landfill management, leachate generation, and leach testing of solid
wastes in Australia and overseas. Critical reviews in environmental science and
technology, 35(3): p. 239-332.
Sharholy, M., et al. (2007). Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in
Allahabad, India. Waste management, 27(4): p. 490-496.
Shekdar, A.V. (2009). Sustainable solid waste management: an integrated approach for Asian
countries. Waste management, 29(4): p. 1438-1448.
Sikora, L., and Enkiri, N. (2000). Efficiency of compost-fertilizer blends compared with
fertilizer alone. Soil Science, 165(5): p. 444-451.
Strom, P.F., (1985). Identification of thermophilic bacteria in solid-waste composting.
Applied and environmental microbiology, 50(4): p. 906-913.
Sujauddin, M., Huda, S., and Hoque, A. (2008). Household solid waste characteristics and
management in Chittagong, Bangladesh. Waste management, 28(9): p. 1688-1695.
Suler, D., and Finstein, M. (1977). Effect of temperature, aeration, and moisture on CO2
formation in bench-scale, continuously thermophilic composting of solid waste. Applied
and environmental microbiology, 33(2): p. 345-350.
Townsend, T., et al. (1996). Acceleration of landfill stabilization using leachate recycle.
Journal of Environmental Engineering, 122(4): p. 263-268.
Troschinetz, A.M., and Mihelcic, J.R., (2009). Sustainable recycling of municipal solid waste
in developing countries. Waste management, 29(2): p. 915-923.
Vesilind, P.A., Worrell, W.A., and Reinhart, D. (First ed2002). Solid waste engineering.
Pacific Grove, USA: Brooks/Cole.
Victorian Government (2005). Sustainability in Action: Towards Zero Waste Strategy.
Wang, H. and Nie, Y. (2001). Municipal solid waste characteristics and management in
China. Journal of the Air & Waste Management Association, 51(2): p. 250-263.
Williams, P.T. ( 2nd ed2005). Waste treatment and disposal, West Sussex, England: John
Wiley & Sons Ltd.
Yufeng, Z., et al., (2003). A new pyrolysis technology and equipment for treatment of
municipal household garbage and hospital waste. Renewable Energy,28(15): p. 23832393.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 11
ABSTRACT
Every wastewater treatment plant can have a different flow of incoming wastewater,
quality of sewage, permitted levels of effluent and other local restrictions. These
differences can be large and have a big impact on the type of process used for treating
and to the amount of energy consumed during the processing. The study of energy in a
wastewater treatment plant includes the consumption and the production and/or the
recovery in the plant. The processes of Aeration and Pumping of the liquids use the most
energy in a wastewater treatment plant. The fraction of the energy used in aeration
systems, ranges from 25 to 60% of the total energy use in a wastewater treatment plant.
Also, the process of disinfection in tertiary treatment of wastewater corresponds to 1025% of the total use of energy in a wastewater treatment plant.
The energy optimization of a wastewater treatment plant can be achieved through
good energy management, through implantation of energy saving measures (through
modifications in budget management, through changes of functioning and by
modifications on lighting, heating, ventilation and air conditioning system) and
enhancing the production of the energy required by alterative or renewable sources,
without compromising the efficiency of treatment processes. Enhancing the production of
energy from alternative sources, based on the fact that the wastewater treatment plant has
an important energy source: wastewater itself, while the chemical energy contained in
wastewater, based on the chemical oxygen demand (COD), is approximately equal to
13MJ/kg COD or 36 kWh/kg COD. The produced biogas is also a valuable source of
energy with a calorific value ranging from 20 to 25 MJ/m3, or approximately
6.5kWh/m3, corresponding to 60% of calorific value of natural gas. Moreover, the
*
158
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. General
Every wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) can have a different flow of incoming
wastewater, quality of sewage, permitted levels of effluent and other local restrictions. These
differences can be large and have a big impact on the type of process used for treating and to
the amount of energy consumed during the processing. The study of energy in a wastewater
treatment plant includes the consumption and the production and/or the recovery in the plant.
The consumption and energy saving is presented for a plant using the conventional
method of wastewater treatment and includes the following main stages of processing:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
159
cheap and something that may take longer to implement but that will prove more beneficial in
the long run (Fillmore, 2008).
Figure 1. The three interconnected spheres of sustainability that describe the relationships between the
environmental, economic, and social aspects of our world (Wanamaker, 2012).
160
2. ENERGY CONSUMPTION
2.1. General
The study of energy in a WWTP includes energy consumption and / or production and
energy recovery in the unit itself. Generally, two types of energy required to plant, electrical
and thermal energy. The heat is used to meet the heating needs of various processes (drying
sludge, sludge digestion) and for heating buildings of a WWTP. The energy required for the
operation of the most parts of a plants equipment is electrical. Most WWTPs, medium and
large size, use activated sludge treatment systems. Approximately 95% of the electricity
demand in such WWTP consumed by electric motors of compressors air, aerators, the bellows,
pumps, scrapers, of transport equipment and equipment for sludge treatment systems. The rest
of the energy is consumed by measurement and control systems, electrical systems, heating
and lighting systems (Kapreli, 2011). The water treatment plants and wastewater in the U.S.
consume about 2% of total energy (electricity) produced by country. Typically, 30% of the
operating cost of wastewater treatment plants budgeted for energy use. During the next 30
years, the demand for electric energy in wastewater treatment is expected to increase by 3040% (Metcalf & Eddy, 2007). The energy cost is one of the three highest cost factors in a
WWTP, after labor costs and the cost of disposal and therefore significantly affects the
operating costs of a WWTP. On average, 30% of the operating costs of a WWTP budgeted
for energy use (Kapreli, 2011). The wastewater treatment facilities consume significant
energy, accounting for 3% of total national energy use. The main parts of the equipment that
consume energy of a WWTP are shown in Figure 2.
The pumps
Various engines
161
The processes of Aeration and Pumping of the liquids use the most energy in a
wastewater treatment plant.
The specific energy consumption of wastewater treatment plants should be between 20
and 45 kWh/(PE) [PE = Population Equivalent or unit per capita loading]. The lower rate
applies to large facilities serving>100.000 PE, while the higher number applies to
approximately 10.000 PE. The smaller the system, higher the specific consumption of energy
(HUBER SE, 2007). In a period where there are concerns about the adequacy of reserves of
fuel, energy costs and ever-higher levels of processing that result in increased energy
consumption, the design and operation of wastewater treatment plants are increasingly
focused on improving efficiency electricity energy use and reduce the cost of processing
(Metcalf & Eddy, 2007).
162
Activated sludge recirculation pumps and pumps for the withdrawal of excess
activated sludge: pumps of internal recirculation of the mixed liquor in the aeration
tanks and pumps of external circulation of activated sludge.
Treated wastewater pumping (effluent): Energy consumption during pumping
depends on the applied pressure, or the height or distance to which the pump must
discharge the sewage.
Other pumping stations and equipment: such as the intermediate pumping lift,
foam removal, oil and grease removal etc., and the pumping of clean liquids (treated)
(Kapreli, 2011).
163
Table 1. Summary of Energy Benchmark Parameters and Energy Use Information for
the Secondary Wastewater Treatment Process and for Total Plant Operations
(PG&E, 2002)
Most conventional methods of secondary waste water treatment are aerobic, meaning that
the bacteria used for the decomposition of waste water need oxygen to perform their work.
The advantages of these processes are the high processing performance (95% and above) and
high stability with respect to the toxic compounds and load fluctuations. The disadvantages of
aerobic processes are the high energy requirements for supplying the necessary oxygen for
the bacteria and the production of large volumes of sludge, thus these processes are expensive
and difficult to control (Kapreli, 2011).
Figure 4. Distribution of energy consumption in wastewater treatment by the activated sludge method
(SAIC, 2006).
164
While energy demand is in a particular place and may vary significantly from plant to
plant, the fraction of the energy used in aeration systems, ranges from 25 to 60% of the total
energy use in a wastewater treatment plant.
The wastes are aerated or by form of bubbles or by high purity oxygen through them or
by mixing, such that the oxygen is transferred through the contact with the atmosphere. The
two most common types of aeration are the mechanical aeration, the submerged and surface
aeration.
Tolkou
Tolkou
Figure 5. Aeration Tank (WWTP of Sindos, Thessaloniki Greece) (Tolkou and Zouboulis, 2012).
In aeration systems with diffusion, air is introduced below the surface of water. Important
components of these systems are the air intake system, the blowers, the air piping system and
the diffusers. The air intake systems are usually equipped with filters for the protection of
165
blowers and diffusers from airborne particles. The blowers are substantially low pressure,
high volume air compressors.
The surface aeration mixes the wastewater, transferring oxygen from the air, thereby
increasing the interface water-air. Common types of equipment include low-speed mechanical
aeration, direct surface aeration, and brush.
The cost of energy to produce compressed air continues to rise along with fuel costs.
Optimizing the aeration process by measuring and controlling the aeration system's air flow
with an accurate, reliable flow meter reduces energy costs and overall plant operational costs.
The flow conditioner also can reduce piping costs, and the low-pressure drop characteristics
minimize compressor/pump power requirements (Cox, 2012).
Tolkou
Figure 6. Tank of anoxic and anaerobic conditions (WWTP of Liti, Thessaloniki Greece 2012)
(Tolkou and Zouboulis, 2012).
166
scouring and cleaning. WEF (2009) reports that energy requirements of MBR systems may be
twic that of conventional activated sludge systems.
For an MBR system, energy requirements are of primary interest. Aeration energy is the
larger consumer on an MBR system. This comes in two forms: energy/air to provide
oxygen for biological nutrient removal, and energy- to provide scouring of the membrane to
keep it clean. As the air required for biological nutrient removal is calculated in terms of kg of
oxygen, limited optimization can be done (Kippax, 2007).
As illustrated in Figure 7, the primary energy requirements are related to aeration (66%)
with pumping a far second energy requirement (14%). To that end, the key opportunities for
energy reduction center on aeration; however, all energy related elements should be
considered. In order to provide the most cost effective and energy efficient system, it is
important to look at opportunities related to design, operations, and equipment (Wallis-Lage
and Levesque, 2007).
The total energy consumption by MBR can in some cases reach values between 6 and
8kWh/m3. In the literature there can be found unequal energy ratios such as 0.14 and
4.0kWh/m3. The energy demand of membrane bioreactors in municipal wastewater treatment
is reported to be a factor of 24 times higher, compared to the conventional activated sludge
process. Overall, it is shown that the energy demand of municipal MBR could be as low as
0.70.8 kWh/m3, which is higher than 0.30.4 kWh/m3 for treated water by traditional
wastewater treatment (Gi et al., 2010).
The energy consumption required for filtration in submerged MBR is significantly lower
(Table 3)
The cost of oxygen demand is superior in MBR. The energy consumption during the
operation of an MBR includes the power requirements for influent pumping and recycling of
the retentate, permeates suction and aeration. The two MBR configurations have substantial
differences in terms of aeration. In the side-stream configuration, aeration is supplied by fine
bubble aerators that are highly efficient for supplying oxygen to the biomass. In submerged
MBRs, the aeration mode is turbulent and cross-flow is generated, which scours the
membrane surface and provides oxygen to the biomass. Aeration cost in the latter-mentioned
configuration represents around 90% of the total costs, whereas in side-stream MBR, only
20% derives from it. However, energy consumption of the side-stream system is usually two
orders of magnitude higher than that of submerged systems (Radjenovi et al., 2008).
167
This method allows the elimination of the colloidal and dissolved substances, processes
which are partly undergoing a process of oxidation in order to form carbon dioxide, partly
undergoing a process of metabolism in order to build up biomass and some absorb matter on
their surface. Modern technologies which ensure simultaneous removal of nitrogen and
phosphorus are characterized by the following attributes:
The membrane filters retain both solids and bacteria from the wastewater;
The activated sludge concentration is 3-5 times higher, leading to a reduction of 20
25% of the tank capacity;
168
Power consumption is 40-80 kWh/(PTa), of which approx. 50% is consumed for the
functioning of membranes;
The membrane aeration equipment has a power consumption of cca.10% higher than
conventional equipment and installation of sand filters for disinfection;
Such facilities are recommended to be used if a high quality effluent is needed or
where space is limited (Isacu and Mirel, 2012).
The humidity.
The organic content of the sewage sludge,
The air pollution requirements, and
The operating practices.
In recent years, advances in flue gas recirculation and exhaust heat recovery/reuse have
made incineration more economical and less energy intensive.
c) Dewatering
Dewatering of sludge, aims to reduce the humidity so sludge can get half-solid and
facilitate further manipulations. In small installations, this process takes place in drying beds,
and generally is used centrifugation and strap Filter Presses and gives cake with 55-70% of
humidity, and if is used heat treatment, the humidity falls below of 10% (WWT , 2012).
169
Filter press: The filter press is possible to increase the solids concentration in sludge
of 10% up to 20%, depending on the type of sludge and the pressure applied. The
energy consumption is approximately 35 kWh / t DS (dry solids).
Tolkou
(a)
Tolkou
(b)
Figure 9. a) Centrifugation b) Filter press (WWTP of Sindos, Thessaloniki Greece, 2012) (Tolkou and
Zouboulis, 2012).
a) System UV
The device of disinfection with radiation UV consists of the following parts:
170
Energy requirements for ultraviolet radiation depend on the number, type and
configuration of lamps used.
A study funded by the company Pacific Gas and Electric (PG & E, 2002), found that the
energy consumed during the disinfection with ultraviolet radiation may be responsible for
about 10-25% of total energy use of the wastewater treatment plant.
The energy required for low pressure lamps ranges from about 0.022 0.055
kWh/m3.
The energy required for medium pressure lamps range from 0.101 0.125 kWh/m3
for an installation that requires 109 kWh /kg to achieve very high levels of coliform
inactivation (EPA, 2010).
b) Ozone
Ozone is a very powerful antioxidant that is relatively unstable, therefore, should be
generated in situ in order to be used. The ozonation process (Zouboulis et al., 2007) involves
four steps:
Table 4. Energy requirements of the different parts of ozone system (Chang et al., 2008)
System Component
Air Compressors
Liquid ring compressors
Rotary screw compressors
Rotary lobe compressors
Refrigerant Dryers
Desiccant Dryers
Heat reactivated
Heatless
Liquid Oxygen Feed Systems
171
3. ENERGY SAVING
3.1. General
Energy optimization in a wastewater treatment plant may be achieved through:
A WWTP, improving energy efficiency, succeeds not only to reduce energy consumption
but also to reduce its energy costs.
The strengthening of energy production from alternative sources of energy based on the
fact that the wastewater treatment plant has an important energy source: wastewater itself.
With proper treatment can be extracted directly or indirectly, energy from the sewage, which
may be used to meet the energy demand of the unit itself. By recovering energy from its own
resources, a WWTP can significantly reduce energy costs, increase energy autonomy,
reducing its dependence on external energy sources and potentially reduce its energy
consumption. With proper energy management WWTP one can achieve even 100% energy
independence.
Furthermore, improving the energy efficiency of a WWTP mitigates climate change.
Conventionally, for the production of energy (electricity and heat) used fossil fuels like coal,
which in their combustion releases large quantities of carbon dioxide, which is the main gas
that contributes to global warming. Climate change is a global problem range and is therefore
a priority to find alternative energy sources. By reducing the energy consumption of WWTP
reduced the consumption of natural resources needed to produce energy, and energy recovery
from own sources (sewage sludge) replaced part of the required power generated from
conventional fossil fuel energy produced from wastewater, which is considered a renewable
energy source and have reduced carbon dioxide emissions (Kapreli, 2011).
One goal of reducing energy costs is to reduce the total number of kWh required to treat a
given volume of water or wastewater. The amount of energy used by a utility for water and/or
wastewater treatment is a function of various factors, including: topography of the service
area, system size, treatment process, type and condition of equipment, and O&M practices.
Still, no treatment system operates at one hundred percent efficiency, and consequently
opportunities exist to improve energy efficiency and reduce the total consumption of kWh
(NYSERDA, 2010).
172
Using SCADA;
Control operating parameters processes (e.g. control of dissolved oxygen);
173
The main automation systems that can be implemented in a WWTP for the control and
regulation of various operating parameters of individual treatment processes are presented in
Table 5. An example of energy saving by installing an automation system is to regulate the
rate of recirculation of sludge, which allows one WWTP to maintain optimal levels of sludge
bed in the secondary tanks. The consequence is a reduction in the pumping rate of the
recirculated sludge and hence reducing energy consumption.
Table 5. Automation applications at WWTPs
(Federation of Canadian Municipalities and National Research Council, 2003)
Process/Unit
Preliminary treatment
Primary and chemically
enhanced primary
treatment
Biological treatment
Secondary clarifiers
Tertiary filters
Aeration system
Disinfection
(i) Chlorination/
Dechlorination
(ii) UV irradiation
Sludge thickening/
dewatering
Digestion
Application
Automatic screen cleaning based on head loss, total flow treated and/or timers
Flow proportional chemical dosage control
On-line effluent suspended solids/turbidity monitoring
Automated sludge density control of sludge pumping
Automated sludge blanket height control of sludge pumping
On-line respirometry
On-line measurement of BOD load
Automated sludge age (SRT) control
Automated biological sludge wasting control
Automated ORP control in the control of biological nutrient removal processes
On-line measurement of MLSS concentration
On-line dissolved oxygen monitoring and control
On-line measurements of NH3-N, NOx-N and PO4-P concentrations
On-line effluent TSS or turbidity analysis
On-line monitoring of turbidity and/or phosphorus concentration
On-line monitoring of head loss
Automated blower control based on on-line dissolved oxygen sensors
On-off aeration control
Variable speed control of mechanical aerators
Flow proportional chemical dosage
Automated chlorine residual control
Automated ORP control
UV intensity monitoring and control
Flow pacing of UV lamps
Initiation of automatic self-cleaning
Automatic flow pacing of chemical addition
Automatic mass dosage control of chemical addition
Automatic monitoring of solids content of liquid stream
Automatic chemical dosage control based on flocculation properties
Automated control of sludge distribution between multiple reactors based on flow
or solids mass load
On-line monitoring of supernatant quality
SCADA System
To SCADA system is a system of supervisory control and data acquisition. The
installation of a SCADA system to control the central equipment is a significant improvement
for a WWTP and can lead to considerable energy savings.
174
175
a detailed check. Once the weak points in terms of the energy consumption are determined,
fine analysis can be applied more in detail.
Fine analysis usually requires a detailed acquisition of energy consumption data. Separate
counters must be installed. During a representative period of time, data are recorded. Specific
values are compared with the guide values given in the energy handbook. The problems are
determined, the equipment is examined and solutions are produced. After the application of
the solutions an efficiency control is conducted to prove the savings (Antakyali and Rolle R,
2010).
Reduce the need for secondary treatment and consequently reduce energy
consumption in the aeration tanks.
Increase the concentration of dewatered sludge leading to the reduction of energy
costs for incineration of sludge (Kapreli, 2011).
vii) Secondary Treatment
Biological treatment
176
The bacteria in anaerobic processes do not use oxygen. Excluding oxygen is easy, and
the energy requirements and sludge production is much less than for aerobic processes making the processes cheaper and simpler. Also, the temperature in which the bacteria like to
work is easy to maintain in hot climates. However, the main disadvantages of anaerobic
processes are that they are much slower than aerobic processes and are only good at removing
the organic waste and not any other sort of pollution, such as nutrients, or pathogens.
Anaerobic processes generally like steady effluents and they are not good with coping with
variations in flow or composition. For example, anaerobic processes cannot cope with shock
loads of heavy metals (from industrial processes, for example).
Waste stabilization ponds (WSPs) provide the best option in most cases, good levels of
treatment at low capital and particularly low Operation and Maintenance cost. In addition, it
is one of the few processes which provide good treatment of pathogenic material. This has
significant application potential for re-use of the treated effluent in irrigation. The major
disadvantage is that significant areas of land are needed for treatment. WSPs are used in many
locations worldwide (Papazoglou, 2010; Parr et al., 1999).
One way to reduce the energy consumption of a WWTP, required to implement nitrogen
removal processes, is the integration of process nitrification - denitrification in aerobic
biological treatment, by creating anoxic (oxygen deficient) zone in the center (entrance) of the
aeration tank. This approach is effective in plants using biological activated sludge.
In case the removal of nitrogen combined with biological treatment, the equipment used
is mainly pumps, therefore, the pumps (motors) are high performance energy efficient choices
in this case (Ntarakas, 2011).
Wastewater treatment could become a lot more energy-efficient by changing this
conventional pathway. By altering the biological cascade and start the process with anaerobic
treatment of wastewater, it can potentially reduce oxygen use, and therefore energy use,
through reduced aeration. The theory is straightforward (see Figure 11). Ammonium is
oxidized to nitrite by nitrification bacteria. A relatively newly discovered bacteria, Anammox,
subsequently transforms ammonium and nitrite directly into nitrogen gas. Anammox thus
replaces the aerobic conversion from nitrite to nitrate and partly from ammonium to nitrate.
This alternative route produces nitrogen gas directly from nitrogen-containing compounds.
These conversions use less oxygen and no organic material when compared to conventional
methods. Overall it results in about 60 percent energy saving due to reduced aeration.
Because more organic material is available for anaerobic fermentation, also more biogas is
formed (Hendrickx et al., 2012).
For the same reason that nitrogen is removed the must be removed and phosphorus from
the wastewater stream. The apparatus of biological phosphorus removal depends on the
removal of phosphorus if it is combined with the removal of nitrogen in the tank or not.
177
Figure 11. Ammonium oxidation to nitrite by nitrification bacteria (Hendrickx et al., 2012).
One modification that may have potential energy savings is the use of ferric chloride
instead of ferrous chloride as well eliminates the need for oxidation of iron. Consequently, the
cost savings resulting essentially from the electrical energy consumption by the blowers to
produce the necessary amount of oxygen, which is reduced (Hendrickx et al., 2012).
Aeration System
The installation of a monitoring and control of dissolved oxygen in aeration tanks is one
option that almost always proves economically energy efficient. This system uses sensors that
detect an ongoing basis and in no time, the concentration of dissolved oxygen in aeration
tanks, so the operator can directly control the aeration system and reduce energy
consumption. Once installed, a continuous measurement of dissolved oxygen, it is possible to
use the signal (indication) of dissolved oxygen for the automatic adjustment of the aeration
blowers using energy management systems or SCADA. (MJ Industrial Solutions, 2003)
Modern detectors of dissolved oxygen can be floating devices that automatically make
measurements and feed information directly into an automatic control system. The energy
savings resulting from the reduction in demand and thus the power consumption of the
blowers. The energy savings achieved will depend on the existing system and the general
ventilation system is about 20 to 50% (NYSERDA, 2010).
Many WWTP choose the installation and use of high-performance mixer, combined with
aeration devices to improve the aeration process in its entirety. In this application, the mixer
are used during periods that the energy requirements for mixing are high, in order to
maximize processing efficiency while minimizing the total energy demand. (MJ Industrial
Solutions, 2003; Malcolm Pirniel, 2005).
178
Minimal aeration for complete nitrification can be adjusted, hence less aeration is
required (energy saving) and the development of anoxic micro zones is promoted, leading to
better nitrogen elimination. Additionally, oxygen transfer to the anoxic zone can be
minimized and the anoxic reactor volume can therefore be reduced. So, less equipment and
energy requirement, as the aerobic/anoxic sludge recirculation loop is not required.
Instead of taking place in two separate tanks, nitrification and denitrification can also be
implemented in one frequently aerated tank providing aerobic and anoxic time phases. In
these systems, nitrogen elimination is connected to aeration control and can reach up to 90%
with an elaborate control concept. This so-called intermittent denitrification is used in a
number of MBR installations (Kraume et al., 2005).
The emergence of submerged MBRs that utilize fairly economical polymer-based
membranes and require less energy than external MBRs has revolutionized municipal
wastewater treatment and has tremendous potential in larger scale, high volume throughput
facilities across the globe. The potential of reusing the MBR product water on-site for
washing or transport purposes offers many cost benefits such as reduced fresh water
requirements, lower sewer costs, and possibility for direct discharge to surface water (Cicek).
There are several areas within the design of an MBR plant which provide the opportunity
for a cost effective design. These include use of primary clarification ahead of the MBR, use
of flow equalization, adjusting the balance of the solids between the aeration basin and the
membrane basins, and pump configuration (Table 6).
Table 6. Design elements to reduce Energy (Wallis-Lage and Levesque, 2007)
Primary Clarification
(1) Reduce the power requirements associated with aeration (a combination of process air and
membrane scour air, with the volume of scour air often equal to or exceeding the process air
requirement); and
(2) Reduce the biological tank volume.
Decreasing the organic loading on the MBR process means that for a given flow rate, the MBR
process can operate at lower MLSS concentration- two benefits:
(1) Decreased membrane fouling tendency, leading to longer cleaning intervals and longer
membrane life; and
(2) Increased oxygen transfer efficiency, leading to lower aeration blower power consumption and
associated operating cost.
Flow Equalization
The combination of a reduction in the membrane surface area and operating with a lower air scour
rate provides the opportunity for a significant energy reduction.
Balance of Solids
MBR systems:
(1) Have been designed o operate at similar MLSS concentrations in both the aeration basins and the
membrane tank;
(2) Tend to be designed using smaller process volumes and higher MLSS concentrations than
conventional biological processes.
The energy reduction is twofold:
(1) Reduction in pumping; and
(2) A potential increase in aeration, which improves oxygen transfer efficiency.
179
Pump Configurations
The three key pumping requirements for an MBR are as follows: solids return, nutrient recycles, and
permeate.
Innovative plant configurations using in-wall pumps or low head submersible pumps can minimize
the energy requirements for the nutrient recycle pumps.
Permeate from the membranes may be pumped or flow by gravity depending on the membrane
configuration and hydraulic constraints. The optimum configuration to minimize energy is to flow by
gravity.
There are various operational elements that influence the overall energy efficiency of the
MBR design. Currently the single largest energy cost is aeration both for the biology and
for the maintenance of the membranes. Hence, opportunities to reduce aeration have the
potential to reduce the overall energy requirements significantly (Table 7) (Wallis-Lage and
Levesque, 2007).
Table 7. Operational elements to reduce Energy (Wallis-Lage and Levesque, 2007)
Membrane Air Scour
Air scour can be one of, if not the single largest, energy use in the process. The following techniques
are used to minimize energy consumption:
(1) Intermittent air scour - based on the rotation of the membrane panels through the aerated portion of
the membrane tank. Also, a combination of air and water are used to scour the membranes, which
results in a significant variation in the energy demand associated with membrane maintenance;
(2) Lower air scour flow rates at lower flux - the change in scour air operation reduced their energy
requirements in the membrane tank to 0.2kWh/m3. Energy Saving by allowing even longer rest periods
between aeration periods when the flux is below the average design condition or by using continuous
aeration but graduates the volume of air based on the flux, e.g., lower air scour rates are used with
lower flux (Wallis-Lage and Levesque, 2007; Radjenovi et al., 2008).
Flux Enhancers
The addition of flux enhancers allows a wider flux operating range and has been used to demonstrate
performance benefits:
(1) If the membrane quantity is driven by peak flow, the flux enhancer allows operation at a higher
flux than traditionally accepted, without excessive or rapid fouling, which results in both an initial cost
reduction based on the quantity of membranes installed as well as an energy savings based on the
reduction in overall air scour requirements;
(2) If the membrane quantity is based on minimum temperature which reduces the design flux, is
indicated that the addition of the polymer based flux enhancer supported operation at a more
aggressive flux at a lower temperature without adverse impact on the membrane performance. By
operating at a higher flux, the membrane quantity and the associated energy requirements can be
reduced (Kippax, 2011).
Optimize Membranes in Service
Matching the number of membrane trains in service with the plant flow is an operating strategy that
can reduce energy, as the membranes which are not in service do not require the same degree of air
scour as those in service. Consequently, taking membrane tanks out of service for portions of the day
when flow is low provides the opportunity to reduce the air scour requirements during the rest period
(Kippax, 2011).
180
Figure 12. Schematic of the MFCMBR integrated system (Wang et al., 2012).
181
Figure 13. Schematic diagram of the SAF-MBR system (Yoo et al., 2012).
182
As the vibrating engine is integrated into the membrane module, and as movement is
magnetically induced, it is expected to experience less friction, to consume less energy and to
have a very flexible vibration control.
In the MMV system, a magnetically induced vibration of the membrane is applied in
order to provide shear at the liquid membrane interface. The module consists of one or more
membranes that are integrated in the MMV module. The system includes a vibration driver,
an electric wire, a vibration engine and the actual vibrating module.
The movement orientation of the vibrating part faces the narrow face of the module in
order to both prevent the bumping of liquid onto the membrane and minimize the associated
energy loss (Bilad et al., 2012).
Figure 14. Schematic diagram of the (a) HT-MBR setup equipped with the MMV system, (b) MMV
module in front view, and (c) MMV module in side view, showing the parallel position on the multiple
membranes mounted (Bilad et al., 2012).
183
and for membrane fouling control, in order to insure most efficient energy use for both
systems demands (Radjenovi et al., 2008).
Reducing the permeate flux always reduces fouling, but at the same time this strategy
demands a more installed membranes, which then contributes to the capital cost of MBR
installation.
Slug bubbling in flat sheet MBRs seems to be an energy saving bubbling regime to
replace free bubble with SADp (special aeration demand permeate) values reduced
significantly (Zhang et al., 2011).
The use of flocculants and coagulants such as aluminum or ferric chloride has been
investigated in an attempt to minimize fouling. Also, the addition of adsorbent reagents such
as powdered activated carbon (PAC) has been found to improve the membrane performance
by decreasing the level of organic compounds with potential for membrane fouling. The trend
in coagulationflocculation field nowadays is the preparation of new, composite coagulants
by the introduction of several additives to produce the so called pre-polymerized coagulants,
in order to improve their efficiency and to make them equal, or even more efficient than the
commonly applied organic polymers (Zouboulis et al., 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, Tzoupanos et
al., 2009, 2010, Moussas et al., 2008, 2011, 2012; Tolkou et al., 2013).
The cleaning protocol is mainly dictated by designed operational net flux. Usually the
protocol suggested by the manufacturer is followed as a guideline, and the majority of the
installed plants work in the sub-critical regime. However, cleaning protocol has been studied
intensively by many researchers where the key parameters of interest are duration and
frequency of the cleaning and the back-flush flux (Radjenovi et al., 2008).
A novel rotating tubular membrane bioreactor (RTMBR) was employed to achieve shearenhanced membrane filtration and fouling characteristics of the bioreactor were investigated.
Lastly, analysis of energy consumption suggested that increasing rotary speed to mitigate
membrane fouling was much more energy saving and efficient than increasing aeration rate.
When only changing rotary speed to reduce membrane fouling rate, the energy consumption
rose from 1.2 to 2.1 and to 3.0 kWh/m3 product water with rotary speed increasing from 0 to
5 and to 10 rpm, respectively, reducing membrane fouling rate by 9.56% and 19.03%,
respectively. However, when increasing aeration rate in order to achieve same reductions in
membrane fouling rate, the energy consumption increased from 1.2 to 5.4 and to 9.6 kWh/m3
product water, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that, to achieve an equal reduction
in membrane fouling rate, the used energy is much higher by employing aeration than
rotation, suggesting using rotation to mitigate membrane fouling is much more efficient than
using aeration from the energy consumption point of view.
Comparing the energy consumption between the RTMBR and mature, commercially
available MBRs (the energy consumption of which can be as low as 0.4 kWh/m3 product
water), it can be found that RTMBR does not have any advantage on the aspect of energy
consumption. So it is an important aspect that needs to be improved for RTMBR in the future
work (Jianga et al., 2012).
184
efficiency that have lower operating range (turndown capability), thereby consuming
significantly greater amount of energy than that needed fewer lamps.
The energy savings from UV radiation occurs when the number and power of lamps in
operation is regulated by the supply and permeability. Moreover, the low pressure lamps high
performance consumes about 50% less energy than lamps of medium pressure (MJ Industrial
Solutions, 2003; NYSERDA, 2010).
Stabilization
The aerobic digestion and anaerobic digestion are processes that should be are assessed to
determine the most energy efficient option.
A WWTP with aerobic digestion in order to save energy should be considered switching
to an aeration system with fine bubble diffusion, to determine whether it is possible to use
smaller blowers, evaluating the existing system and to select equipment and control systems
with adjustable flow air, as is the control of dissolved oxygen to reduce the energy
consumption of the process from 20 to 50%. The replacement of aerobic sludge stabilization
by anaerobic digestion may contribute to energy optimization in a WWTP as the anaerobic
digestion produce energy usable biogas, which can be used directly for energy production in
the same plant (NYSERDA, 2010).
Thickening by Flotation
In WWTP that is applied the thickening of primary or biological sludge by flotation with
air to improve the air-water ratio, to regulating the air supply and /or by feeding the maximum
solids content. Furthermore, the energy consumption can be reduced by the continuous
operation of flotation thickeners and by adding polymer in the sludge.
The flotation thickeners have high operating costs since they require a significant amount
of energy for compressing the air. Energy consumption can be reduced by the increase of
solids content of the sludge (NYSERDA, 2010).
Table 8. Measures through modifications in energy management (Kapreli, 2011)
1. Modification of electric motors
High performance engines
Dimensioning of motors
185
informing the public about the high performance equipment, the sanitary appliances
and about adopting habits for water saving; and
informing people about reducing high water requirements in order to avoid the
additional costs of the operation of pumps and additional equipment during periods
of peak flow (EPA, 2006).
186
(1) Based on the amount of energy consumed during a given period, measured in
kilowatt-hours (kWh); and
(2) Based on demand, which is the rate of flow of energy, measured in kilowatts (kW)
(Zouboulis et al., 2007).
The WWTP by choosing when and where electricity is used can save as many (or more)
money as by reducing energy consumption. The biggest operational changes that can
generally be applied to reduce the consumption of electricity, is the performance of an energy
analysis, the reduction of peak demands and the improvement of power factor
(www.energy.ca.gov, 2011)
The pumps are preferred to operate at the optimum efficiency or close to it. Most
times more convenient and energy efficient solution is to change or reduce pump
operation or on / off operation of the pumps.
The most energy efficient operating mode of the pumps for sludge recirculation are
the scheduled on / off function or the flow control valves.
The most energy efficient operating mode of the pumps for the extraction of
activated sludge excess is the scheduled on / off function.
Inadequate maintenance and cleaning can reduce the efficiency of UV disinfection
systems and increase energy consumption, which is why they require regular
maintenance, inspection and cleaning of equipment of decontamination systems.
The equipment of automation and control systems must be regularly checked,
maintained and replaced where necessary.
The most energy efficient Operating mode of dissolved oxygen control system is to
regulate and maintain the lowest possible concentrations of dissolved oxygen in
combination, always, with the goals of treatment and the need for stable operation.
In the aeration system is necessary inspection, maintenance and repair of the
diffusers and the distribution lines.
The operation of blowers at or near the point of maximum efficiency and the
reduction of the number of blowers that function, preferring to operate fewer blowers
that are operating at full load, can result in energy savings. Also, intermittent aeration
can result in significant energy savings.
The engines must operate as close to their nominal voltage and any difference in
voltage will reduce their output (MJ Industrial Solutions, 2003; NYSERDA, 2010;
EPA, 2008).
187
3.1.3. Saving Measures through Changes in Lighting, Heating, Ventilation and Air
Conditioning
i) Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
The heating, ventilation and air conditioning commercial facilities, such as WWTP,
consume a significant amount of energy. The WWTP can reduce the energy requirements of
building facilities by operating equipment for heating, ventilation and air conditioning more
efficiently, or replacing old units with modern ones of higher performance. Improvements in
these systems can provide significant energy savings immediately while improving indoor air
quality and overall comfort in the workplace. The actual savings, of course, vary from plant to
plant and depend on various factors, such as climate, the energy requirements and the systems
used (www.energy.ca.gov, 2011).
ii) Lighting
The lighting of an industrial plant, such as WWTP, it consumes significant amount of
energy, but it is one of the energy costs that can be easily treated. The lights that operate
almost every working day are best suited candidates for replacement with new energy
efficient models. (www.energy.ca.gov, 2011).
Table 10. Saving measures through changes in lighting, heating, ventilation and air
conditioning (Kapreli, 2011)
1. Heating, ventilation and air conditioning
Operating equipment for heating, ventilation and air conditioning more efficiently, or replacing old
units with modern ones of higher performance
2. Lighting
Installing high efficiency lamps and changing the way of lights used
188
chemical oxygen demand (COD), is approximately equal to 13 MJ/kg COD 3.6 kWh/kg
COD. When assessing new technologies and ideas, then it is important to take into account
the energy content of wastewater.
The energy content of the sludge is an important tool for reducing the energy
consumption of conventional energy sources. In addition, the sludge is considered a
renewable source of energy and thus, energy recovery from sludge complies with the
principle of sustainability (Metcalf & Eddy, 2007).
A) Untreated Wastewater
i) Replacing Primary Sedimentation for Energy Recovery
This is a relatively newly developed application which involves replacing the
conventional primary settling tanks with cloth filters. The 200 micron cloth screen filter,
results in treatment equal to or better than primary sedimentation. It has been found that tissue
paper captured on a 200 micron screen serves as a secondary filter for the removal of grease
and oil. The solids removed from the filter cloth are then squeezed to dewater them.
Depending on the degree of compaction and the application, solids concentrations of 30
percent or more have been achieved. The energy content of this particulate stream, when
dried, consisting of tissue paper, food scrapes, feces, oil and grease, and other organic solids
is comparable to that of softwood (about 15-16 MJ/kg solids), and can be dewatered further
by extracting heat energy from wastewater, using other excess waste heat, or solar dried and
converted to energy using a thermal process such as combustion or gasification (Leverenz and
Tchobanoglous, 2009).
ii) Satellites Systems for Energy Recovery
The infrastructure associated with wastewater management is illustrated on Figure 15. As
shown, the principal components are the wastewater collection pipes, pump stations, and
treatment facilities. Depending on the topography, one or more pump stations may be
required. In general, until recent times, it was common to have one centralized WWTP. The
current trend is to consider the use of satellite WWTPs, especially where opportunities for
effective water reuse exist.
The energy content of wastewater is generally not recovered or is only partially recovered
where anaerobic digestion of treatment residuals is used; resulting in a considerable amount
of energy of wastewater not exploited and puts additional requirements on the aeration
systems during the aerobic treatment. In addition, much of the recoverable energy content of
domestic wastewater is lost during travel in the wastewater collection system. To overcome
these challenges, consider the establishment of hybrid systems using satellite wastewater
treatment plants in urban areas, especially when there are opportunities for effective reuse
water. These include decentralized wastewater treatment with fine filters to remove fats, oils
and combustible components of waste for energy production.
Two types of satellite systems for energy recovery are presented below: (1) satellite
recovery of grease for Biodiesel and Energy Production and (2) satellite recovery of
wastewater constituents. (Table 15) (Leverenz and Tchobanoglous, 2009; Leverenz et al.,
2010).
189
Figure 15. Schematic illustration of the principal elements that comprise wastewater management
infrastructure including the use of satellite treatment facilities for water reuse and fine screens for
energy recovery (Leverenz and Tchobanoglous, 2009).
Energy Production
190
B) Treated Wastewater
Treated wastewater outflow before their disposal, can be used to produce electricity
through a small hydropower plant (Electric Energy Production) and / or to recover heat by
heat pumps (Thermal Energy Recovery).
i) Hydropower Plant to Generate Electricity
By exploiting the potential height difference between point of outflow for treated
wastewater and point of inflow for untreated sewage can be achieve an electing energy
production. Macro hydropower plants (up to 10 MW) utilizing the water in order to produce
electricity (or convert it into usable mechanical energy). These units have generators that have
the ability to produce large amounts of electricity without harming the environment
(Katerinopoulosl, 2007).
ii) Thermal Energy Recovery
The thermal energy of treated wastewater outflow may be recovered and used in a
WWTP, before final disposal. The heat is recovered using heat exchangers or heat pumps
(powered by electricity) and is used to meet heating and cooling needs in the WWTP. Figure
16 shows a device of a mechanical compression cooler (heat pump) to recover heat from the
treated wastewater effluent.
191
C) Sludge
The sludge is a byproduct of wastewater treatment processes. Wastewater comprises a
mixture of organic and inorganic compounds, and associated water. The organic component
of the sludge displays a heat value of approximately 25 MJ/kg-dried solids (DS). Considering
the inert fraction in the sludge this value is reduced to 1620 MJ/kg-ds for raw sludge, or 10
14 MJ/kg-ds for digested sludge. These values can be considered the upper limits of energy
recoverable from the sludge.
Since sludge is initially a suspension, the large quantity of associated water makes it a
low-density energy source. Energy must be gathered from sludge before this energy can be
applied for useful purposes, meaning the sludge has a high entropy state. The sludge has
opposite characteristics to fossil fuels, which are a high-density energy source (up to
40MJ/kg-ds) in a low entropy state. The moisture in the sludge is bound with the solids phase
by a certain binding strength. This binding strength limits mechanical dewatering. The
wastewater sludge from the clarifiers has a solids fraction of 15%. The effective heat
value of this suspension is just 0.160.8 MJ/kg-sludge. This suspension is the feed for
anaerobic digestion treatment or wet air oxidation. Chemical conditioning followed by
mechanical dewatering are frequently applied to further remove any, such as drying,
incineration, or thermal pyrolysisxaxax (Lee and Tay, 2004).
Technologies for energy recovery from sludge include processes that produce various
energy products (Table 12). The most established process used is anaerobic digestion, with
the produced biogas.
Table 12. Energy recovery technologies from sludge
Technologies
Incineration
Wet Air Oxidation
Gasification
Pyrolysis
Anaerobic digestion
Procedure
Combustion of sludge
Oxidation at high temperatures and pressures
Converting sludge into gas fue
Gasification absence of oxygen
Is produced biogas
The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Combined Heat and Power Partnership
estimates that approximately 491 kWh of electricity can be produced with a microturbine and
525 kWh of electricity can be produced with an internal combustion engine for each 4.55 103
m3 (1MG) of wastewater treated at a plant with anaerobic digestion (Stillwell, 2010).
The energy recovery potential for wastewater treatment plants using biosolids
incineration with electricity generation is calculated using the Equation (1) below:
(1)
192
Figure 17. Potential energy recovery from biosolids incineration varies with the biosolids heating value,
, and increases with increasing wastewater flow.
193
above the audible range for humans. The application in wastewater treatment is very recent.
When introduced into a liquid, high-power ultrasound can produce a phenomenon known as
cavitation. Cavitation is the formation, growth, and rapid collapse through implosion of
micro-bubbles in a liquid. Implosion of these cavitation bubbles creates localized hot spots
with conditions similar to those on the sun, accompanied by increase of pressure and
temperature.
Figure 18. Pretreatment of the sludge with thermal hydrolysis (Beddow, 2010).
The energy demand of the ultrasound system is small, and does not require high
temperatures and pressures and the cost of equipment is relatively low because it requires
large tanks, high pressure equipment and additional heat management systems, such as
thermal hydrolysis (CH2M HILL, 2003).
Enzyme Addition
The treatment with addition of enzymes is a biological treatment process of the sludge
prior to anaerobic digestion. Hydrolytic enzymes act as biochemical catalysts in order to
improve the hydrolysis step, which is known to be a key factor for the performance of
anaerobic digestion. The addition of enzymes in anaerobic reactors leads to a more efficient
194
Figure 20. Pretreatment of the sludge with enzyme addition (Beddow, 2010).
ii) Incineration
Incineration of sewage sludge is aimed at a complete oxidation at high temperature of the
organic sludge compounds also including the toxic organic compounds. The process can
either be applied to mechanically dewatered sludge or dried sludge.
The energy produced in the incineration process can be used for the drying of the
mechanically dewatered sludge cake prior to the incineration process or can be used for the
production of electricity. Currently, sludge incineration processes are increasingly focused on
the recovery of energy from the sludge in the form of heat (steam) or electricity. The amount
of energy that can be obtained strongly depends upon the water content of the sludge and the
modification and performance of the incineration, mechanical dewatering, and drying
processes. Incineration of sludge is applied worldwide, currently, more and more in
combination with energy recovery. The process is mainly applied on a large scale (Rulkens,
2012).
The possibility of energy recovery from combustion of the sludge varies according to the
heating value of the sludge and increases with increasing of the flow of wastewater. The
amount of energy that can be recovered to a large extent depends on the water content of the
sludge and the type and efficiency of the incineration, mechanical dewatering and drying.
The heat generated by the combustion process of the sludge can be used either for
preheating the combustion air or for heating buildings or to meet the heating needs of other
processes of a WWTP, as the drying of sludge. The recovered heat can also be used to
generate electricity. In the latter case, the heat recovered from the combustion is used to
produce steam, which is fed to a steam turbine. The steam turbine coupled to a generator that
produces electricity. The electricity generated can either be used in the same WWTP reducing
the energy consumption of the network, either to be sold to the grid by reducing energy costs.
To enable reliable production of electricity without the use of auxiliary fuel required large
quantities of sludge, making the incineration suitable for application to WWTPs of medium
and large capacity (Stilwell et al., 2010).
195
(2)
Where ERanaerobic represents energy recovery from anaerobic digestion (kWh/d), Q represents
the wastewater flow rate (kg/d) and BEF represents the biogas energy factor (2.2x10-4
kWh/m3).
he BEF range from 0.0925 to 0.139 kWh/m3 for treated wastewater flows greater than
5x10-6 kg/d, as shown in Figure 21(Stilwell et al., 2010).
Figure 21. Potential energy recovery (kWh/d) from anaerobic digestion with biogas utilization varies
with the biogas energy factor (2.2x10-4 kWh/m3) nd increases with increasing wastewater flow
(Stilwell et al., 2010).
D) Biogas
Biogas, or digester gas, is a by-product of the anaerobic digestion process and generated
within the mesophilic temperature range. The main components of the biogas are Methane
(60-70%) and Carbon dioxide (30-40%). Nitrogen and Oxygen exist in very low
concentrations, up to 4 and 1%, respectively. Hydrogen sulphur, Chlorine and Fluor can be
found in trace amounts, yet they may impact the usability of the gas and therefore must be
controlled. The specialty of the biogas is its convertibility into electricity through combined
heat and power units (CHP) under economically feasible conditions. The produced biogas is
196
also a valuable source of energy with a calorific value ranging from 20 to 25 MJ/m3, or
approximately 6.5kWh/m3, corresponding to 60% of calorific value of natural gas.
Besides biogas, another important energy source in a WWTP is the waste heat from the
wastewater, which can be recycled for heating of the buildings. The dimension of the
available waste heat in a WWTP is so large that theoretically, 10% of the buildings delivering
wastewater to a plant can be provided with waste heat from the plant.
The significant methane content is that which makes the biogas suitable to be used as fuel
to produce energy. Biogas can be used for heat, electricity and fertilizer conditioner and after
treatment and upgrades can be fed into the natural gas grid and used as a transport fuel (urban
transport, agricultural machinery, etc.).
Depending on the case (according to the requirements and limitations of each site),
biogas can be used as fuel or outside of a WWTP or in the installation, to improve the energy
efficiency of the treatment process of wastewater.
Biogas production strongly depends upon the type of sludge and also the operating
conditions of the digester. The gas production from a mixture of primary and secondary
(biological) sludge roughly amounts to 1 m3 of biogas/kg of organic solids biodegraded. It is
also possible to digest sludge thermophilically at a temperature of about 55C. In comparison
to mesophilic digestion, thermophilic treatment has some advantages, such as a somewhat
higher biogas production, a higher destruction degree of pathogens, and a larger reduction in
the amount of organic solids. Also, the retention time of the sludge in the reactor can be
reduced (Rulkens, 2012).
Table 13. Biogas applications and manner of use of (NYSERDA, 2010)
Application
Manner of use of
Boilers
Sludge
incinerators
Drying units
Motorized
equipment
Power plants
Gas engines
Gas turbines
Fuel cells
Microturbines
Stirling engines
197
i) Use of Biogas
Biogas can be used in a multitude of applications, depending on the demand for a
particular form of energy in a wastewater treatment plant. It is therefore important for a
WWTP that is producing biogas to pursue the collection and utilization of the energy content,
rather than simply burning in flares up, application that not only provides no net energy value,
but also contributes to the greenhouse effect (NYSERDA, 2010).
Biogas can be used:
In direct combustion systems (boilers, turbines, fuel cells) for space heating, water
heating, drying, cooling and absorption to produce steam.
Moreover, the biogas for direct use in turbines and fuel cells can produce electricity.
An alternative use of biogas is its use in still or moving internal combustion engines
for work and/or electricity generation.
Electricity
generation
Fuel
(Chemical energy)
Fuel Cells
As fuel hydrogen can be used that can be produced by the same biogas, or the methane recovered
from the biogas
In principle, a fuel cell operates like a battery. Unlike a battery, a fuel cell does not run
down or require recharging. It will produce energy in the form of electricity and heat as long
as fuel is supplied. The fuel cell contains an anode and a cathode with an electrolyte
sandwiched between them, separating the two. Hydrogen is supplied into the anode and
oxygen into the cathode (Figure 22). The two gases want to join but are prevented from doing
so by the electrolyte which causes the hydrogen to split into a proton and an electron. The
proton passes freely through the electrolyte whilst the electron is forced to take a different
198
route around it, creating an electric current before re-combining with the proton to make
hydrogen again and combining with oxygen through a catalyst, creating a molecule of water.
More specifically, Hydrogen (H2) and air or oxygen (O2) flow over the electrode and are
converted into water (H2O) and heat while generating energy. Hydrogen is routed to the
anode where it splits into one proton and electrons (e) on the catalyst layer. The proton (H+)
passes through the completely gas-tight membrane. The electrons, in the form of useful
electric energy, are routed back to the cathode via a consumer. On the second catalyst layer
on the cathode side, the proton reacts with the oxygen from the air to form water, the only byproduct.
Fuel cells also operate on renewable gases such as syngas from waste, biogas, waste gas
from sewage treatment, or other biogases. Renewable gases are rich in hydrogen and can be
provided with dual fuel options (renewable gas and natural gas) to ensure continuity of supply
at full power and to take advantage of renewable gases in the future.
Since fuel cells generate energy by an electro-chemical reaction there is no combustion
and no noxious emissions. Therefore, no flue is required, the only emissions being water.
(http://students.chem.tue.nl/ifp10/project/fuel_cells.htm, 2012; Christou, 2010). A simple fuel
cell produces about 0.7 Volt. In order to produce larger (and practically usable) trends used
more cells in series, the so-called fuel cell stacks (Christou, 2010).
199
Solar photovoltaics have long been argued to be a sustainable energy source. By the end
of 2011, a total of 67.4 GW had been installed, sufficient to generate 85 TWh/year. Solar
photovoltaics belong to the category of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and are now, after
hydro and wind power, the third most important renewable energy source in terms of globally
installed capacity. More than 100 countries use solar PV. Installations may be groundmounted (and sometimes integrated with farming and grazing) or built into the roof or walls
of a building (either building-integrated photovoltaics or simply rooftop) (EPA, 2006).
The basic characteristics of photovoltaic systems, which differentiate them from other
forms of renewable energy, are:
Direct production of electricity, even in very small scale, e.g. several tens of W or
mW;
Ease of use. Small systems can be installed by users themselves;
Can be installed in cities, incorporated into buildings and not offend the aesthetic
environment;
Can be combined with other energy sources (hybrid systems);
They operate silently; emit no emissions, no environmental impact;
Maintenance requirements are almost zero;
Have a long life and reliability during operation. The guarantees given by their
manufacturers for PV generators are more than 25 years of good operation.
The user's energy independence is the biggest advantage of PV systems. The cost of
electricity produced by photovoltaic systems today is comparable to the cost of peak power,
charged by the electricity company clients (CRES, 2012).
200
Photovoltaic arrays are often used in the production of energy on a large scale.
Generating electricity from the sun is extremely predictable. What matters is how many
kilowatt systems will provide annually. In general, a photovoltaic system in Greece produces
an annual average of around 1150-1450 kWh per installed kilowatt (KWh/KWp per year).
Obviously in the southern and sunniest areas of the country photovoltaic solar electricity
produces more than the northern. The installation of photovoltaic systems in neighboring area
adjustment to the wastewater treatment plant could help both in energy saving in the plant and
the possibility of profits from this.
Table 15. Guaranteed sales price (per kWh) in Greece
(http://www.pryovolos.gr/faq.php, 2012)
Date of signing the contract
settlement.
February 2012
August 2012
February 2013
August 2013
February 2014
August 2014
February 2015
August 2015
CONCLUSION
The processes of aeration and pumping of the liquids, the dewatering of sludge and the
UV system, consume the most energy in a wastewater treatment plant. The fraction of the
energy used in aeration systems, ranges from 25 to 60% of the total energy use in a
wastewater treatment plant. Also, the process of disinfection in tertiary treatment of
wastewater corresponds to 10-25% of the total use of energy in a wastewater treatment plant.
The energy optimization of a wastewater treatment plant can be achieved through good
energy management, through implantation of energy saving measures and enhancing the
production of the energy required by alterative or renewable sources, without compromising
the efficiency of treatment processes. The last one, based on the fact that the wastewater
treatment plant has an important energy source: wastewater itself, while the chemical energy
contained in wastewater, based on the chemical oxygen demand (COD), is approximately
equal to 36 kWh/kg COD.
REFERENCES
Antakyali D., Rolle R. (2010). Energetic aspects regarding sewage and sludge treatment
process of wastewater treatment plants. International Sustainable Water and Wastewater
Management Symposium, 26-28 October 2010 Konya/Turkey.
201
Aslanidou S. (2007) Iron trichloride (FeCl3) as curing agent for the removal of hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) from raw wastewater. Department of Natural Resources and Environment,
Technological Educational Institute of Crete, Diploma Thesis, Chania.
Beddow V. (2010). Sludge Reduction: Technology integrated in the sludge handing units.
IWA Water Wiki. www.iwawaterwiki.org/.
Bilad M. R, Mezohegyi G., Declerck P.,. Vankelecom I.F.J. (2012)Novel magnetically
induced membrane vibration (MMV) for fouling control in membrane bioreactors.
Water research 46, 63-72.
CH2M HILL, Itron, Commonwealth Energy Biogas/PV Mini-Grid Renewable Resources
Program - Making Renewable Part of an Affordable and Diverse Electric System in
California. Process selection report for wastewater treatment plants, Project No 2.2
Enhanced energy recovery through optimization of anaerobic digestion and
microturbines. Science Applications, 2003.
Chang Y., Reardon D. J., Kwan P., Boyd G., Brant J. (2008). Evaluation of Dynamic Energy
Consumption of Advanced Water and Wastewater Treatment Technologies. Awwa
Research Foundation, Denver.
Christou S. P. (2010). "Analysis of a combined cycle fuel cell and micro-turbines using natural
gas". Diploma Thesis, School of Mechanical Engineering, National Technical University
of Athens, Athens.
Cicek N. (2003) A review of membrane bioreactors and their potential application in the
treatment of agricultural wastewater. Biosystems Engineering, University of Manitoba,
Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3T 5V6.
Cox S. Attention to Aeration, Water & Wastes Digest', (28/6/2012) Available from: URL:
http://www.wwdmag.com/flowmeters/attention-aeration.
CRES,
Photovoltaic
Systems,
(30/6/2012)
Available
from:
URL:
http://www.cres.gr/kape/energeia_politis/energeia_politis_photovol.htm.
EPRI, Energy Audit Manual for Water/Wastewater Facilities, July 1994,
http://www.cee1.org/ind/mot-sys/ww/epri-audit.
Federation of Canadian Municipalities and National Research Council, (2003). Wastewater
Treatment Plant Optimization, Issue No. 1.0.
Ferrero G, H. Moncls, G. Buttiglieri, J. Comas, Rodriguez-Roda I. (2011) Automatic
control system for energy optimization in membrane bioreactors. Desalination 268,
276280.
Fillmore L. (2008) Sustainability Is More Than A Buzzword For Wastewater Treatment,
Water Online (www.wateronline.com) newsletter (08/12/2008).
FuMA-Tech, The principle of fuel cells, (11/12/2012) Available from: URL:
http://www.fumatech.com/EN/Fuel-cells/Principle-of-fuel-cells/.
Gil J.A., Ta L., Rueda A., Montao B., Rodrguez M., Prats D. (2010). Monitoring and
analysis of the energy cost of an MBR. Desalination 250 9971001.
Hendrickx TLG, Wang Y, Kampman C, Zeeman G, Temmink H, Buisman CJN. (2012)
Autotrophic nitrogen removal from low strength waste water at low temperature. Water
Research, 46(7) 2187-2193 and Wageningen University | Environmental Technology |
Fall 2012.
HUBER SE Technology, Waste Water Solutions, Energy Consumption of Wastewater
Treatment Plants, (27/5/2012) Available from: URL: http://www.huber.de/solutions
/energy.
202
Isacu M., Mirel I. (2012). Strategies for improving the energy efficiency of the wastewater
treatment plants in the populated centers, Scientific Bulletin of the University
"Politehnica" of Timisoara, Timasora, Romania.
Jianga T., Zhanga H., Gaob D., Donga F., Gaoa J., Yang F. (2012). Fouling characteristics
of a novel rotating tubular membrane bioreactor. Chemical Engineering and Processing
62, 3946.
Kalogiannaki K. (2010). "Wastewater Treatment with microalgae", Department of Crop
Production, Faculty of Agricultural Technology, TEI of Crete, Heraklion .
Kapreli A., (2011)."Presentation saving energy and recovery methods in waste water
treatment plants and power consumption comparing two treatment plants", Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thesis, Thessaloniki .
Katerinopoulos F. (2007). "Small hydroelectric projects: technology, process design and
applications," Diploma thesis, National Technical University, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Athens.
Kippax V. (2011), MemPulse MBR system vs Traditional MBR system, Asia/Pasific
region, for Siemens Ltd. Astralias Water Technologies Business Unit, June 2011.
Kraume M., Bracklow U, Vocks M., Drews A. (2005) Nutrients Removal in MBRs for
Municipal Wastewater Treatment. Wat. Sci. Tech. 51,391-402, presented at IWA Spec.
Conference WEMT 2004 June 7-10, 2004, Seoul.
Lee D.J., Tay J.H. (2004). Energy Recovery in Sludge Management Processes. Journal of
Residuals Science & Technology, Vol. 1, No. 2.
Leverenz H., Tchobanoglous G.,(2009). Satellite systems for enhanced wastewater
management in urban areas, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of California at Davis, Water Environment Federation.
Leverenz H., Tchobanoglous Gikas P. (2010) Impacts of new concepts and technology on
sustainable development, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering,
University of California at Davis, Water Environment Federation.
Malcolm Pirnie, (2005) Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Energy Evaluation for Ithaca
Area Wastewater Treatment Facility, The New York State Energy Research and
Development Authority, Albany, NY.
Metcalf & Eddy, (2007). Mechanical wastewater treatment and reuse., Tziolas Editions,
Athens.
MJ Industrial Solutions, (2003). Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plant Energy Baseline
Study, Pacific Gas &Electric Company Constructions Energy Management Program.
Moussas P.A., Tzoupanos N.D., Zouboulis A.I. (2011). Advances in
coagulation/flocculation field: Al- and Fe based composite coagulation regents.
Desalination and Water Treatment 33, 140-146.
Moussas P.A., Zouboulis A.I. (2008). A study on the properties and coagulation behavior of
modified inorganic polymeric coagulant-Polyferric silicate sulphate (PFSiS). Separation
and Purificate Technology 63, 475-483.
Moussas P.A., Zouboulis A.I. (2012). Synthesis, Characterisation and coagulation behavior
of a composite coagulation reagent by the combination of Polyferric Sulphate (PFS) and
cationic polyelectrolyte. Separation and Purification Technology, 96 (21), 263-273.
Muga H. E., Mihelcic J. R. (2008). Sustainability of wastewater treatment technologies,
Journal of Environmental Management 88, 437447.
203
New York State Energy Research & Development Authority, NYSERDA, Water and
Wastewater Energy Management - Best Practices Handbook, 2010.
Ntarakas E. (2011). Sludge Management & Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus,
Department of Civil Engineering, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki.
Ntarakas E., Disinfection of Wastewater, (22/6/2012) Available from: URL:
http://users.auth.gr/darakas/21Apolymansi.pdf.
zerol G., Gnther D. (2005) The Role of Socio-Economic Indicators for the assessment of
Wastewater reuse in the Mediterranean, in Hamdy A. (ed.), El Gamal F. (ed.),
Lamaddalena N. (ed.), Bogliotti C. (ed.), Guelloubi R. (ed.).pp. 169-178.
Non-conventional water use: WASAMED project Papazoglou N. (2010). "Biological
treatment in Greece", Department of Geotechnology and Environment, TEI of Western
Macedonia, Thesis, Kozani.
Parr J., Smith M., Shaw R. (1999). Wastewater Treatment Options, Water and
Environmental Health at London and Loughborough (WELL). www.lboro.ac.uk/well.
Petala M., V. Tsiridis, P. Samaras*, Zouboulis A. and Sakellaropoulos G.P. (2006),
Wastewater reclamation by advanced treatment of secondary influents. Desalination,
195, 109-118.
PG&E, (2002). Energy Benchmarking Secondary Wastewater Treatment and Ultraviolet
Disinfection Processes at Various Municipal Wastewater Treatment Facilities, Pacific
Gas and Electric Company, San Francisco.
Photovoltaic Systems, (11/12/2012) Available from: URL: http://el.wikipedia.org/.
Photovoltaic Systems, (30/6/2012) Available from: URL: http://producegreenenergy.
blogspot.gr/p/blog-page.html.
Principle of fuel cells, (11/12/2012) Available from: URL: http://students.chem.tue.nl
/ifp10/project.
Pryovolos Technique LP, Guaranteed sales price per kWh, (30/6/2012) Available from:
URL: http://www.pryovolos.gr/faq.php.
Radjenovi J., Matoi M, Mijatovi I., Petrovi M., Barcel D. (2008). Membrane
Bioreactor (MBR) as an Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technology. Hdb Env. Chem
Vol. 5, Part S/2, 37101 DOI 10.1007/698-5-093, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg.
Rulkens W. (2008). Sewage Sludge as a Biomass Resource for the Production of Energy:
Overview and Assessment of the Various Options. Energy & Fuels, 22, 915.
SAIC (Science Applications International Corporation), Case studies in Residual Use and
Energy Conservation at Wastewater Treatment Plants, Interagency Energy and
Environmental Research Report, 1995.
SAIC (Science Applications International Corporation), Water and Wastewater Energy Best
Practice Guidebook, Interagency Energy and Environmental Research Report, 2006.
Smith J. E., Dassanayake C. (2010) Energy Conservation and Recovery in Wastewater
Treatment Facilities, OWEA 2010 Biosolids Specialty WorkshopUniversity Plaza
Hotel & Conference, Columbus, Ohio.
Stamou A.I., Vogiatzis G. (1986)."Principles and Design of Wastewater Treatment Systems",
Version Technical Chamber of Greece, Athens.
Stillwell A. S., Hoppock D. C and Webber M. E. (2010). Energy Recovery from Wastewater
Treatment Plants in the United States: A Case Study of the Energy-Water Nexus, ISSN
2071-1050, Sustainability 2, 945-962; doi: 10.3390/su2040945.
204
205
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 12
ABSTRACT
The efficiency of the energy is the center of all strategies for smart and sustainable
growth, and also for the transition to a resource - efficient economy. The increasing
concern about energy consumption, the environmental impact of energy activities and the
threat of global climate changes have further emphasized the importance of using energy
more efficiently. In order to offer a better understanding of the sustainable energy
development, this article analyses the three pillars together: society, the economy and
the environment. Besides the analysis in this area, the article presents an innovative
technology, trying to provide society - affordable energy and with environmental
responsibility.
diana.pociovalisteanu@gmail.com
janina.popeanga@yahoo.com
walter.leal@ls.haw-hamburg.de
208
security and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Therefore, it is essential to improve our
knowledge about the costs and benefits of energy efficiency policy measures and of the many
technical and market factors that determine energy use in all countries. This is an effort which
is indispensable in order to develop effective energy efficiency policies, and the best possible
use is made of public and private resources invested in energy efficiency improvement.
The sectorial distribution of global energy demand has changed since the early 1970s.
Substantial reductions in oil consumption occurred after the oil price hikes of 1973 and 1979.
The rapid increase in oil prices triggered technical improvements in energy efficiency that are
still being felt as new, more efficient equipment replacing the existing stock. Annual energy
demand increased by less than 1% between 1973 and 1988. Since the mid of 1980s, price
signals have weakened and economic growth has been stronger. The largest increase in global
energy demand occurred in the transport sector (4% per year). Energy demand in the
commercial and public service sectors, as well as in industry, grew by 2-3 % per year.
Compared with these trends, the growth of energy demand in the residential sector was rather
modest: less than 1% per year.
Between 1990 and 2005 global final energy use increased by 23%, while the associated
CO2 emissions rose by 25%. Electricity consumption is growing rapidly in many countries, its
global use increased by 54% between 1990 and 2005. Globally, energy consumption grew
most quickly in the transport and service sectors, both sectors showing an increase of 37%.
These increases were driven by rising passenger travel and freight transport and a rapid
expansion in the service economy. Oil products remained the most important final energy
commodity with a global share of 37% in 2005, driven by their use in transport. (IEA, 2008)
209
210
In establishing the commission, the General Assembly explicitly called attention to two
important ideas:
the well-being of the environment, of the economies and of the people is inextricably
linked;
sustainable development involves co-operation on a global scale.
SOCIAL
(4)
(5)
(3)
(6)
ECONOMIC
ENVIRONMENTAL
(2)
(1)
211
4. ENVIRONMENT-ECONOMY INTERACTIONS
The effects of economic activity on the environmental dimension have been analyzed for
a long time. The conclusion is that economic activities and related policies have positive and
negative effects on environmental issues and performance. Economic growth implies use of
energy, of natural resources, as well as pollutant discharges and waste production. The effects
on environment depend on production and consumption patterns and are influenced by the
behavior of companies and of the public, and not last, by government interventions. The
technologies also play an important role in the interaction between economy and
environment. Economic growth provides opportunities to finance environmental protection
expenditure with potential benefits in the form of cleaner and less resource intensive
technologies and the production of environmentally friendly goods. On the other side, the
environment provides a number of productive and other services, including natural resources,
while environmental policies and related instruments may have economic implications.
Changes in environmental conditions affect the economy through changes in the quality and
quantity of available natural resources. This is relevant for the sensitive sectors such as
agriculture, forestry and tourism, but also for sectors relaying on the use of natural resources
(mining sector).
5. ENVIRONMENT-SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
The interaction between the environment and social dimensions are complex, many of the
links are obvious and have long been recognized, while other are more difficult to observe
directly and need to be further explored. The degradation of the environment has many
negative social effects, including the effects on health that impose high costs on the society.
The provision of equitable access to the natural resources and to the environmental goods and
services is an issue in the countries that are facing problems of rural and urban poverty. The
environmental policies and the related economic instruments, such as taxes, prices, may have
side effects that are unevenly distributed among population and income groups, including
direct or indirect effects on employment. Contrary, the social conditions and behaviors shape
environmental conditions and policies. The movement of the population, the changes in
demographic structure (ageing, migration between and within countries), the population
growth or decrease may have major environmental consequences. Education and training,
awareness and consumer habits are important elements, as are features of social
organizations, institutional arrangements and legal frameworks. The availability and access to
environmental information, opportunities for participation and partnerships of individuals,
companies, and the capacity to have access to courts are important preconditions for
triggering integrated, proactive approaches to environmental management and sustainable
development.
212
6. ECONOMIC-SOCIAL INTERACTIONS
The interactions between economic and social dimensions have long been recognized.
Many social factors (consumer behavior and household consumption patterns, number of
households, time for leisure pursuits, disposable income levels) act as driving forces behind
economic growth and related sectorial trends and patterns. The provision of human inputs to
economic activities is an essential element of a countrys economy. The social rules, attitude
and institutions affect the market, too. Social policies and related instruments are closely
interwoven with economic processes and markets. The economic processes affect society,
also, at large, providing the foundation for greater prosperity but also affecting the
distribution of economic benefits between the members of the society, individuals, and hence
social conditions (cohesion, equity, well-being). The current life style puts pressure on
resources and environmental systems, so the sustainable development has become an issue of
fundamental importance and urgency that requires immediate action.
Conceiving these different forms of capital as inputs into the production of well-being
allows us to calculate national wealth as the sum of the different kinds of capital. Sustainable
213
development requires to make sure that national wealth per capita does not decline over time
and, when possible, that it increases.
217
According to Berg Insight, by 2016 there will be 602.7 million smart meters installed
worldwide. This represents a compound annual growth rate of 26.6% between 2010 and 2016.
Smart meter penetration rates should reach by 2016 50% in Europe and the U.S., and 75% in
Asia. By 2020 it is expected that the penetration rate in most developed countries will be
100% with several processes running in India and developed countries in South America.
CONCLUSION
In order to teach future generations to avoid some of the problems we are struggling to
solve today, they must continue making better and more sustainable choices. This message is
passed on from parents, through the media and increasingly in school: UNESCO declared
2005-2014 the Decade of Education for Sustainable Development. Nations from Australia
to France, from Chile to China, have included environmental concepts in their national
curricula and are building eco-schools to ensure that younger generations meet the future with
some of the tools they need to carry these ideas forward. But teaching children the complex
concepts of sustainable development interdependency, interdisciplinary thinking,
intergenerational needs is proving way more difficult.
The evolution of energy, technology and the human progress it enables will continue and
being informed enables all of us to make better decisions about the future of our energy.
We owe it to future generations to put mechanisms in place to achieve sustainability:
nations can start enforcing emissions quotas and trading, to make each ton of CO2 more
expensive to emit, while at the same time developing and sharing alternatives for energy. It is
important not to forget that we also owe it to ourselves: many of the consequences may seem
like they are in the indefinite future, but that may be much sooner than we would like. Ageing
populations, increasing poverty, stronger hurricanes, more frequent heat waves, increasing
flooding the evidence suggests that these are no longer projections: the future is now.
(Strange Tracey, Bayley Anne, 2008)
REFERENCES
Delakowitz, B. (2008). Global Energy Demand and Climate Change, presentation within the
BUP summer course, HAW Hamburg, Germany.
Dimas S. (2009). Speech at Green Week: Climate change act and adapt, Towards a New
Climate Change Deal, June, 23, 2009.
Global Smart Grid Federation, http://www.globalsmartgridfederation.org/smartgriddef.html,
September 2012.
Globe-net, (2011). http://www.globe-net.com/articles/2011/april/4/smart-grid-is-the-key-tosustainable-energy-future-iea/
IEA, (2008). http://www.iea.org/publications/freepublications/publication/Indicators_20081.pdf.
International Energy Agency (1991).Energy Efficiency and the Environment, Energy and
Environment Series, OCDE/IEA, Paris, France.
International Energy Agency (2009), CO2 Emissions from fuel combustion, IEA, France.
218
Office of the National Coordinator for Smart Grid Interoperability, NIST Framework and
Roadmap for Smart Grid Interoperability Standards, Release 1.0, NIST, 2009.
Pociovliteanu, D-M., Thalassinos, E., rc, A., Leal F. (2010).Trends and challenges in the
energy sector of Romania in the post-accession to the European Union, International
Journal of Environmental Technology and Management, Vol.12, No.1, 3 15.
Popeang J. (2012). Cloud Computing and Smart Grids. Database System Journal, vol. III,
no. 3/2012, http://www.dbjournal.ro/archive/9/9_6.pdf.
Popeang J. (2013). Monitoring and improving energy efficiency using smart metering
technology, paper presented at IE 2013 International Conference, Bucharest.
Robert W.K., Parris M.T., and Leiserowitz A.A. (2005), What is Sustainable Development?
Goals, Indicators, Values, and Practice. Environment: Science and Policy for
Sustainable Development, Volume 47, Number 3, 821.
Schumann, Stephanie, Leal, Walter, Delakowitz, Bernd (2009). The Role Of Renewable
Energy In Addressing The Challenge Of Climate Change, paper presented at
International Scientific Session: Creativity and Efficiency in Education, Tg-Jiu, Romania.
Tracey, S., Bayley A. (2008). Sustainable Development. Linking economy, society,
environment, OCDE Insights, France.
World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), (1987). Report of the World
Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, New York:
Oxford University Press.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 13
ABSTRACT
The present chapter focuses on the current status and perspectives of anaerobic
digestion and biogas utilization in Greece. An overview is provided regarding the biogas
potential through the assessment of existing biogas installations and agricultural
structures, the technical review of the waste material utilization, the potential feedstock
availability estimation for biogas production and biogas purification for natural gas grid.
1. INTRODUCTION
Fifteen biogas plants are currently (2011) operating in Greece (Table 1). The utilization
of biogas mainly covers heat demand of plants. The installed capacity of electricity generation
from biogas was 37.4 MW and the gross electricity generation reached to 155.9 GWh. Most
energy was produced in the area of Athens due to the operation of the Wastewater Treatment
Plant (WTP) of Psytallia and the landfill (LF) of Ano Liosia, which treat liquid and solid
wastes respectively (CRES, 2009). Biogas can be produced from nearly all kinds of organic
materials. Nowadays in Europe, there are numerous biogas facilities at existing wastewater
treatment plants, landfill gas installations, and industrial biowaste processing facilities.
However, the largest volume of produced biogas will, by 2020, originate from farm wastes
Email: makis@aix.meng.auth.gr.
220
and from large codigestion biogas plants, integrated into the farming and food processing
structures (Nielsen and Oleskowicz Popiel, 2007).
Table 1. Biogas plants in Greece
Municipality/Location
Thessaloniki
Thessaloniki/Tagarades
Echedoros
Alexandroupolis
Chania
Heraklion
Piraeus/Psytalia
Metamorphosi
Typology of
plant/Industry name
WTP
LF
ZANAE
WTP
WTP
WTP
WTP
WTP
Municipality
Larissa
Volos
Chalkida
Patra
Rhodes
Agios Stefanos
Ano Losia
Typology of
plant/Industry name
WTP
WTP
WTP
WTP
WTP
Tasty Foods AVGE
LF
In Greece the picture is quite different as the produced biogas derives mainly from
landfills, wastewater treatment plants and a handfull of industrial applications. Although
Greece has a promising potential of organic wastes and especially animal manure, currently
there is no farm scale biogas plant. Nevertheless, in the framework of the calls for permits to
generate electricity by Independent Power Producers (IPPs) by the Hellenic Regulation
Authority for Energy (RAE) most applications cover landfill plants and municipal WTP
(RAE). 37 MW are already installed, while future projects for another 12 MW from biogas
plants have already received permits for power production from RAE (Table 2).
Table 2. Biogas projects that have received production permit from RAE (2007)
Location
Xanthi
Volos
Larissa
Permit number
0310
0805
0841
Fuel
Municipal solid waste
Landfill gas
Sewage treatment biogas
Athens Water Supply and Sewage Company (EYDAP SA) announced the expansion of
the biogas plant of Psytallia WTP by 4.25 MW and two new biogas projects namely a new
Combined Head and Power (CHP) plant in the Metamorfosi cesspit WTP and a CHP plant in
the new WTP of West AtticaThriasio (0.19 MW). Furthermore, the Municipal Water Supply
and Sewerage Company of Larissa (DEYAL) had requested a permit from RAE (October
2007) for a new biogas plant in the landfill of Makrychori (Parapotamos site).
221
The produced municipal solid waste is disposed in landfill where organic matter is
decomposed producing landfill gas. Thus, utilizing landfill gas is one of the most attractive
systems for electricity and heat production and is already a well established technology in
Greece. Furthermore, biogas coming from the anaerobic digestion of wastewater sludge has
been utilized for energy production.
Waste Management in Greece has improved the last decade in terms of collection,
recycling and facility development. The total quantity of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in
Greece increased rapidly over the last decade, from 3.2 million t in 1995 to 4.447 million t in
2000 and to 4.710 million t in 2003. It is estimated that during 2006 the waste production
come up to approx. 5 million t. Landfilling is still the predominant option (over 90% of the
MSW generated is still landfilled).
Join Ministerial Decision 50910/2727/03 repeated the commitments of the Greek state to
close down all illegal landfills by the end of 2008 and to reduce the biodegradable MSW that
is landfilled to 35% by 2020. Intermediate targets are: 75% (2010) and 50% (2013). The
targets will be achieved through the operation of recycling and composting facilities in almost
all regions of the country as well as through the full operation of the separate collection
systems for selected waste streams. It is worth mentioning that there is no specific source
separation for the organic fraction of MSW and thus there is no facility processing such a
stream.
Wastewater treatment in all parts of Europe has improved significantly since the 1980s.
The actions in this area are based on the requirements of Directive 91/271/EC. Significant
progress has been made in wastewater management and in 2006 the population covered by
WTPs was about 74% of the total population. According to the Greek Ministry of
Environment, WTP would serve almost 90% of the Greek population by 2008 and 151 new
WTP should be constructed all over Greece.
Biogas production from various sources of industrial waste emerges as an attractive
alternative for the Greek industrial sector too. In some cases (eg. food industry), the available
feedstock contains high amounts of easily biodegradable organic compounds, so they can be
used for biogas production. In this way anaerobic digestion can be considered more as an
energy production method than as a treatment one.
In Greece, sheep, goat and lamb breeding represent the highest percentage of livestock
operations, performed in a decentralized way. The largest portion of Greek livestock farming
is extensive where the produced manure is spread on the grazing land (Chatziathanasiou and
Boukis, 2000). Taking into account that the livestock farming is extensive, the potential users
of biogas production are mainly livestock units and especially medium and large ones.
Greece has a huge potential of cattle biomass. The annual energy that could be produced
from animal waste is and is calculated to be 357 MWel from 17,300,000 t of animal waste. It
is calculated that up to 5 MWel could be generated every year from 287,000 t of cheese dairy
waste, 28 MWel from 205,000 t of slaughter waste, 37 MWel from 2,268,000 t of pig farm
waste and finally, 287 MWel from dairy farms that produce 14,540,800 t. Thus, beef cattle
comprise the biggest producer of waste in cattle breeding sector and their treatment for biogas
recovery from seems to be a very interest solution.
222
Region
Crete
Epirus
Ionian Islands
North Aegean
Peloponnese
South Aegean
Agricultural waste may be used for energy production with a large portion of them also
suitable for biogas production. The total agricultural waste defines the theoretical
availability. Not all this waste is technically available. The residue from the annual (maize,
cotton, cereals) and perennial (olives, vineyards) crops are the main categories of the
agricultural residues in Greece. A portion of these residues can be used for energy purposes in
general and some of them for biogas production (calculated as theoretical availability)
(Table 4).
Table 4. Agricultural waste from primary production
Region
Central Macedonia
East Macedonia Thrace
Thessaly
Central Greece
Peloponnese
Western Greece
Western Macedonia
Crete
794-1,041
Attica
11-268
794-1,041
526-793
269-525
269-525
269-525
Epirus
Ionian Islands
North Aegean
South Aegean
11-268
11-268
11-268
11-268
Region
The residues production per Ha is based on the literature and on the data registered at
Eurostat (Apostolakis et al., 1987). The manure was estimated taking into consideration the
different types and weight of cattle and the manure specific production per animal and year
(Table 5).
223
Manure (m3/y)
1,284,347-1,592,974
975,719-1,284,346
667,090-975,718
358,464-667,091
358,464-667,091
358,464-667,091
49,836-358,463
Region
Central Greece
Crete
Ionian Islands
North Aegean
Peloponnese
South Aegean
Manure (m3/y)
49,836-358,463
49,836-358,463
49,836-358,463
49,836-358,463
49,836-358,463
49,836-358,463
Based on data concerning the population and the tourism in Greece and the average
production of domestic solid waste (1.14 kg/residence/day for the year 2001 based on JMD
50910/2727/23.12.2003) and tourists (roughly assumed the same waste production) and the
proportion of food wastes (47% for the year 2001 based on JMD 50910/2727/23.12.2003)
tables 6 and 7 present the organic MSW and sewage sludge waste respectively.
Table 6. Organic municipal solid waste production
Region
Attica
Central Macedonia
Thessaly
Western Greece
Peloponnese
Crete
East Macedonia - Thrace
Region
Central Greece
Epirus
Ionian Islands
North Aegean
South Aegean
Western Macedonia
Region
Central Greece
Epirus
Ionian Islands
North Aegean
South Aegean
Western Macedonia
The assessment of the biogas potential production is based on the assumption that the
biogas plants will be mainly developed firstly based on organic wastes and then on energy
crops. Greece seems to have a large potential for biogas production in terms of agricultural
waste (primary and secondary) and landfill gas.
As far as the agricultural structure is concerned, data for Greece are based mainly on the
Agricultural livestock census 1999/2000 and Agricultural - Livestock Survey 2006. The
main results based on the agricultural livestock census 1999/2000 are the following:
224
Region
East Macedonia and
Thrace
Central Macedonia
West Macedonia
Thessaly
Epirus
Ionian islands
Western Greece
Central Greece
Peloponnese
Attica
North Aegean
South Aegean
Crete
Total
1-2
3-5
6-9
10-19
20-29
30-49
50
Total
1,120
1,215
732
728
312
350
596
5,053
582
354
460
216
144
366
168
306
30
170
435
112
4,463
720
420
225
156
118
236
162
256
18
252
584
69
4,431
540
320
159
105
56
141
0
150
14
168
435
24
2,844
819
516
186
153
80
279
88
172
20
210
468
40
3,759
462
252
132
89
32
168
51
64
5
96
152
12
1,827
570
196
207
182
26
221
80
69
12
60
99
18
2,090
1,273
262
735
426
23
392
153
72
16
23
45
7
4,023
4,966
2,320
2,104
1,327
479
1,803
702
1,089
115
979
2,218
282
23,437
Table 9. Facilities with pigs by region broken down by size classes (2006)
Region
East Macedonia
and Thrace
Central
Macedonia
West Macedonia
Thessaly
Epirus
Ionian islands
Western Greece
Central Greece
Peloponnese
Attica
North Aegean
South Aegean
Crete
Total
1-2
3-9
10-19
20-29
30-49
50-99
100
Total
1,194
404
66
60
36
66
1,826
1,330
480
225
212
72
112
2,431
2,484
3,333
531
384
4,270
2,660
1,510
152
1,413
1,392
2,144
34,721
639
606
164
240
1,428
624
405
84
504
640
516
22,797
166
132
46
0
460
240
128
28
160
272
231
6,734
0
80
18
16
183
0
48
8
48
98
204
2,088
33
100
23
6
208
45
36
14
30
76
0
981
25
104
18
14
182
36
24
10
18
43
54
631
25
238
79
11
127
68
40
22
3
8
55
636
3,372
4,593
879
671
6,858
3,673
2,191
318
2,176
2,529
3,204
854
225
The livestock was dominated by sheeps and goats (119,355 holdings with 9,031,645
heads and 123,348 facilities with 4,986,423 heads respectively). There were also
23,437 facilities with 684,057 heads of cattle and 34,721 facilities with 1,055,057
heads of pigs.
There were 1,273 facilities in Central Macedonia with more than 50 cattle and in
Thessaly there were 735 facilities with more than 50 cattle. At the same time there
were 238 facilities and 127 facilities with more than 100 pigs in Thessaly and in
Western Greece respectively (Tables 8 and 9).
The central gas transportation pipeline (599 km) which extends from Promachonas to
Attica and from Thessaloniki to Kipoi.
Transportation branches (566 km) linking the various regions of the country (Eastern
Macedonia and Thrace, Thessalonici, Platy in Imathia, Volos, Viotia, Inofyta,
Attica). With the completion of the Korinthos project by the autumn of 2007 the
transmission branches extend 600 km. In 2007 branches towards Western Thessaly
and Evia had begun (119 km).
The natural gas metering and regulating stations.
The gas control and dispatching center.
The operation and maintenance centres (in Attica, Thessaloniki, Thessaly and
Xanthi).
Natural Gas enters Greece via high-pressure pipelines. Their course continues through
medium-pressure networks (19 bar) that deliver gas to industrial consumers, but also through
low-pressure networks (4 bars) that provide door-to-door gas to domestic, commercial and
industrial consumers. The pipeline that crosses the Greek-Bulgarian border has a diameter of
28-inch and then connects to the Greek North-South central pipeline (Greek-Bulgarian border
to Attica) which is a high-pressure pipeline (70 bar) with a diameter of 28-inch too (Ministry
of Development, 2007). The 87 km long between Komotini, Alexandroupoli and Kipoi and
the transportation branches linking the various regions of the country consist of high pressure
pipelines. Medium pressure networks have been developed and are still being developed in
Attica, Thessaloniki, Larissa, Volos, Inofyta, Thiva, the greater of Halkida, Lamia, Platy in
Imathia, Kilkis, Serres, Drama, Xanthi, Kavala. Alexandroupoli and Komotini. Low pressure
networks have been developed and are still being installed in Attica, Thessaloniki, Larissa,
Volos, Inofyta, Kilkis, Xanthi and Komotini. Medium and low pressure networks are
226
expanding in areas like Central Greece and Evia, Eastern Macedonia and Thrace and Central
Macedonia by the DEPA.
The Ministerial Decision 1227/2007 "On the determination of the procedure for the
conclusion, content and terms of agreements for the exercise of the right to access and for the
use of the National Natural Gas System" (Official Gazette 135/B/5.02.2007) determines the
content, the terms and the procedure for the conclusion of agreements for the transfer of
natural gas concluded for the exercise of the right to access and use the national natural gas
system and in particular the part of it that constitutes the national system for the transfer of
natural gas. According to LAW No. 3428/27.12.2005 Liberalization of Natural Gas Market
(Official Gazette 313/A/2005) article 39: The use of Natural Gas Systems pursuant to the
provisions of this law is also allowed for the transmission of biogas, gas produced from
biomass and other kinds of gases, provided that it is so possible from a technical point of
view and the technical specifications are met, after taking into consideration the quality
requirements and the chemical features thereof.
5. BIOGAS UTILIZATION
The opportunities for biogas production in Greece are very high, especially in the waste
treatment sector. Implementation will enable efficient and environmentally sustainable waste
disposal, while at the same time generating a significant amount of energy in a manner that
promotes reduction and offseting carbon footprint at regional scale. Generally, Greece has
sufficient infrastructure and framework for waste collection as well as lots of potential in
energy crops cultivation or animal slurry exploitation.
For the utilisation of biogas, it should be feasible, that all systems and components can be
constructed or installed by using domestic labour and engineering services. The technology
should also be simple rather than sophisticated, since simple technologies are more robust,
easier to maintain and better suitable for the local infrastructure in cases where it is at an early
stage of development.
The most suitable system which should be implemented in Greece is a combined heat and
power plant operating with combustion engines. The combined heat and power production
technology is a well known, robust technology for the utilisation of electricity and heat. CHP
generation from biogas is considered a very efficient utilisation of biogas for energy
production. Before CHP conversion, biogas is drained and dried. An engine-based CHP
power plant has an efficiency of up to 90% and produces 35% electricity and 65% heat. An
important issue for the energy and economic efficiency of a biogas CHP plant is the
utilisation of the produced heat. Usually, a part of the heat is used for heating the digesters
(process heating) and approximately 2/3 of all produced energy can be used for external
needs.
Many biogas plants in countries with good feed-in tariffs for electricity and no incentives
for heat utilisation, like in Germany, were established exclusively for electricity purposes,
without heat utilisation. Due to the lost income from heat sale of these plants (and some other
reasons like increased energy crop prices), many biogas plant operators in Germany faced
serious economic problems in 2007 and 2008.
227
Biogas heat can be used by industry processes, agricultural activities or for space heating.
The most suitable heat user is the industry, as the demand is constant throughout the whole
year. Heat quality (temperature) is an important issue for industrial applications. The use of
heat from biogas for building and household heating (mini-grid or district heating) is another
option, although this application has a low season during summer and a high season during
winter. Biogas heat can also be used for drying crops, wood chips or for separation of
digestate. Finally, heat can also be used in combined power-heat-cooling systems. This
process is known from refrigerators and is used for cooling food storage or for air
conditioning.
CONCLUSION
The energy sector in Greece is undergoing significant changes due to the EU and national
policies in the field of energy and environment (full liberalization of the energy market and
environmental protection). As a result, the impact and effects of the implementation of these
policies are not yet visible and especially for the near future (energy price, energy mix).
Lignite, the main domestic fossil fuel resource of Greece, seems that will continue to play a
major role in the fuel mix of country in the future, but further renewable energy sources
penetration is expected.
The promotion of renewable energy sources in Greece is based not only to the great
potential of the country but also to the set priority towards renewable energy production and
emissions reductions. Although today there is still heavy state involvement in the economy,
the policy for the future is the reduction of the role of the state and the further development of
the market mechanisms and financial support schemes.
The law 3468/2006 for renewable energy sources had set a new environment in the
electricity generation and among others, simplified the licensing procedures, the guaranteed
market price (73 /MWh for biogas plants) while the licensing deadlines were shortened.
The new RES Law 3851/2010 sets the national targets for RES for the year 2020. a)
Contribution of the energy produced from R.E.S. to the gross final energy consumption by a
share of 20%, b) Contribution of the electrical energy produced by R.E.S. to the gross
electrical energy consumption to a share of at least 40%, c) Contribution of the energy
produced by R.E.S. to the final energy consumption for heating and cooling to a share of at
least 20%, d) Contribution of the energy produced by R.E.S. to the gross energy consumption
in transportation to a share of at least 10%. It also raises the feed-in tarrifs for renewable
energy production from biogas to as high as 220 /MWh.
During last years, renewable development in Greece is positively affected by resource
potential and state policy. The legislative framework has significantly improved by the
introduction of renewable energy sources and environmental legislation. However, there are
still institutional and other barriers, also due to the current (2011) financial crisis which shall
hinder the wide-scale biogas exploitation and deployment in Greece. Current energy prices
and targeted reduction of fossil fuel combustion will draw increasingly more attention
towards anaerobic digestion, together with the ever increasing pressure to landfill less organic
materials.
228
REFERENCES
Apostolakis, Kyritsis, Souter, (1987). Energy Potential of Biomass Research in Greece
Region.
Chatziathanassiou, A., Boukis, I., (2000). Constrains and Strategy for the Development of
Anaerobic Digestion Livestock Farming in Greece. 1st World Conference on Biomass for
Energy and Industry, Seville, Spain, 5-9 June.
CRES, (2009). Biogas Potential in Greece, Summary Report, Project: BiG>East
DEPA, (2006). Annual Report
DEPAs site. Available from: www.depa.gr.
DESFAs site. Available from: www.desfa.gr.
Karagiannidis, A., and Perkoulidis, G., (2009). A multi-criteria ranking of different
technologies for the anaerobic digestion for energy recovery of the organic fraction of
municipal solid wastes, Bioresource Technology, 100(8), 2355-2360
Ministry of Development, 1st report for the long term Energy Policy in Greece 2008-2020,
part 1, Athens August, 2007.
Nielsen, J., and Oleskowicz-Popiel, P., (2007). The future of Biogas in Europe: Visions and
Targets until 2020, European Biogas Workshop The Future of Biogas in Europe III,
Esbjerg, Denmark
Regulatory Authority for Energy (RAE). Available from: www.rae.gr.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 14
ABSTRACT
Translating the gained knowledge about waste management into strategies, attitudes
and processes that maintain resources and minimise negative environmental impact
constitutes a challenging but inevitable goal. Focusing especially on biodegradable waste,
the New Paradigm for sustainable waste management carries an increasing demand for
biological treatment. Composting still constitutes the preferred option for biological
treatment provided that a high compost quality can be ensured. It may play an important
role in the diversion of biowaste from landfills, which accounts for approximately half of
the municipal solid waste. Full scale composting is considered as a recycling action,
while home composting can be deemed as a waste prevention action.
INTRODUCTION
Sustainable development has been defined in Brundtland Report, Our Common Future
(WCED, 1987), as the development which meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of
sustainable development was addressed at the United Nations Conference on Environment
and Development in Rio de Janeiro, in 1992, which produced the action plan for the 21st
230
century, Agenda 21. In this document (Chapter 21) the management of solid waste was
recognised as an environmental issue of major concern in maintaining the quality of the
global environment and, especially, achieving environmentally sound and sustainable
development in both developed and developing countries. Agenda 21 states that
environmentally sound waste management must go beyond the mere safe disposal or
recovery of wastes that are generated and seek to address the root cause of the problem by
attempting to change unsustainable patterns of production and consumption.
The European Commission has adopted the concepts of sustainable waste management
and developed its waste policy based on the idea of the waste hierarchy, in other words, the
ranking of the various waste management options in terms of their environmental impact. The
hierarchy was first introduced in the Community Strategy for Waste Management (SEC (89)
934 Final 1989), but it was solidly reaffirmed and established in the revised Waste
Framework Directive (2008/98/EC). Waste prevention is placed at the top of the ladder as the
most favourable option, followed by (in descending order) preparing for reuse, recycling
(including composting), energy/material recovery (including anaerobic digestion) and
disposal in properly engineered landfills. Nonetheless, the hierarchical system of waste
management is not compulsory in character, on account that different application of the
various waste management options (e.g. recycling, incineration etc.) may have different
environmental and health impacts or benefits, based on the specific conditions applying
exact treatment methodology, geographic factors, existence of markets etc. (EC, 2011).
Eventually, the optimal course of action is to be decided through life-cycle
thinking (ISWA 2012; EC, 2011). Solid waste management has moved to the forefront of the
environmental agenda and the New Paradigm presupposes a change of policy, triggering
attitudes and methods that conserve natural resources and reduce the environmental impact of
anthropogenic pollutants. The equal consideration of economic, social and environmental
parameters (broadly known as the three pillars of sustainable development) is a prerequisite
for sustainable waste management (McDougall et al., 2001). Currently the concept of
integrated solid waste management (ISWM) is promoted. According to UNEP, ISWM refers
to the strategic approach to sustainable management of solid wastes covering all sources and
all aspects, generation, segregation, transfer, sorting, treatment, recovery and disposal in an
integrated manner, with an emphasis on maximizing resource use efficiency. Within this
framework a waste management system consists of three elements: the physical system and
its technological components, sustainability aspects (social, institutional, political, financial,
economic, environmental and technical) and the various groups of stakeholders involved
(Wilson et al., 2012). Against the backdrop of ISWM, organic waste is increasingly
recognised as a recyclable material and a useful resource (Tontti et al., 2011), while organic
waste treatment is becoming one of the key tasks of current waste management. Composting
may play an important role in the diversion of biowaste from landfills, which accounts for
approximately 30-50% of the total municipal solid waste quantity (MSW), depending on the
country.
231
considered a useful treatment process for almost any kind of biodegradable waste. Legislation
and environmental standards stipulated the development of a new generation of composting
facilities throughout Europe (Slater et al., 2001). The same trend is also shaped in US and
Asia.
In the European Union of 27Member States (EU-27) alone, 2.5 billion tonnes of waste
were generated in 2010 from economic activities and households, corresponding to an
average of 5.0 tonnes per inhabitant, while 2.3 billion tonnes of waste (including imported
waste into the EU) was treated (EUROSTAT, 2013). The 49% of the treated waste within
EU-27 was sent to recovery operations (other than energy recovery), 45.4% on disposal
operations and the remaining 5.6% for incineration (EUROSTAT, 2013). Disposal operations
include landfilling (or simply dumping), incineration, landfarming and, in some cases, waste
discharges into water bodies (e.g. ocean/sea, river, lakes). According to Slater and
Frederickson (2001), of the 60 million tonnes of potentially recoverable organic waste
generated in EU annually in late 90s-early 00s, approximately 15% was recovered through
composting (including home composting and source separation and centralised composting).
It is estimated that in EU-27, in 2011, 68kg of organic waste per capita were treated through
composting or anaerobic digestion (EUROSTAT, 2013). The European Landfill Directive
promotes the gradual diversion of biodegradable waste from landfilling, allowing by 2016,
the landfilling of only 35% of the total quantity that was landfilled in 1995.
In USA it is estimated that around 228 million tonnes of MSW were generated in 2012,
of which approximately 19 million tonnes were composted (EPA, 2012). In 2012, over 2.4
million households were served with food waste composting (EPA, 2012).
In late 90s, in China, approximately 20% of the MSW were treated through composting
(Wei et al., 2000). Wei et al. (2000) report that Chinese MSW treatments plants favour the
implementation of composting because of three reasons: 1) The MSW stream is unsuitable for
incineration due to its composition; 2) The cost of composting is lower than the cost of
incineration and landfilling; and 3) Composting and compost use in agriculture are part of
tradition.
2. AN OVERVIEW OF COMPOSTING
2.1. Seeking a Definition
Although the first attempts to carry out composting on an industrial basis date back to the
beginning of the previous century, a generally accepted definition of composting and compost
has yet to be adopted. Each (academic or technical) discipline approaches the description
and/or the definition of the composting process with regard to its own background, research
and technical interests often adjusted to the latest trends in waste/resource management.
Some disciplines focus on the operating conditions of the process, especially temperature
and aeration (Marshall et al., 2004); others emphasise its degradative aspect (Insam et al.
2010; Steger et al., 2007; Day & Shaw, 2001); while many highlight the critical properties of
compost (Diaz et al., 2002; Zucconi & de Bertoldi, 1987). More specifically, Marshall et al.
(2004) describe the composting process as the decomposition of organic residues controlled
by the management of a number of factors including feedstock composition, moisture, oxygen
232
and temperature. Focusing on microbial consortia, Insam et al. (2010) indicated that
continuous composting processes may be regarded as a sequence of continuous cultures,
each of them with their own physical (e.g. temperature), chemical (e.g. the available
substrate) properties and feedback effects. Reviewing the relevant literature under the lens
of MSW management, Diaz et al. (2002) defined composting as the biological
decomposition of the biodegradable organic fraction of MSW under controlled conditions to
a state sufficiently stable for nuisance-free storage and handling and for safe use in land
applications.
Again, on (bio)waste management grounds, a concise definition, which helps to exclude a
number of processes that differ from composting, as well as unmanaged and poorly controlled
processes, is presented by the European Commission in the Biological Treatment of
Biowaste Working Document (2nd Draft). In this document, composting is defined as the
autothermic and thermophilic biological decomposition of separately collected biowaste in
the presence of oxygen and under controlled conditions by the action of micro- and macroorganisms in order to produce compost (EC, 2001).
Reviewing the abovementioned definitions/descriptions, it can be deduced that
composting, perceived as both a biological process and a waste treatment method, is
stipulated, evolved and controlled by four packs of parameters: the initial composting mixture
(feedstock), the biodegradation agents (micro- and macro-organisms), the operative
conditions (environmental factors that can/should be controlled), and the required quality of
the final product (Figure 1).
Figure 1. The four packs of parameters that govern the composting process (solely the main parameters
of each category are indicatively presented).
233
nutrients, water, and diverse indigenous microbes, a sink for metabolic waste products, and
thermal insulation. The major form of microbial metabolism is aerobic respiration (Finstein &
Hogan, 1993), although in the micropores anaerobic pockets exist and the need for
investigating the limited potential presence and activity of anaerobic microorganisms has
been expressed in scientific literature (Chroni et al., 2009; Thummes et al., 2007; CabanasVargas & Stentiford, 2006).
When the environmental factors, namely moisture content, temperature and oxygen
concentration, are brought to a suitable level, microbial action increases and the
microorganisms start growing and reproducing themselves. As a result of their oxidative
activity, carbon dioxide, water, other organic products, and energy are released. Some of this
energy is used in metabolism; the remainder is given off as heat, further elevating the
temperature of the material. The final product (compost) comprises the more resistant
residues of the organic matter, breakdown products, the biomass of dead microorganisms
together with some living ones, and products from chemical reactions between these materials
(Biddlestone & Gray, 1987).
The physico-chemical changes that occur during composting process can be symbolically
and generally expressed by the following equation (Chiumenti et al., 2005; Peign &
Girardin, 2004):
The temperature changes that occur during composting due to microbial activity reflect
and - vice versa - affect the microbial activity. Therefore, the temperature profile indicates the
evolution of the process and can be used for its monitoring. Based upon these temperature
changes, the composting process evolves in four phases (Insam et al. 2010): the mesophilic
(20-45C), the thermophilic (45-65C), the cooling (temperature falls), and the maturation
and curing phase (substrate temperature reaches the environment temperature). Since the
boundary line between the last two phases (the cooling and the maturation and curing phase)
is blurred, many researchers and academics subsume the last two phases under a single one
(Marshall et al., 2004).
In the mesophilic phase simple carbon compounds, like soluble sugars, starch, fats and
proteins, are easily metabolised and mineralised by the microbial community. Rapid changes
are noted in temperature, pH values, O2 and CO2 concentration (Schloss et al., 2003). The
process is rapid and the heat released is trapped in the composting mass due to the good
insulating properties of the compost matrix. The temperature rises fast a rate over 30oC
under optimal conditions may occur (Harper et al., 1992) - and the mesophilic population
(capable of growing at temperatures between 15oC and 45oC) is replaced by thermophilic
microorganisms (45-65oC optimum temperature range).
This shift signals the beginning of the thermophilic phase. If the temperature rises
above 60oC, fungi become inactive, and decomposition is mostly performed by thermophilic
actinobacteria and spore-forming bacteria. During this phase, readily degradable substances
are rapidly consumed and most human and plant pathogens are destroyed. If not controlled,
temperature might exceed 70oC or 80oC within a few days, a situation where it is believed
that only a few species of thermophilic sporogeneous bacteria can survive (Finstein & Morris,
234
1975). However, the study of Beffa et al. (1996) suggested that non-spore-forming,
thermophilic bacteria related to the genus Thermus are the dominant active degraders in
thermogenic composts at temperatures above 70oC. The rate of biological decomposition at
such temperatures is extremely low (Finstein et al., 1983; Haug 1993).
During composting the pH frequently turns alkaline as ammonia is lost. Gradually, the
reaction rate decreases, as only the more resistant materials remain to be degraded, and the
material begins to cool down. Thermophilic fungi reinvade the composting material and
cellulose and hemicellulose are subject to degradation. This sequence may last from a few
weeks to several months, depending on the nature of the material to be composted and the
degree of control over the process.
The last phase, maturation, requires several weeks to a few months. Less heat is
generated in this phase and the final pH is usually slightly alkaline. Mesophilic
microorganisms and microfauna colonise the compost. Competition for food among
microorganisms is intense and the reactions that occur in the residual organic matter produce
a stable humus-like product, the compost (Chen & Inbar, 1993). Danon et al. (2008) showed
that the microbial community continued to change long after the compost organic matter and
other biochemical properties had stabilised.
235
process and the compost use on the environment and human health are presented in the
following sections (3.1-3.2).
236
Concerning its use as component of growing media, its potential to serve as an alternative
material to peat is currently investigated (Andersen et al., 2010) and promoted. Compost
emits fewer GHGs throughout its lifespan than peat, while peat is a valuable resource that has
to be saved (Boldrin et al., 2009; Moral et al. 2009). Moral et al. (2009) reported that the
extended use of peat as growing media constituent is a concern because of the carbon reserves
in peat lands being rapidly depleted due to mining of peat land resources.
Compost can also serve a range of other uses, such as a means to prevent erosion by
replenishing soil humus (USA EPA, 1994), to reduce/substitute the use of artificial fertilisers
and pesticides (Mehta et al., 2014) and as biofilter (Hwang et al., 2007; Pagans et al., 2007).
At this point it should be noted that the utilisation of compost depends strongly on the
composition of the initial composting mixture and the quality of the compost produced. The
latter refers to the overall state of the compost in regard to physical, chemical and biological
characteristics, which indicate the ultimate impact of the compost on the environment
(Lasaridi et al., 2006). A promising approach to estimate compost quality is via the
assessment of the stability and maturity of the composting material (Chroni et al., 2009;
Zorpas, 2009). Stability refers to the extent to which readily biodegradable organic matter has
decomposed (Lasaridi & Stentiford, 1998), while maturity to the fitness of a compost for a
particular end-use (Brewer & Sullivan, 2001). Bernal et al. (2009) and Zorpas (2012) stated
that the quality criteria of compost are established in terms of: nutrient content, humified and
stabilised organic matter, the maturity degree, the hygienisation and the presence of certain
toxic compounds, such as heavy metals, soluble salts and xenobiotics.
3.2.1. Air
A variety of gaseous compounds is emitted during the composting process. Its chemical
composition can be used as an indicator about both the evolution of the process and the
quality of compost (Lasaridi et al., 2010). Gaseous emissions of composting processes usually
involve CO2, NH3, amines, sulphur based compounds, volatile organic compounds (VOCs),
bioaerosols (bacteria, fungi, mycotoxins, endotoxins) and particulates.
Methane emissions from well managed waste treatment systems have been reported in
literature, but they are probably attributed to variables controlling the nature of the compost
piles (Lou & Nair, 2009). Peign and Girardin (2004) indicated that composting might either
be a negligible source of CH4 emissions or an important source in the case that anaerobic
conditions prevail. Carbon dioxide (CO2), which is also a product of composting, is a GHG.
However, Peign and Girardin (2004) concluded that composting is not a net source of CO2
237
along the recycling chain of agricultural wastes. In order to minimise GHG emissions during
composting process, Amlinger et al. (2008) indicated that the carbon to nitrogen ratio and the
humidity of the substrate, the structure and the bulking material and the additives should be
controlled within a certain range.
Ammonia has received much attention, as it can be released in large amounts, resulting in
N losses and odour nuisance (Lasaridi et al., 2010; Peign & Girardin, 2004). According to
Clemens and Cuhls (2003) NH3 emissions for municipal waste composting vary between 18
and 1150 g NH3.Mg-1. Witter and Lopez-Real (1998) reported that NH3 emissions accounted
for 60% of nitrogen losses. Composting of organic waste rich in N, may cause substantial
gaseous N losses, resulting in loss of an essential plant nutrient and environmental pollution
(Eklind & Kirchmann, 2000).
Formation of volatile organic sulphur compounds (VOSCs), which are responsible for
odour nuisance, is taking place in the anaerobic pockets of the composting substrate
(Lasaridi et al., 2010). Volatile organic compounds contribute to the reduction of the
stratospheric ozone layer, the photochemical formation of ozone at terrestrial level, adverse
effects on health, and both toxicity and carcinogenicity (Domingo & Nadal, 2009).
3.2.2. Water
The main environmental problem regarding water that is raised by the composting
process is linked to the contamination of groundwater as a result of leachate escape.
Leachates have a fairly high nutrient concentration, which makes them a potential water
pollutant. Zarabi and Jalali (2012) reported that the application of composts produced from
poultry manure, potato and municipal waste to sandy loam and clay soils, may pose a risk for
groundwater contamination.
Nevertheless, it should be noted that leachates account for less than 0.5% of the nitrogen
losses of the total initial manure N content, while gas emissions account for 19-42% (Peign
& Girardin, 2004; Eghball et al., 1997).
3.2.3. Soil
The potential negative impact of compost application on soil concerns heavy metals and
organic pollutants content. The accumulation of heavy metals, their concentration in the
leachates and their bioavailability to the plants, have attracted a lot of research attention
(Zorpas, 2011; Smith, 2009; Piramonti et al., 1997; Moreno et al., 1996). Literature shows
that all types of compost contain larger concentrations of heavy metals than the background
values commonly present in soil (Smith, 2009). Therefore, it is believed that long-term
compost applications lead to heavy metals accumulation in the soil. However, reviewing the
relevant literature, Smith (2009) reported that composting process increases the
complexation of heavy metals in organic waste residuals, and metals are strongly bound to
the compost matrix and organic matter, limiting their solubility and potential bioavailability
in soil, indicating that the risks to the environment, human health and crops regarding heavy
metals in composts produced from the preselected organic fraction MSW are minimal.
When the composting process does not evolve properly, the pathogenic microbial
populations (hosted in raw materials) might survive or increase. Many studies have indicated
the risks associated with pathogens (Dportes et al., 1995) and the presence of pathogens in
composts (Lasaridi et al., 2006). Brochier et al. (2012) studied the potential microbial
contamination of soil and crops after compost/manure application using agricultural practices,
238
in a long-term experiment and concluded that these applications do not cause negative
sanitary impacts on soil and plants.
CONCLUSION
The relevant discourse, a wide range of implemented projects and a multitude of
scientific studies, all demonstrate that composting - under the condition that it is properly
managed and evolved - can provide an effective solution to the organic waste management
issue. The apprehension and exploitation of the well documented environmental benefits of
composting and compost use open a way to more sufficient and sustainable waste
management schemes and the rational use of resources. Full scale composting processes are
one of the most effective ways to recycle organic waste and promote the circular economy for
what constitutes the larger single waste stream; home composting is a useful tool for in situ
biowaste recovery and, in some aspects, it can be considered as waste prevention - the higher
priority for sustainable waste management; in all cases, application of good quality compost
to the soil contributes to combat desertification, improve soil quality and water retention,
suppress plant diseases and increase crop yields.
Still, the composting process and the application of compost to soils might raise some
concerns, as they might have some negative impacts on the environment and human health. If
the composting process is insufficiently managed, GHG emissions can be rather significant,
human pathogens may proliferate and the application of compost might cause plant toxicities.
However, according to a multitude of Life Cycle Assessment studies, these risks are relatively
low in comparison with the impacts of the other currently available organic waste
management options; and, most importantly, they can be minimal when the variables of
composting, including the quality of substrate through careful pre-selection of the organic
waste, are properly controlled, thus allowing for a net benefit to sustainability.
REFERENCES
Amlinger, F., Peyr, S., Cuhls, C. (2008). Greenhouse gas emissions from composting and
mechanical biological treatment. Waste Management & Research 26, 47-60.
Andersen, J., Christensen, T.H., Scheutz, C. (2010). Substitution of peat, fertilizer and
manure by compost in hobby gardening: User surveys and case studies. Waste
Management 30, 2483-2489.
Beffa, T., Blanc M., Lyon, P.-F., Vogt, G., Marchiani, M., Fischer, J.L., & Aragno, M.
(1996). Isolation of Thermus strains from hot composts (60 to 80C). Applied and
Environmental Microbiology 62 1723-1727.
Bernal, M.P., Alburquerque, J.A., Moral, R. (2009). Composting of animal manures and
chemical criteria for compost maturity assessment: A review. Bioresource Technology
100, 5444-5453.
Biddlestone, A.S., Gray, K.R. (1987). Composting and straw decomposition. In
Environmental Biotechnology (Eds. Foster C.F., Wase D.A.J.). Ellis Horwood Series in
Chemical Engineering.
239
Boldrin, A., Andersen, J.K., Mller, J., Christensen, T.H., Favoino, E. (2009). Composting
and compost utilization: accounting of greenhouse gases and global warming
contributions. Waste Management & Research 27, 800-812.
Brewer, L.J., Sullivan, D.M. (2001). A quick look at quick compost stability tests. Biocycle
42, 53-55.
Brochier, V., Gourland, P., Kallassy, M., Poitrenaud, M., Houot, S. (2012). Occurrence of
pathogens in soils and plants in a long-term field study regularly amended with different
composts and manure. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 160, 91-98.
Cabanas Vargas, D.D., Stentiford, E.I. (2006) Oxygen and CO2 profiles and methane
formation during the maturation phase of composting. Compost Science & Utilization
14:8689.
Chen, Y., Inbar, Y. (1993). Chemical and Spectroscopical analyses of organic matter
transformations during composting in relation to compost maturity. In Hoitnik H.A.J.
and Keener H.M. (Eds). Science and Engineering of Composting. Renaissance
Publications, Ohio, pp. 557-600.
Chiumenti, A., Chiument,i R., Diaz L.F., Savage, G.M., Eggerth, L.L., Golstein, N. (2005).
Modern composting technologies. BioCycle, The JG Press. USA.
Chroni, C., Kyriacou, A., Georgaki, I., Manios, T., Kotsou, M., Lasaridi, K. (2009). Microbial
characterization during composting of biowaste. Waste Management, 29, 1520-1525.
Chroni, C., Kyriacou, A., Georgaki, I., Manios, T., Lasaridi, K. (2009). Investigation of the
microbial community structure and activity as indicators of compost stability and
composting process evolution. Bioresource Technology 100, 3745-3750.
Clemens, J., Cuhls, C. (2003). Greenhouse gas emissions from mechanical and biological
waste treatment of municipal waste. Environmental Technology 24, 745-754.
Danon M., Franke-Whittle, I.H., Insam, H., Chen, Y., Hadar, Y. (2008). Molecular analysis of
bacterial community succession during prolonged compost curing. FEMS Microbiol
Ecology 65, 133144.
Day, M., Shaw, K. (2001).Biological, chemical, and physical processes of composting. In:
2001 (Eds.), Compost Utilization in Horticultural Cropping Systems. CRC Press LLC.
De Bertoldi, M., Vallini, G., Pera, A., Zucconi, F. (1985). Technological aspects of
composting including modeling and microbiology. In Composting of Agricultural and
Other Wastes (Ed. Grasser J.K.R.). Elsevier Applied Science, London, 27-41.
Dportes, I., Benoit-Guyod, J.-L., Zmirou, D. (1995). Hazard to man and the environment
posed by the use of urban compost: a review. The Science of Total Environment 172,
197-222.
Diaz, L.F., Savage, G.M., Golueke, C. G. (2002). Composting of municipal solid wastes.In
Handbook of Solid Waste Management (Eds. Tchobanoglous G., Kreith F.). McGrawHill.
Domingo, J., Nadal, M. (2009). Domestic waste composting facilities: A review of human
health risks. Environment International 35, 382-389.
EC (2001).Working document on biological treatment of biowaste, 2nd Draft. ENV.A.2/LM
12 February 2001.
EC (2011). Report from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the
European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the Regions on the
Thematic Strategy on the Prevention and Recycling of Waste. SEC (2011) 70 final
COM (2011) 13 final, Brussels.
240
241
242
Tchobanoglous, G., Thiesen, H., and Vigil, S.A. (1993). Integrated Solid Waste Management
- Engineering Principles and Management Issues. McGraw-Hill International Editions,
Civil Engineering Series, pp. 306-310.
Thummes, K., Kmpfer, P., Jckel, U. (2007). Temporal change of composition and potential
activity of the thermophilicarchaeal community during the composting of organic
material. Systematic and Applied Microbiology 30:418429.
Tontii, T., Heinonen-Tanski, H., Karine,n P., Reinikainen, O., Halinen, A. (2011). Maturity
and hygiene indicators in agricultural soil fertilised with municipal waste or manure
compost. Waste Management & Research 29 (2), 197-207.
USA ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (1994).Innovative uses of compost,
Erosion Control, Turf Remediation and Landscaping. EPA 530-F-97-043.
WCED (World Commission on the Environment and Development) (1987). Our Common
Futere The Brundtland Report. United Nations.
Wei, Y-S., Fan, Y-B., Wang, M-J., Wasng, J.S. (2000).Composting and compost application
in China. Resources, Conservation and Recycling 30, 277-300.
Wilson, D.C., Rodic, L., Scheinberg, A., Velis, C., Alabaster, G. (2012). Comparative
analysis of solid waste management in 20 cities. Waste Management & Research 30, 237
254.
Witter, E., Lopez- Real, J. (1998).Nitrogen losses during composting of sewage sludge, and
the effectiveness of clay soil, zeolite, and compost in adsorbing the volatilized ammonia.
Biological Wastes, 23, 279-294.
Zarabi, M., Jalali, M., (2012). Leaching of nitrogen and base cations from calcareous soil
amended with organic residues. Environmental Technology 33, 1577-1588.
Zeman, C., Depken, D., Rich M. (2002). Literature review research on how the composting
process impacts greenhouse gas emissions and global warming. Compost Science and
Utilization 10, 72-86.
Zhang, W.C. (1998). Situation and management of urban domestic refuse in China.
Environment Protection 8, 41-43.
Zorpas, A.A (2009). Compost evaluation and utilization. (Eds Pereira, J.C., Bolin, J.L,
Composting: Processing, materials and approaches), Nova Science Publishers, Inc.31-68.
Zorpas, A.A (2011) Metals selectivity from natural zeolite in sewage sludge compost. A
Function of Temperature and Contact Time. In: Ferrer AS (Ed) Compost III. Dynamic
Soil, Dynamic Plant5 (Special Issue 2), 1-11 5(2), 104-112http://www.globalscience
books.info/JournalsSup/11DSDP_5_SI2.html
Zorpas, A.A. (2012). Sewage Sludge Compost Evaluation and Utilization. (Eds Zorpas A.A.,
Inglezakis J.V., Sewage Sludge Management: From the Past to Our Century, Nova
Science Publishers, Inc. 173-216.
Zucconi, F., de Bertoldi, M. (1987). Compost specifications for the production and
characterization of compost from municipal solid waste. In: de Bertoldi, M., Ferranti,
M.P., LHermite, P., Zucconi, F. (Eds.), Compost: Production, Quality and Use. Elsevier,
Barking, pp. 3050/
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 15
ABSTRACT
The agricultural industry generates mainly liquid and solid residues: its wastes are
characterized both by seasonality of their production and by high variability in water
content, high organic matter content, changeable mineral fraction and high C/N ratio. The
amount of wastes generated as well as their characteristics depend on the type of crop
processed. Agricultural and food industry residues, refuse and wastes constitute a
significant proportion, over 30%, of worldwide agricultural production. This review
chapter includes a detailed description of the amounts and the characteristics of the main
agricultural wastes streams as well as the environmental problems caused by their
improper management. Since the options of agricultural waste management offer
advantages from an environmental point of view, the practices that permit recovery and
recycling of the wastes should be promoted, if the precautions and the restrictions
imposed by the legislative framework are satisfied. Among the management options,
landspreading seems to offer many advantages to the agricultural sector since it recycles
nutrients and organic matter to the land, which would otherwise be lost due to landfilling
or thermal destruction. However, a carefully designed monitoring system of the land that
244
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Agricultural Wastes
Agricultural waste (AW), which includes both natural (organic) and non-natural wastes,
is a general term used to describe waste produced on a farm through various farming
activities. These activities can include, but are not limited to, dairy farming, horticulture, seed
growing, livestock breeding, grazing land, agro industrial activities (transformation and
preservation of agricultural products), market gardens, nursery plots, and even woodlands.
Agricultural and food industry residues, refuse and wastes constitute a significant proportion,
over 30%, of world wide agricultural production. Given agricultural wastes are not restricted
to a particular location, but rather are distributed widely, their disposal may affect natural
resources such as surface and ground waters, soil and crops, as well as human health (EEA
2012).
Depending on the agricultural activity the produced agricultural wastes can be
categorized according to Table 1 (COM 2000/532/EC; Lopez and Boluda 2008).
Agricultural Wastes
245
Livestock wastes also contain significant amounts of steroid hormones (naturally released by
animals of all species in urine) that may cause adverse effects on terrestrial and aquatic
organisms (Martinez and Burton, 2003).
Table 1. Classification of AW depending on the agricultural activity
Activity
Cereal crops and
horticultural crops
Animal production,
Animal production
Fruit tree and olive tree
crops
Forestry exploitation
Classification code
(European List of Wastes*)
Description
020103
020101
020106
020103
020107
020201
Sugar production
020403
020501, 020502
246
Rice Paddy
(Area harvested, ha)
Continent/Country 2008
2009
2010
Europe
597.241
668.970
717.728
USA
6.900.445
7.384.403
7.308.591
Africa
9.004.329
9.358.566
9.051.788
Africa
136.550.500 140.941.816
141.144.106
Asia tot
29.493.392 29.881.590
30.116.862
China
43.540.000 41.850.000
36.950.000
India
158.367.654 157.654.874
153.652.007
Rice
Production quantity (tons)
2008
2009
2010
3.477.810
4.105.086
4.443.148
36.046.477
38.430.947
37.170.221
24.252.286
23.278.124
22.855.318
607.328.408
618.883.512
625.233.901
193.284.180
196.681.170
197.212.010
148.770.000
133.700.000
120.620.000
689.043.756
684.779.898
672.015.587
This process also emits other harmful air pollutants such as polychlorinated dibenzo-pdioxins (PCDDs) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDFs), which have toxic properties
and are, notably, potential carcinogens that can cause severe impacts on human health (Gadde
et al. 2009). In some countries, for example Japan, the emissions from burning of rice
residuals have been related to the appearance of respiratory diseases such as bronchial asthma
(Arai et al., 1998; Torigoe et al., 2000). Thus, it is obvious that proper management and
disposal of bulky rice straw is a serious concern due to the big number of emitted pollutants.
As a result, attention is paid to non hazardous, environment friendly and sustainable
techniques for safe disposal of rice straw, such as recycling into compost, that promotes
sustainable agricultural and environmental protection, improving soils physical, chemical,
and biological properties (Perez-Piqueres et al., 2006), and ultimately resulting in higher plant
growth and yield. Rice crop residues are highly siliceous and have the potential of modifying
the electrochemical properties of acidic soils thus reducing P fixation, improving base
retention and increasing soil pH. If residues are managed properly, then they can improve soil
properties and sustainability in crop production (Mandal, 2004).
Agricultural Wastes
247
320.000 tons. Other smaller producers are Portugal (380.000 ha), France (18.900 ha), Cyprus
(11.600 ha), Slovenia (800 ha) and Malta (less than 100 ha) (EUROSTAT, 2007). Another
country with a large area under cultivation is Tunisia (1.69 millions ha), followed by Turkey
(815.000 ha and 160.000 tons of olive oil), Syria (olive oil: 193.500 tons), Morocco (olive oil:
150.000 tons) and Croatia (25.000 ha) (EUROSTAT, 2007). The impacts of olive oil
production are due to the difficulties in treating the produced wastes (LIFE OLEICO+):
the liquid residues (Olive Mill Wastewater, OMWW): a mixture of vegetation water
directly extracted from olives and oil production water, coming from washing and
processing. OMWW can be reused for different purposes, like irrigation, compost
production, etc., only after suitable treatment to reduce salinity, organic content and
acidity;
pomaces (also called olive cake, olive husks OH or crude olive): composed by
skins, pits, pulp and a variable percentage of wastewater, depending from the type of
extraction (2 or 3 phase). The pomaces typically have acidic pH and contain high
concentrations of polyphenols and organic fatty matter and if properly treated, they
become suitable for the production of amenders, compost and fuel;
TPOMW (alperujo): residue resulting from two-phase extraction mostly produced in
Spain and composed by both OMWW and solid waste;
pulp: a residual paste, which is produced if the whole olive stones are removed from
the paste prior to processing. This residual paste has very high water content and is
difficult to store;
pits: due to high energy/power (fairly high heating value, in the range of 14-18
MJ/kg (Caputo et al., 2003), the less expensive raw olive stones are commonly used
instead of pellets for combustion in dedicated burners;
pruning: branches, leaves and woods from the olive orchard are the only by-products
which could be easily reclaimed as biomass.
Olive Mill Wastewaters, OMWW, have:
high biological polluting load (BOD5 in the range 20120 g/l) which is 2580 times
greater than the pollution level of common urban wastewater and high chemical
polluting load (COD in the range 40240 g/l) (Alburquerque et al., 2004);
slightly acid pH (Alburquerque et al., 2004);
quite high content of organic substances and polyphenols (from 0.5 to 24 g/l)
(Paraskeva and Diamadopoulos, 2006);
Although the disposal of mills wastes in the environment is not permitted, it is estimated
that up to 1.5 million tones of olive oil mills wastes are disposed untreated each year
(www.prosodol.gr).
Due to the chemical-physical characteristics olive wastes can cause impacts on the
environment (LIF OLEICO+):
into the soil: the discharge of olive waste into the soil may cause, for plants, leaf and
fruit abscission and inhibition of seed germination;
into the water: the discharge of olive waste into water bodies may worryingly
increase the phosphorous content, cause color alteration and bad smell;
248
into the air: the discharge of olive waste in open spaces may stimulate microbial
fermentation, with the production of methane and a wide array of harmful or simply
bad smelling gases.
Quantity and quality of residues are strongly influenced by the oil extraction method, but
also from type and maturity of olives, region of origin, climatic conditions and associated
cultivation and processing methods (Paraskeva and Diamadopoulos, 2006).
2007
180.176
19.870
9.620
8.227
15.046
266.546
2008
179.821
19.330
12.448
8.683
14.676
269.785
2010
152.900
20.900
11.200
8.844
16.300
268.800
2011
159.400
18.700
11.900
10.572
15.500
269.800
The wine making process entails the generation of significant amounts of solid waste and
wastewater that should be further treated before disposed of in the environment. Wine waste
can be divided into crush season (August to February) and non-crush season (March to July)
waste involving mainly the production of solid waste and wastewater, respectively. Winery
and other grape processing industries annually generate large volumes of wastes, which
typically have low pH (mean value: 3.8-6.8), high organic matter content (669-920 g/kg),
high concentration of macronutrients such as K (11.9-72.8 g/kg), high concentration of
polyphenols (1.2-19.0 g/kg) and low concentration of heavy metals (Bustamante et al., 2008).
Furthermore, the COD can increase up to 25.000 mg/L depending on the harvest load and
processing activities.
The uncontrolled disposal of wastes can cause for example (EPA, 2004a):
The distillation of wine, wine lees and grape marc generates an effluent (vinasse) which
contains water used in the distillation process, exhausted wine and wine lees, water-soluble
compounds of the grape marc and hydrochloric or sulphuric acid (Bustamante, 2005).
249
Agricultural Wastes
Europe
USA
Africa
Asia
WORLD
Poultry
2.103.980.850
5.536.261.000
1.637.961.500
12.098.426.000
21.488.551.000
Dairy cow4
39.588.311
53.106.783
64.553.030
100.936.859
264.470.504
Martinez and Burton (2003) provided the manure production per animal over a period of
6 months as shown in Table 5 below.
Table 5. Worldwide produced liquid manure (Martinez and Burton, 2003)
Dairy cow4
0.016
9.7
1.5
4.5
1
768.013.233
1.030.271.590
1.252.328.782
1.958.175.065
5.130.727.778
Liquid manure (slurry): housing system collecting all excreta in liquid form; the
animals are kept on sloping solid floors that are regularly swept clear of any
excreta. Some dilution can be expected from wash water;
Mixed manure: housing systems producing solid and liquid manure streams;
animals are kept on bedding material, but liquids are drained from the bedding
and collected elsewhere;
250
Solid manure: housing types producing only solid manure; animals are kept on
bedding material which is collected together with all excreta as solid or farm
yard manure (FYM).
Agricultural Wastes
251
2. LANDSPREADING OF WASTES
The options of agricultural waste management, offering more advantages from an
environmental point of view, would be those permitting recovery and recycling of the
available contained resources.
The key tenet in support of landspreading of wastes is that it recycles nutrients and
organic matter to the land, which would otherwise be lost in disposal to landfill or thermal
destruction. In landfill, organic waste is potentially polluting because it causes leachate
production and release of the greenhouse gas, methane. A residual ash or char is left behind
from most thermal processes which still needs to be disposed of and carbon dioxide is lost to
the atmosphere. There is potential for energy recovery from thermal processes and landfills
(through methane collection).
Provided that benefit to agriculture (or ecological improvement) can be demonstrated,
landspreading of wastes is considered preferable to thermal destruction or landfilling in the
ranking of options proposed in the Waste Framework Directive issued by the EU. On the
other hand, the respective Directive on the landfill of waste (i.e. Council Directive
1999/31/EC) defines requirements for European Member States to set up a national strategy
for the implementation of the reduction of biodegradable waste going to landfills and,
together with the landfill tax in some Member States, this will encourage recycling of more
waste to land.
Landspreading is recognized as waste utilization and not disposal, and thus, farmers that
recognize and adopt this precondition should be eager to improve the management of wastes
for landspreading by investing as appropriate in storage at the point of production, dewatering
and other treatment, monitoring and analysis, and field trials to quantify the agricultural
benefit of their wastes.
According to the Article 4 of the amended Waste Framework Directive 75/442/EEC
(CEC 1991), landspreading is preferable when agricultural benefit is achieved, meaning when
the application of a waste to land improves soil conditions for crop growth whilst ensuring the
protection of environmental quality in the broader sense. Therefore, provided its potential
disadvantages can be suitably controlled, landspreading should compare favorably with other
waste management options. Such a comparison would be complicated by the variability of
activities but could be demonstrated by environmental impact assessment or life cycle
analysis of selected operations as being either generally representative, or by evaluating the
management options for the major wastes streams.
Apart from the environmental benefits of landspreading there are also economic benefits
for farmers, which are strong motives, and may enhance landspreading adoption. Two of the
benefits of landspreading of waste are that it is often an economic route for the waste
producer compared with the other options available, and for the farmer it usually represents a
free or competitively-priced source of nutrients and/or soil conditioner.
Without doubt, landspreading is an environmentally and economically beneficial option
of wastes management. It has to be underlined, however, that the EC Directives (Waste
Framework Directive (75/442/EEC as amended 91/156/EEC, Directives 86/278/EEC on
landspreading of sewage sludge and 91/676/EEC on protection of waters against pollution
caused by nitrates from agricultural sources) that define the framework of landspreading
252
underestimate the role of soil, or at least they do not consider the Soil Thematic Strategy as
internal component of the proposed measures.
Agricultural Wastes
253
254
In the light of the 3rd requirement it can be stated that the uncontrolled disposal of AW is
not permitted. With respect to the current legislation of wastes and landspreading and by
incorporating the Soil Thematic Strategys requirements, a landspreading scenario should be
based on two main axes:
1. Evaluation of waste suitability for landspreading (preliminary monitoring), and
2. Monitoring of the areas selected for landspreading (during and after disposal).
Agricultural Wastes
255
Class 3: As for Class 1 plus basis for benefit to agriculture. Content of plant nutrients etc.
as for Class 2. Content of contaminants (pathogens most probable numbers;
concentrations of heavy metals, other potentially toxic elements and organic
contaminants). Evidence that the waste is free of contaminants other than those
specified is required.
After waste characterization the competent local/regional/governmental authority may
permit the landspreading provided that the following criteria are met:
The competent authority would keep a register of permits issued and the record of each
landspreading operation and would make the necessary site visits and spot-checks to confirm
that landspreading operations are in compliance with the permit conditions and the records
would indicate where any pollution incident could be linked with a landspreading operation.
256
2.3.1. Identification of Potential and Current Waste Disposal Areas and Recording
them in a GIS Database
An integrated scenario should include, as a first stage, a primary evaluation of the areas
that are appropriate for landspreading or/and appropriate areas for the establishment of
plants/enterprises that produce wastes. The evaluation should be performed by
implementing/assessing specific criteria, which however may be defined by local/regional
authorities and according to local peculiarities. Such a GIS-based decision making tool for
evaluating location suitability was developed during the LIFE project Strategies to improve
and protect soil quality from the disposal of Olive Oil Mills (OMW) wastes in the
Mediterranean region-PROSODOL (www.prosodol.gr) for the olive oil production
facilities. The evaluation is made considering several criteria-factors, e.g. anthropogenic
(residential areas, road network), environmental (slope, archaeological sites, lake and rivers
area, Natura areas, landuse-Corine) and geological (hydrolithology, geology, faults).
Thereafter, current and potential disposal areas should be recorded in a national
inventory. The inventory will contain all licensed disposal areas and as many as possible nonlicensed ones. Local inventories should be created as a first step under the responsibility of
local or regional authorities, which afterwards will be integrated into a national inventory
under the responsibility of governmental agencies. GIS mapping of the disposal areas and the
establishment of a digital database is strongly recommended
2.3.2. Characterization of Disposal Areas-Risk Assessment
As a second step, governmental and local authorities should characterize in detail
disposal areas and perform risk assessment studies.
Recorded disposal areas should be characterized considering location, hydrogeology,
physiography, geomorphology, land use, soil structure, texture, water permeability,
coefficient of hydraulic conductivity (saturated or unsaturated), porosity, presence and depth
of impermeable soil layers. Additionally, the collected data may include, history of the site,
extent and types of contaminants that may exist, hydrogeological and hydrological regime for
the broader area, known/anticipated presence and behavior of receptors, sampling of soil and
groundwater: comparison with generic guideline values or quality standards, sampling of soil
and groundwater: site-specific modeling of fate, transport, exposure and comparison with
toxicological values, as well as other parameters which may be considered necessary for the
complete characterization of the area. Such a characterization will permit the performance of
the risk assessment study of the area and the identification of the sites which pose higher risk
to human health and the environment.
For a risk to exist there must be a source (or hazard or pressure), a pathway and a
receptor (or target). This is the basis for the Source-Pathway-Receptor (S-P-R) conceptual
model for environmental management. In addition, a conceptual model also provides
information useful to the scoping of any investigation as it identifies the sites that pose the
greatest risk to the environment and human beings and also the S-P-R linkages that have the
highest risk associated with them (Daly, 2004). Thus, the detailed information obtained
through the assessment will further assist the decision on the extent of measures, which are
required to manage the risk, and usually involve breaking the pathway or removal of the
source or monitoring of the receptor.
Agricultural Wastes
257
258
Probability
High
Medium
Low
Negligible
Severe
High
High
High/Medium
High/Medium/Low
Magnitude
Moderate
High
Medium
Medium/Low
Medium/Low
Mild
Medium/Low
Low
Low
Low
Negligible
Near zero
Near zero
Near zero
Near zero
259
Agricultural Wastes
The system requires a complete initial soil survey at regional or larger level, which
should include systematic soil sampling and then mapping of the results.
Table 7. Criteria for land suitability for wastes landspreading
Property
Flooding
Depth to bedrock, cm
Depth to impermeable layer, cm
Coverage with water
Groundwater level, cm
Infiltration rate, cm/h 30-150cm
Slope, %
Stones, % (>7.5 cm)
Texture
S1
never
>300
>200
never
>300
2.0-6.5
<3
<20
All except CL, SC,
SiCL, SiC, C, LS,
S or with gravels
S2
seldom
>180
>180
never
>180
0.5-6.5
3-8
<35
All except SiC,
C, S or with
gravels
S3
often
100-180
100-180
seldom
100-180
0.5<,>6.5
8-12
>35
All except C
or with gravels
N1
always
<100
<100
often
<100
0.5<,>6.5
>12
Structure
granular angularblocky
<12
7.3-8.4
<4
>16
<0.09
blocky or
prismatic
<12
6.6-7.3
<8
8-16
0.09-0.16
massive platy
compacted
>12
5.6-6.5
<16
<8
0.16-0.26
vertic
as N1
<5.6
16-40
<8
>0.41
as N1
>40
SAR
pH
EC, mmhos/cm
CEC, meq/100g
Salt, %
N2
as N1
<50
<50
always
<50
as N1
>15
Clay
as N1
(vertisols), very
Sandy
Moreover, it is necessary that the proposed system conforms with the peculiarities of the
specific AW type by considering and including appropriate soil quality indicators in Table 7.
Moreover, prior to the final decision and in complementarity with the parameters of Table 7,
the presence of toxic soil conditions should be assessed by using the standard methods for the
determination of (a) nitrogen mineralization and nitrification in soils and the influence of
chemicals on these processes (ISO 14238:1997); (b) the effects on earthworms (ISO 112681:1993); (c) the chronic toxicity in higher plants (ISO 22030:2005); and (d) soil biomass or
soil respiration (ISO 14240-1:1997). The selection among these standard methods should be
based on several factors, such as current soil quality condition, past, present and future use of
the area, amounts of produced waste and treatment level. Olive mills wastes should also be
analyzed in terms of BOD5, COD, pH, total solids, total suspended solids, total volatile solids,
ash, total organic carbon, total nitrogen, total phosphorous, electrical conductivity, total
sugars, fats and oils, total phenols, potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, total sulfur, total
chlorine, iron, manganese, zinc, copper, and other metals accordingly.
The proposed system (1) incorporates soil behavior and functions; (2) considers soil
physical and chemical properties; (3) is based on velocity of water movement, soil map
interpretation and on the combination of limiting factors and downwards water movement; (4)
considers the properties and pollution charges of the OMW; and (5) is general and can be
used worldwide where AW is produced adopted however at local conditions.
Considering the specific properties of soils at disposal areas, local particularities and the
limitations of Table 7, the following steps should be followed in order to adopt and
implement safe disposal or application of AW.
Step 1: Definition of suitable or unsuitable soils for AW landspreading
Soils with the potential to receive or soils that should be excluded from AW
disposal/distribution/application are identified based on permanent physical and/or chemical
characteristics (Table 7).
260
Agricultural Wastes
261
Details on the development of the monitoring strategy are given below and are based on a
similar strategy developed during the PROSODOL project for the disposal of Olive Mill
Wastes on soil. In specific:
1. Adoption of soil quality indicators-Identification of indicators threshold values
Soils that accept wastes, apart from progressive degradation, may cause serious problems
to the surrounding environment (humans, animals, plants, water systems, etc.), and thus, soil
quality should be necessarily monitored. Therefore, quality indicators, representative of the
specific waste type, should be established and monitored periodically. Since wastes
composition is depended on their origin, specific indicators for each waste type should be
established. Considering agricultural wastes, such a specification, however, is difficult, since
almost all agricultural wastes are characterized by increased concentrations of the same
elements, namely phosphorous, nitrogen, potassium, sulfur, etc.; they contain large amounts
of organic matter; and have very high values of COD, BOD and electrical conductivity.
In principle, an indicator could be either a qualitative (nominal) variable, a rank (ordinal)
variable, or a quantitative variable (Gallopin 1997). An indicator may be easy to measure and
summarize in shorthand the effects of complex processes that are more difficult to measure or
observe (Landres 1992; Harris et al. 1996). Its purpose is to show how well a system is
operating. If there is a problem, an indicator is useful in determining what direction to take to
address the issue. Indicators can also be useful as proxies or substitutes for measuring
conditions that are so complex that there is no direct measurement.
In summary, desirable indicators are variables that summarize or otherwise group simply
relevant information, make visible or perceptible phenomena of interest, and quantify,
measure, and communicate relevant information. In addition, some indicators may be used to
262
Relevance: An indicator must be relevant, that is, it must fit the purpose for
measuring. It shows something about the system that is needed to be known, for its
assessment.
Understandability: An indicator must be understandable, even by people who are not
experts.
Reliability: An indicator must be reliable. The user must trust the information that the
indicator is providing. Reliability is not the same as precision. An indicator does not
necessarily need to be precise; it just needs to give a reliable picture of the system it
is measuring.
Accessibility of data: Indicators must provide timely information. In order for an
indicator to be useful in preventing or solving a problem, it must give the information
while there is still time to correct the problem. The information is available or can be
gathered while there is still time to act.
In the context of soil degradation due to wastes disposal, indicators are variables that may
show that degradation has taken place and they are not necessarily the variables controlling
the actual degradation itself. These indicators may be drawn from any aspect of how quality
of soil degrades. Since there is much interlinkage between the various types and
manifestations of land degradation, indicators are considered as a powerful tool for overall
assessments (Stocking and Murnaghan 2001).
Indicators need to be sensitive to changes in both management and climate. Soil
characteristics that change within only a few weeks or months in response to the changing
seasons, shifting weather patterns, and plant growth cycles are not appropriate soil
quality/degradation indicators. Characteristics that begin to show change only after five or
more years are not helpful indicators; often showing progressive soil degradation only after
much of the productive topsoil is lost. The best soil quality/degradation indicators are those
characteristics that show significant change between one and three years, with five years
being an upper limit of usefulness.
Thus, the duration of an indicators significance varies with the permanence of the data
used to build the indicator. Some data change over the long term (e.g. topography and river
networks) and are relatively permanent, while others may change over the medium term (e.g.
flora or erosion type); and some show short-term changes over years or seasons (e.g. soil
moisture or livestock management).
Indeed, the continuous monitoring of a pilot OMW disposal area within the framework of
PROSODOL project revealed that not all of the measured parameters are affected by the
disposal of OMW (Kavvadias et al., 2010; 2011; Doula et al., 2013). In particular, some of
the measured parameters remained almost unchanged or the changes recorded were not
significant relative to the control soil used for comparison (e.g. exchangeable Ca), while
others were subject to changes but their values were depended also by the different seasons
Agricultural Wastes
263
and thus are inappropriate to be used as indicators (e.g. Cl-, NH4+, SO42-, PO43-, NO3-,
microbial activity). Some other parameters were significantly changed due to wastes disposal
but this change lasted for short time after cease of wastes disposal although the area was still
very much degraded (e.g. N, B). Finally, there were parameters that exhibit significant
changes strongly depended on OMW disposal (e.g. organic matter, exchangeable K, available
Fe). From the evaluation of the obtained results it was clear that, since soil degradation at
OMW disposal areas remains significant also for inactive-abandoned areas, the indicators to
be established should cover these two potential cases namely, active disposal areas and
inactive-abandoned disposal areas (Doula et al., 2013). Thus, in order to select the most
suitable soil parameters, the four features, i.e. relevance; understandability; reliability; and
accessibility of data were considered and after statistical evaluation, eight soil parameters
were proposed as soil indicators for OMW disposal areas: i.e. electrical conductivity; organic
matter; total nitrogen; total polyphenols; available phosphorous; exchangeable potassium;
available iron; and pH (mainly for acidic soil types).
It has to be highlighted that the above eight indicators are specific for OMW disposal
areas, whereas, the definition of the appropriate soil indicators for other waste types requires
periodical and systematic monitoring of the areas of interest during the entire cycle of wastes
production procedure and disposal.
Having identified the appropriate soil indicators, the changes in soil quality can be
assessed by measuring and comparing them with desired values (critical limits or threshold
levels) at different time intervals, for a specific use in a selected area-system. A critical limit
or threshold level is the desirable range of values for a selected soil indicator that must be
maintained for normal functioning of the soil ecosystem health. Within this critical range, the
soil performs its specific functions in natural ecosystems (Arshad and Martin, 2002).
Thus, when a set of indicators is proposed (as for the case of OMW disposal areas), this
list should be accompanied by threshold levels for each one of the indicators in order to assist
evaluation of collected data and of the chemical analyses results. The thresholds could be
identified based on current legislation, but also on the international literature. The peculiarity
of the indicators for the application of AW, and mainly these originated by crops, plants and
food processing, is that they mainly correspond to soil properties associated with fertility and
not to pollutants in the classical sense, such as heavy metals and therefore are not included in
legislation. Nevertheless, international literature can provide general limits as these properties
have been extensively studied for many years. Given the complexity of setting limits and the
uniqueness of each targeted area/region, it may be more efficient to develop guidelines that
can help in setting up limits under certain land and environment conditions.
Thus, although a general definition of indicator thresholds could be performed after
searching in international literature and legislative frameworks, it should be highlighted that
the definition of indicator thresholds would be more effective and representative of each
target area if they would be determined after evaluation of data collected from the areas of
interest and by taking into account local characteristics and values of the indicators of
representative control samples.
A GIS based land information inventory of the area should be then designed and
developed to store all collected data for further evaluation by local authorities, scientists, and
other stakeholders.
General threshold values and the respective literature are included in Tables 1 and 2 of
Annex 1.
264
265
Agricultural Wastes
However, this indeed requires the cooperation of the owners of the landspreading areas,
since repeated soil samplings at various sites are necessary for map creation and update. The
proposed application tool uses interpolation surfaces that indicate the distribution of the
different physical and chemical parameters in the area of interest, so the user can rapidly
obtain an idea of the possible diffusion of the chemical parameters and the degree of risk in
the vicinity of the waste disposal areas. This, potentially, allows also the establishment of an
Operational Centre, which could be located, for instance, in cooperation with the
Environmental Authorities in the premises of a Municipality or a Region, and can undertake
the continuous monitoring of areas under risk and the scientific and consulting support of the
owners.
Time Slider
Navigation
Controls
Degree of
Risk Scale Legend
Measurement
Selection
Depth
Selection
Figure 2. The interface of the application for mapping soil constituents at an area receiving agricultural
wastes. Yellow flags represent sampling sites in the area of interest.
The design of the particular software package needs to monitor a number of private fields
that are spread around and make queries based on various spatial and chemical attributes.
Thus, it is proposed that, for each specific disposal area, one initial mapping should be carried
out by performing soil sampling from various sites for at least 4 times (e.g. every two
months). The sampling sites will be decided according to the generally accepted soil sampling
rules and a qualified person should be present and undertake the overall control. The collected
soil samples should be analyzed for the parameters and proposed as suitable indicators, as
already described. The maps that will be created should be used for no more than 5-8 years.
After this period, the maps should be updated by repeating the sampling procedure. Figure 2
presents the interface of the application for mapping soil constituents developed in the
framework of PROSODOL project which is also proposed for similar cases of AW
landspreading.
266
The creation of the interpolation surfaces requires a number of data around the vicinity of
the disposal areas in order to identify the distribution of the different chemical parameters in
the area, so that to obtain an idea of the possible diffusion of the chemical parameters and the
degree of risk in the vicinity of the waste disposal areas. Various interpolation algorithms
could be used for mapping the specific parameters, however the method of the Inverse
Distance Weighting (IDW), which calculates cell values by averaging the values of sampling
points in the vicinity of each cell based on distance, is proposed since it causes limited
secondary effects (e.g. bulls eye effect around isolated sample points, extreme trends away of
the sampling areas, etc). Such an application allows:
Measurement SelectionThe user selects the name of the chemical parameter in order
to see the corresponding interpolated surface map.
Depth SelectionThe user can choose the depth of soil for which the user wishes to
see the value of the selected chemical parameter. Then the user can submit the
information provided, and the application starts to stream the data needed and present
the corresponding interpolated surface map.
Navigation ControlsThe user may navigate inside the map through the navigation
controls, in any direction, angle, pan and zoom, giving the user the freedom of any
view perspective.
Time Slider- An animation of the interpolated surface area map can be viewed
through different time periods on the Google map.
Degree of Risk Scale Legend When the interpolated surface map is loaded the
corresponding scale of the risk degree of the selected chemical parameter is shown.
The 3D map application can be designed in such a way, that the end user can easily and
effectively use, and retrieve the surface interpolated information needed.
4. Guidelines for periodical water bodies monitoring
Neighboring water bodies is recommended to be monitored periodically. Water samples
should be collected from all 1st, 2nd and 3rd catchment order discharge and in the groundwater
both before and after rainfalls. This way a database could be developed where the groundand surface water will be monitored spatially and temporarily.
5. Development of good practices for soil management-Training of farmers and
stakeholders
A Code of Good Practice should be developed giving advice in relation to soil
management practices which may affect soil quality. This Code should be adopted by all
relevant stakeholders and should be a practical guide that will assist owners of the disposal
areas, farmers who may use AW for soil fertilization or land managers to protect the
environment in which they operate. The Code should describe key actions that the main
actors can take to protect and further improve the quality of soil, water, and air and to meet
legal obligations. The Code should not be just a manual on how to manage such areas but
should assist on selecting the appropriate actions for the specific conditions (environmental,
climatic, social, economic). It should also include information and instructions for soil
sampling, use of wastes for crops irrigation (technical and financial aspects), waste disposal
Agricultural Wastes
267
on soil, periodical soil monitoring, soil remediation techniques, composting and existing
legislative framework.
CONCLUSION
Nowadays, the management of agricultural wastes is a significant environmental
problem, especially concerning (1) the uncontrolled disposal of wastes (e.g. olive oil mill
wastes, winery wastes, rice straw); (2) the excess use of nutrients and natural resources
(e.g. water, phosphoric minerals used for the production of fertilizers); (3) the potential to
increase recycling of nutrients and water with sustainable use of treated (or potentially
untreated) agricultural wastes.
Since agricultural wastes are rich in inorganic nutrients (micro- and macro- elements) and
organic matter, good management of agricultural wastes would contribute to:
normal/average
range
6-8 [1]
high/rich
very high
excessive
>4 mS/cm (salinity) [2-5]
2 mS/cm [1]
> 3.4% [6]
Exchangeable Mg
Exchangeable K
Exchangeable Ca
Comments
> 3 mg/kg
[2-
5]
* potential phytotoxicity
* phytotoxicity
3 [14]
DTPA-Fe
DTPA-Mn
DTPA-Zn
1.6-15 mg/dm
> 50 mg/kg
25-60 mg/dm3[14]
> 50 mg/kg [2-5]
10-50 mg/dm3 [14]
> 8.1 mg/kg [2-5]
2.4-15 mg/dm3 [14]
normal/average range
high/rich
Residual NO3-N
NO3
NO3- in soil solution
SO42- in soil
leachate
SO42--S in soil
Cl in soil leachate
Cl- in soil
very high
2-60 mg/L[38,39,43-45]
144-150 mg/L
excessive
>30 mg/kg
Comments
[10]
>132 mg/kg
Average range
[16]
[10]
NH4-N in soil
Extractable NH4+
Phenols
2-10 mg/kg
or up to 12.8 mg/kg in NH4+
form
28-280 mg/L [18]
target value : 0.05 mg/kg [19]
intervention value 40 mg/kg
[19]
270
REFERENCES
Adriaanse, A. (1993). Environmental Policy Performance Indicators. SDV Publishers, The
Hague.
Alburquerque, J.A., Gonzalvez, J., Garcia, D., & Cegarra, J. (2004). Agrochemical
characterization alperujo, a solid by-product of the two-phase centrifugation method of
olive oil extraction. Bioresource Technology, 91, 195-200.
Arai, T., Takaya, T., Ito, Y., Hayakawa, K., Tshima, S., Shibuya, C., Nomura, M., Yoshimi,
N., Shibayama, M., & Yasuda, Y. (1998). Bronchial asthma induced by rice. Journal of
Internal Medicine, 37, 98101.
Arshad, M.A., & Martin, S. (2002). Identifying critical limits for soil quality indicators in
agro-systems. Agricultural Ecosystems & Environment, 88, 153-160.
Bustamante, M.A., Paredes, C., Moral, R., Moreno-Caselles, J., Perez-Espinosa, A., & PerezMurcia M.D. (2005). Uses of winery and distillery effluents in agriculture:
characterization of nutrient and hazardous components. Water Science and Technology,
51, 145151.
Bustamante, M.A., Moral, R., Paredes, C., Perez-Espinosa, A., Moreno-Caselles, J., & PerezMurcia, M.D. (2008). Agrochemical characterization of the solid byproducts and residues
from the winery and distillery industry. Waste Management, 28, 372380.
Caputo, A.C., Scacchia, F., & Pelagagge, P.M. (2003). Disposal of by-products in olive oil
industry: waste-to-energy solutions. Applied Thermal Engineering, 23, 197214.
COM (2006) 231 final. Communication from the Commission to the Council, the European
Parliament, the European Economic and Social Committee and the Committee of the
Regions, Thematic Strategy for Soil Protection.
Council Directive 91/689/EEC of 12 December 1991 on hazardous waste.
Council Directive 1999/31/EC on the landfill of waste.
Council Directive 75/442/EEC of 15 July 1975 on waste.
Council Directive 86/278/EEC. European Communities (Drinking Water) (No. 2) Regulations
2007. S.I. No. 278 of 2007. Dublin: The Stationary Office.
Daly, D. (2004). Groundwater at Risk in Ireland - Putting Geoscientific Information and
Maps at the Core of Land Use and Environmental Decision-making, John Jackson
Memorial Lecture, Royal Dublin Society.
Devesa-Rey, R., Vecino, X., Varala-Alende, J.L., Barral, M.T., Cruz, J.M., & Moldes, A.B.
(2011). Valorization of winery waste vs. the costs of not recycling. Waste Management,
31, 2327-2335.
Doran, J.W., Sarrantonio, M., & Liebig, M.A. (1996). Soil health and sustainability.
Advances in Agronomy, 56, 154.
Doran, J.W., & Zeiss, M.R. (2000). Soil health and sustainability: managing the biotic
component of soil quality. Applied Soil Ecology, 15, 311.
Doula, M.K., Kavvadias, V., & Elaiopoulos, K. (2013). Proposed soil indicators for olive mill
wastes (OMW) disposal areas. Water, Air and Soil Pollution, 224, 1621-1631.
EC-DG (2001) Survey of wastes spread on land, Final Report, European Commission,
Directorate-General For Environment
Agricultural Wastes
271
272
Martinez, J., & Burton, C. (2003). Manure management and treatment: an overview of the
European situation. Proceedings XI International Congress ISAH 2003. 23 - 27 February
2003, Mexico City.
Modis, K., Papantonopoulos, G., Komnitsas, K., & Papaodysseus, K. (2008). Mapping
optimization based on sampling in earth related and environmental phenomena.
Stochastic Environmental Research & Risk Assessment, 22, 83-93.
OIV-International Organization of Vine and Wine. (2013). Available from:
http://www.oiv.int/oiv/cms/index.
OLEICO, LIFE04 ENV/IT/000409. (2013). Available from: http://www.lifeoleico.it.
OLEICO+, LIFE07/INF/IT/438. (2013). Available from: http://www.lifeoleicoplus.it.
Pandey, A.K., Gaind, S., Ali, A., & Nain, L. (2009). Effect of bioaugmentation and nitrogen
supplementation on composting of paddy straw. Biodegradation, 20, 293-306.
Paraskeva, P., & Diamadopoulos, E. (2006). Technologies for olive mill wastewater (OMW)
treatment: a review. Journal of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, 81, 1475-1485.
Perez-Piqueres, A., Edel-Hermann, V., Alabouvette, C., & Steinberg, C. (20060. Response of
soil microbial communities to compost amendments. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 38,
460-470.
PROSODOL, LIFE07 ENV/GR/000280.(2013). Available from: http://www.prosodol.gr.
Soil Science Society of America. (19860. Utilization, treatment and disposal of waste on land.
Workshop Proceedings, Chicago 6-7 December, U.S.A.
Stocking, M.A., & Murnaghan, N. (2001). Handbook for the field assessment of land
degradation. London, Earthscan Publication Ltd., UK.
heocharopoulos, S. P., Trikatsoula, A., Davidson, D. A., Tsouloucha, F., & Vavoulidou, E.
(1998). A Land Information System as a tool to assist decisions on the application of
sewage sludge on agricultural land in Greece. In H.J. Heineke, H. J. (Ed.) Land
Information Systems: Developments for planning the sustainable use of land resources.
European Soil Bureau, JRC, I-21020 Ispra, pp. 373-380.
Torigoe, K., Hasegawa, S., Numata, O., Yazaki, S., Matsumaga, M., Boku, N., Hiura, M., &
Ino, H., (2000). Influence of emission from rice straw burning on bronchial asthma in
children. Pediatrics International, 42, 143150.
USDA. (2008). Agricultural waste caharcateristics, In Agricultural wastes management field
handbook (Part 651). 210-VI-AWMFH.
USDA. (2010). Available from: http://www.ers.usda.gov/topics/crops/rice.aspx.
Viniegra, M.E., Cortes, T.T., & Cuevas, EM. (2001). Economic Valuation of Environment
Impact of Solid Waste Management, University de la America, Puebla.
REFERENCES OF ANNEX 1
Abreu, C.A., Raij, B., Abreu, M.F., & Gonzlez, A.P. (2005). Routine soil testing to monitor
heavy metals and boron. Scientia Agricola, 62, 564-571.
Alloway, B.J. (1995). Heavy metals in soils. London, Blackie Academic & Professional, p.
368.
Agricultural Wastes
273
Carrow, R.N., Stowell, L., Gelernter, W., Davis, S., Duncan, R.R., & Skorulski, J. (2004).
Clarifying soil testing: III. SLAN sufficiency ranges and recommendations. Golf Course
Management, 72, 194-198.
CCME. (2007). Canadian Soil Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Environmental and
Human Health. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment.
CFL. (1983). Soil Analysis Service Interpretation Charts. Consolidated Fertilizers Limited,
Morningside, Queensland, Australia.
Environment Agency (2001). Guidance on the disposal of contaminated soils. Version 3. UK,
p. 32.
European Communities (Drinking Water) (No. 2) Regulations 2007. S.I. No. 278 of 2007.
Dublin: The Stationary Office.
Fergusson, J.E. (1990). The Heavy Elements. Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health
Effects. Oxford, Pergamon Press, UK.
Ilaco, B.V. (1985). Agricultural Compendium for Rural Development in the Tropics and
Subtropics. Elsevier.
Kabata-Pendias, A., & Pendias, H. (1984). Trace elements in soils and plants. Florida, CRC
Press, Inc., p. 315.
Kelling, K.A. (1999). Soil and Applied Boron (A2522), University of Wisconsin System
Board of Reagents and University of Wisconsin Extension, Cooperative Extension, Dept.
Agric. US
Komnitsas, K., & Modis, K. (20090. Geostatistical risk estimation at waste disposal sites in
the presence of hot spots. Journal of Hazardous Materials, 164, 11851190.
Komnitsas, K., Guo, X., & Li, D. (2010). Mapping of soil nutrients in an abandoned Chinese
coal mine and waste disposal site. Minerals Engineering, 23, 627-635.
Levinson, A.A. (1974). Introduction to Exploration Geochemistry. Wilmette, Illinois, Applied
Publishing Ltd., p. 614.
Linzon, S.N. (1978). Phytotoxicity excessive levels of contaminats insoil and vegetation
Report of Ministry of the Environment Ontario, Canada.
Loveland, P., & Webb, J. (2003). Is there a critical level of organic matter in the agricultural
soils of temperate regions: a review. Soil & Tillage Research, 70, 118.
MAAF. (1988). Fertilizer Recommendations. Reference Book 209. London, HMSO.
Marx, E.S., Hart, J., Stevens, R.G. (1999). Soil Test Interpretation Guide EC 1478, Extension
& Station Communications, Oregon State University.
McDowell, R.W., & Sharpley, A.N. (2001). Approximating phosphorus release from soils to
surface runoff and subsurface drainage. Journal of Environmental Quality, 30, 508-520.
McDowell, R.W., Condron, L.M., Mahieu, N., Brookes, P.C., Poulton, P.R., & Sharpley,
A.N. (2002). Analysis of Potentially Mobile Phosphorus in Arable Soils Using Solid
State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance. Journal of Environmental Quality, 31, 450-456.
Mitra, G.N., Sahu, S.K., & Nayak, R.K. (2009). Ameliorating effects of potassium on iron
toxicity in soils of Orissa In The Role and Benefits of Potassium in Improving Nutrient
Management for Food Production, Quality and Reduced Environmental Damage. IPIOUAT-IPNI International Symposium, 5-7 November 2009, OUAT, Bhubaneswar,
Orissa, India.
Panagiotopoulos, L. (1995a). Potato fertilization, In Sustainable Crop Fertilization. Review.
Agriculture Crop and Animal Husbandry. The Greek Review of Science, Technology and
Business in Agriculture, Agro Typos SA, pp 227-231.
274
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 16
ABSTRACT
This chapter of the book analyses the internal and external social practices that
companies implement into their supply chains. The most common performance measures
used for assessing the influence of social practices are identified, and the impact of such
practices on company performance is analysed. The case-study based methodology
employed uses semi structured interviews in eight Portuguese companies. The results
indicate that company performance is positively affected by the implementation of social
practices into the supply chain, namely internal social practices.
1. INTRODUCTION
The twenty-first century has been marred by a worrying reality of climate change,
resource shortages, ecosystem collapse, economic vulnerability and other crises. Hence, a
wide ranging consensus has emerged on the need for an economic system where progress is
also measured according to improvements in the well-being of the population.
One of the problems of humanity is that while man is capable of understanding the
problems that he faces, he fails when it comes to planning effective solutions. This failing is
due, in large part, to an inability to understand that the whole is larger than its parts, and that
*
Corresponding author: Av. Visconde Guedes Teixeira, 5100-074 Lamego, Portugal, Email: lpinto@estgl.ipv.pt.
276
changing one of the elements always implies change for the other elements that make-up the
system (Meadows et al., 1972).
Sustainable Development (SD) was brought to the world political agenda by the United
Nations Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. This
summit reaffirmed the concept of SD, previously discussed by the Brundtland Report of
1987. Here, attention was called to the need for a new type of development, capable of
promoting progress across the whole planet, which in the long-term would be achievable by
all countries. SD as such represents a critical element that can only be achieved through a
balance between the objectives of economic prosperity, ideals of environmental protection
and guarantees of social equality, in accordance with the triple bottom line (TBL) perspective.
The literature associated with sustainable management of the supply chain uses the term
TBL to include all types of values, topics and processes that organisations should adopt.
Besides economic objectives, this also covers environmental and social aspects, so as to
minimise any possible damage that results from their activities, helping create economic,
social and environmental value (Elkington, 1998).
Companies are undergoing a revolution, implementing new operational strategies and
technologies in response to the challenges and demands that have arisen from the surrounding
environment. Companies have to surmount such obstacles to be able to satisfy customers
demands for high-quality, low-cost products. To this end, they must be extremely flexible so
as to rapidly respond to continual changes in their customers requirements (Simchi-Levi et
al., 2008)
Effective management of the supply chain is an essential strategy for success in global
markets. The possibilities afforded by the concept of Supply Chain Management (SCM) are
being explored and applied by companies to increase their growth, helping develop agile
supply chains that can bring products to market more quickly and cheaply (Gunasekaran et
al., 2007).
SCM focuses on integrating processes that make-up the supply chain; an integrated
analysis of the supply chain provides the best starting point for achieving the best global
solutions. SCM may be defined as an integration of a set of activities, resulting from
improvements in the relations between the supply chain members, so as to create a
sustainable competitive advantage (Handfield & Nichols, 1999). The supply chain members
include all the organisations which the focal company collaborates with, either directly or
indirectly. As such, supply chain management is an important factor when it comes to
maximising the synergies between all parts involved (Cooper et al., 1997).
The supply chain can be described as a group of organisations that act as a network to
control, manage and improve the flow of materials, products, services and information, using
upstream and downstream linkages, in different processes and activities, which can be
effectively managed to fulfil the business needs (Christopher, 2004). In this way, each supply
chain can be seen to compete with other supply chains, pushing to one side the obsolete
vision that each supplier competes on an individual basis with others that offer the same
product or service (Mentzer et al., 2001; Hugos, 2011).
Organisations are confronted on a daily basis with pressures from the media, nongovernmental organisations (NGO), the surrounding communities and requirements imposed
by environmental legislation. In addition, consumers demand increased transparency and
responsibility for the conditions under which their products are produced and distributed, and
respect for the environment and human rights. This obliges companies to rethink the way in
277
which they do business, as they become more conscious of their responsibility to guarantee
the long-term future for mankind (Hay et al., 2005; Kleindorfer et al., 2005; Sarkis et al.,
2011).
The companies that are part of global supply chains face a high level of complexity,
dealing with a large number of suppliers, ever increasing customer expectations and differing
legal requirements for controlling social and environmental aspects. With the push for
sustainable development, the pressures to effectively manage supplier relationships and the
demand for ecologically correct and socially responsible products and services have increased
in various countries worldwide (Carter & Jennings, 2004; Geffen & Rothenberg, 2000; Porter
& Kramer, 2006). All these pressures, coming from the different stakeholders, present a
significant challenge to company managers, encouraging them to integrate sustainable
practices into their supply chains.
Sustainable companies have to ensure the production of their products without causing
environmental damage while at the same time complying with social standards (Seuring,
2004). Choosing to ignore this problem means they face a significant risk to their reputation
and market appeal, having to justify their choice of suppliers to the media and confront NGO
criticisms (Lawrence, 2002). The saturation, fragmentation and deregulation of markets, as
well as rising competitive pressures, all mean that reputation is of the utmost importance to
publically visible companies.
There are a number of NGOs that dedicate their work to highlighting inhumane working
conditions, especially in less developed countries. Their work helps uncover strategies used
by companies based in developed countries to profit from these unfair working conditions; to
reduce costs, companies transfer a large part of their processes which add value, to suppliers
based in countries with lower cost bases. These companies put their image and reputation at
risk, namely due to the poor working conditions which the workers endure (Beske et al.,
2008; Cheung et al., 2009; Reuter et al., 2010). Consumer boycotts of certain products or
services and the attention of the media illustrate this type of risk to a companys reputation
(Locke, 2003; Teuscher et al., 2006).
We are now at a point where consumers, the media and the regulating bodies all require
that companies show how they have accounted for aspects related to sustainability over all
phases of the supply chain (Beske et al., 2008; Leire & Mont, 2010). To this end, companies
have to identify new criteria for selecting and evaluating suppliers. This process reflects the
need to incorporate environmental and social directives and implement control mechanisms
and compliance checks, which should then be replicated downstream to other suppliers (Zhu
et al., 2005). With dwindling resources available and with pressures mounting from the
different stakeholders, companies came to the conclusion that the supply chains have to be
redesigned: they need to be environmentally friendly and use resources optimally (Carter &
Jennings, 2004).
Sustainable Supply Chain Management (SSCM) covers numerous areas of environmental
and social responsibility, such as, the prevention of child labour and forced labour, the
substitution of toxic substances in manufacturing processes, the excessive consumption of
energy and material and also the protection of biodiversity (Bai &Sarkis, 2010; Gold et al.,
2010; Seuring & Mller, 2008; Wittstruck & Teuteberg, 2011). To be able to manage all these
areas, companies employ universally accepted guidelines or standards, such as international
standards for certifying management systems covering quality, the environment, occupational
278
health and safety, or GRI directives (Beske et al., 2008; Koplin et al., 2007; Seuring &
Mller, 2008).
The literature reviews available covering SSCM show the growing interest in this theme,
which is still dominated by the research into environmental practices in the supply chain,
namely the relationship between economic and environmental performance. This discussion
largely leaves social questions untouched, which can justifiably considered to be an important
area of research (Cagliano et al., 2010; Carter & Easton, 2011; Hoejmose & Adrien-Kirby,
2012; Pagell & Wu, 2009; Pullman et al., 2009; Seuring & Mller, 2008; Carter & Rogers,
2008; Teuteberg &Wittstruck, 2010).
This chapter will devote its discussion to the social dimension of sustainability. As noted
above, this is an area where less research has been carried out, with questions surrounding the
management of social issues in the supply chain receiving much less attention then they
deserve.
2. LITERATURE REVIEW
A failure to correctly comply with social practices can have serious repercussions for a
companys competitiveness and economic performance as well as its reputation and image in
the marketplace (Schaltegger & Wagner, 2006).
There are various examples of companies that saw their reputation tarnished due to a
failure to implement social practices in their activities. Ensuing judicial proceedings and the
loss of current and potential customers mean large costs for the companies involved. Recent
examples include Nike, whose sales fell sharply following accusations that it was guilty of
having purchased from suppliers using child labour; Foxconn Technology Group, the largest
manufacturer of electronic components for computers in the world, producers of the iMac,
iPod, iPad and the iPhone for Apple, which were accused of dozens of labour law violations
at their factories in China, including excessive working hours, not paying salaries and salaries
that did not cover minimum living standards; Walmart, which was accused by a number of
unions and community groups of obliging workers to work more hours than contracted,
denying payment of overtime, rest periods and lunch breaks; and Mattel, which in 2007 had
to recall almost one million toys in the United States because the paint used contained lead,
originating with a supplier in China.
More recently, Bangladesh had to confront one of its worst episodes in recent times. The
country is the second largest textile exporter in the world, with over 4,500 factories involved
in the industry. In 2013, a building housing various factories collapsed, causing the death of
1,229 workers and wounding more than 2,500 people. The image of numerous internationally
recognised brand names was affected including H&M, Tesco, Benetton, Mango and
Walmart. A swathe of sanctions followed from western countries, aggravating the standard of
living in a country which is one of the twenty poorest in the world.
These examples show that all members of the supply chain (namely suppliers) need to
incorporate and comply with social criteria. Hopefully, this will contribute to maintaining the
firm competitive as the performance of the company can be negatively affected if
environmental and social criteria are ignored by suppliers (Seuring & Mller, 2008).
279
Up to now, little research has been carried out regarding the implementation of social
practices into the supply chain and their relationship to company performance (Cagliano et al.
2010). Gimnez et al. (2012) analysed the impact of environmental and social practices on the
environmental, social and economic performance. Caniato et al. (2011) looked at a set of
sustainable management practices in the supply chain and performance indicators with a view
to understanding the relationships between these elements and their impact on the supply
chain. Pullman et al. (2009) analysed the environmental and social practices in the supply
chain and their impact on environmental performance, quality and costs in the food products
sector. Yakovleva et al. (2009) studied economic, environmental and social performance in
the supply chain for the food products industry. Using statistical data together with specialist
opinions, they constructed a general sustainability index for the food products supply chain,
using three sustainability dimensions (economic, environmental and social) to measure the
sustainability of the supply chain. De Brito et al. (2008) analysed how it is that the companies
in the textile sector supply chain can improve their economic, environmental and social
performance by implementing a set of environmental and social practices.
The literature reviewed shows that little research has been carried out on the subject of
social practices and their relationship with performance. Few studies cover internal and
external social practices, and no study has dedicated itself to covering the implementation of
internal and external social practices and their relationship to economic, environmental and
social performance. To this end, this study seeks to identify the internal and external social
practices implemented by companies in the supply chain, both upstream and downstream, the
associated indicators used and the impact of applying social practices on the economic,
environmental and social performance of the focal company.
280
ethical work code; and the Global Reporting Initiative (GRI) created an international report
on corporate social responsibility and sustainability, highlighting the importance of
considering the workplace and human rights, as well as the socioeconomic development of
the community in general and society.
These approaches are concerned not only with the practices of one particular company,
but are also interested in the supply chain partners for the whole product life cycle. In other
words, the social dimension of sustainability refers to the human capital in the supply chain.
Thus, an improvement in the social aspect of sustainability requires the development and
maintenance of commercial practices which are just and fair for the worker and the
communities in the supply chain.
According to Elkington (2004), the questions relating to the internal environment of the
organisation are linked to human resources practices. These may include, the recognition,
appreciation and encouragement of workforce skills with appropriate human resources
policies; practices of equality, development and well-being; the creation and maintenance of
an environment which is participative and open to worker development; fair pay; adequate
working conditions; and training and adaptation programmes, or in other words, a set of
practices designed to bolster skills and competencies and consequently improve worker
satisfaction (Daily & Huang 2001; Gauthier, 2005; Gimenez et al., 2012, Walker & Jones,
2012).
The external environment of the organisation refers to the relationship with the
communities surrounding the factory buildings and society in general. The objective here is to
guarantee quality of life for the population and a good relationship with the different
stakeholders. This relationship should be managed using democratic and ethical decision
making processes, showing responsibility for the products and services offered, considering
the impact on both customers and the wider community who support the negative
externalities created in the process (Pullman et al., 2009).
In this respect, the external social practices go beyond the limits of the focal company,
extending to the members of the supply chain (such as suppliers and customers), and to the
relations with other stakeholders (such as local communities). In a bid to make supply chains
more socially responsible, many companies are implementing codes of conduct for their
suppliers as an integral part of evaluative and collaborative tools (Amaeshi et al., 2008;
Andersen & Skjoett-Larsen, 2008; Mont & Leire, 2008). Internal social practices refer to
employment practices, touching on subjects such as gender balance, discrimination,
opportunities for career advancement, and occupational health and safety in the workplace.
External social practices consider the relationship with stakeholders to be contractual, as is
the case with suppliers and customers, as well as local communities and NGOs.
Several questions are related to the issue of sustainability in the supply chain. Most of
these are not related to environmental and economic questions but are related to social
aspects. No consensus exists in the literature as to the social impacts and the way in which
they can be measured. Two trends are worth mentioning here: Corporate Social
Responsibility and Life Cycle Analysis. This last trend has spawned a new approach to social
questions called Societal Life Cycle Assessment (Jorgensen et al., 2008). A wide range of
standards and codes of conduct exist for companies to contemplate, containing
recommendations regarding the implementation of environmental and social practices with
associated indicators, including their respective metrics (e.g., GRI, Fair Labor Association
281
Guides, Dow Jones Sustainability Index). This variety reflects the fact that the social facet of
sustainability is difficult to measure.
Based on the literature surveyed, the social practices used in this study are shown in
Table 1.
Table 1. Internal and external social practices and social performance indicators
Practices
Internal
social
practices
Practices
Internal social
management
Employment
practices
Health and
safety
External
social
practices
Social
collaboration
with customers
Social
collaboration
with suppliers
Collaboration
with the
community
Indicators
Commitment by top management to social management
Support for social management by the middle layers of
management
Inter functional cooperation for social improvements
Ethical codes and codes of conduct
SA 8000 certification and systems of social management (e.g.,
GRI)
Gender balance and equality of opportunities
Flexible working regimes
Career progression opportunities
Training and education
Relationship between workers and management
Abolition of child labour
Prevention of forced labour and slavery
Disciplinary procedures
Opportunities for career development
Satisfaction
Flexible working hours
Rotation of workers
Benefits for part-time and full-time workers
Number of workplace accidents
Absenteeism
Hours of security training per worker
Compliance with standards (e.g., OSHAS 18001)
Health and safety training
Security procedures
Customer health and safety
Labelling of products and services
Marketing communications
Customer privacy
Compliance
Consumer education
Codes of conduct
Abolition of child labour
Preventing forced labour and slavery
Health and security in the workplace (e.g., OSHAS 18001)
Security procedures
Supplier evaluation, including social aspects
Support for teaching institutions
Support for community projects
Security
Economic growth and well-being
Social cohesion
Grants and donations
Partnerships
282
2.2. Performance
A performance measurement system is defined as the ability that companies have to
attract and retain clients in a market that is increasingly competitive (Neely, 1999). Given that
we can only manage that that we are able to measure, measuring performance is fundamental
for any organisation to manage its activities and operations, at the same time being an
important pre-requisite for an improvement process (Sink & Tuttle, 1989). According to
Hervani et al. (2005), performance measurement allows, for example, the efficiency and
effectiveness of an existing system to be determined or alternative systems compared.
Lambert (2008) sees the lack of adequate measurements as potentially compromising
customer satisfaction, having consequences for organisational performance and increasing the
probability that opportunities for improving supply chain performance are wasted.
Performance measurement is, as such, crucial to improving the management of the supply
chain (Wong, 2009).
Neely et al. (1999) defend the idea that performance evaluation systems are a set of
metrics that measure the effectiveness and efficiency of an organisation. The indicators, or
performance measures, should be defined so as to monitor the effort that the organisations put
into the different company activities designed to achieve sustainable development; crucially,
they should then be evaluated in comparison with the competition. The SSCM performance
measurement involves quantifying the efficiency and efficacy of all the activities and
processes surrounding sustainable supply chain activities (Neely et al., 2008).
Measuring sustainable performance is much more complex than measuring the traditional
economic performance for three reasons: (i) There is a need to add two additional dimensions
to classic economic performance: social and environmental performance (Epstein & Roy,
2003); (ii) performance is not measured only in terms of customer expectations, but also in
terms of the expectations of the different stakeholders in the organisation (Freeman, 2005);
(iii) there is a need for transparency in the information exchanged between the different
upstream members of the supply chain, even though these are normally outside the control of
the focal company (Amaeshi et al., 2008). Evaluating the efficiency and efficacy in this case
has proved a challenge, both for researchers and companies (Schaefer, 2004).
The expectation is that implementing social practices will lead to an improvement in the
associated indicators, namely those relating to the satisfaction and motivation of the
workforce, improvements in the security conditions in the workplace and number of
workplace accidents. Previous work, while not being directly related to the study of internal
and external social practices (Cagliano et al., 2010; Gimenez et al., 201; Pullman et al., 2009),
found that companies should recognise, value and involve human resources, with practices
and policies that promote equality, career progression and equal opportunities, leading to
increased motivation and satisfaction among employees. Cagliano et al. (2010) concluded that
training is a key factor for improving social and environmental performance, and the
incentives are positively related to social performance. This is because other practices, such
as teamwork, do not contribute to environmental and social performance. In other words,
social practices by themselves, when they are not applied as part of a wider initiative, do not
contribute to performance improvements. Gimenez et al. (2012) provide evidence that
implementing social practices, such as improvements in health and safety for the company,
improve the social reputation. Pullman et al. (2009), found that the implementation of social
practices in the food products industry helps improve product quality.
283
Drawing on the indicators found in the different studies cited in the literature review, the
GRI, the indicators of the occupational health management systems, and others, the KPIs are
grouped around:
Economic performance, which aims to quantify the impact of the adopted social
practices for the focal firm, and the supply chain, in terms of sales, Earnings Before
Interest, Taxes, Depreciation and Amortization (EBITDA);
Social performance, which aims to analyse the impact of adopted social practices for
the focal firm and the supply chain, in terms of number of injuries, number of
working hours lost due to illness, the accident frequency and severity index,
absenteeism rate, overall staff turnover rate and training.
2.3. Methodology
The research methodology was defined in accordance with the recommendations of Voss
et al. (2002), with the research variables being defined by the literature review and interview
protocols. Yin (1984) defines a case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a
contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context; when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence
are used.
A number of case studies were used to investigate the social practices implemented by
companies in different sectors of the economy and positions in the supply chain (Yin, 2009).
This approach also helps to identify those social practices that most influence company
performance. Studying more than one industry allows specific characteristics to be identified
for the different sectors, increasing the external validity of the results, even if the internal
validity is somewhat compromised.
The sample is composed of a set of companies which include sustainable strategies in
their business processes. This selection was made using secondary data (e.g. companies that
prepare sustainability reports, companies with ISO 9001 or ISO 14001 certification, or in the
process of attaining ISO 14001 certification). Their approach to transparency was also
evaluated by looking at the company websites, published sustainability reports, ethical codes
and codes of conduct, and media reports.
On this basis, a diverse set of industries was selected for evaluating the links between
social practices and economic, environmental and social performance. The sample is
described in Table 2, detailing the business sector, number of employees and turnover. Data
for the number of employees and the turnover are from 2012.
Many different procedures were used, combining a large number of techniques for
collecting and processing information. This reflects the objective of developing an in-depth
analysis of the different practices used and their relation to performance.
Data collection in this study makes use of semi-structured interviews, combined with
analysis of documents and in loco analysis. This approach provides different perspectives on
the phenomena being studied and helps increase the validity of the results. Collection of
empirical data, as such, used both primary and secondary sources:
284
Industry
Glass
Cork
Automotive components
Wood based panels
Office and commercial
furniture
Automotive Assembly
Drinks
Automotive textiles
Annual Turnover
(million EUR)
95
318
85
1.321
8,6
Number of
employees
350
927
348
177
122
216
498
44
190
1500
182
i)
Semi-structured direct interviews: the main method of data collection used twentytwo (22) semi-structured interviews held with different members of the organisation
executive director, purchasing manager, environmental and/or safety manager.
ii) The sustainability reports and other external communication instruments: the code of
conduct, the ethics code and company policy were analysed, together with
information available on the companys websites, press releases and a variety of
documents for external communications, complemented by internal documents
supplied by the companies.
The case studies were developed around a protocol for semi-structured interviews
(Eisenhart, 1989), drawing on the main questions that arose out of the literature review of
sustainable practices in the supply chain. In this type of interview, the researcher constructs a
guide, with a set of open questions. However, the interviewer is at liberty to alter the order of
the questions, or even to formulate others, according to the responses of the interviewee.
The interview protocol was previously tested by specialists and researchers in the area,
and with those responsible for the different areas in two of the companies selected for
interviews. At this stage the interviews were first sent by e-mail and then held face-to-face,
helping check that the questions were appropriate and clear. This phase helped to improve the
research and the presentation of the questions.
Three people were individually interviewed in most of the companies studied, namely the
general manager, environment and safety manager and the purchasing manager. In companies
where the functional areas were managed by more than one person, the different people were
interviewed but care was taken to only cover the individuals area of responsibility (see Table
3). In other cases, where only one person was interviewed (for a number of reasons, including
availability), care was taken so that the same scripts were replied to separately. In each
interview session the same semi structured interview protocols were used, helping avoid
undue bias on the part of the interviewer.
Most of the interviews in each company lasted for around three-quarters of an hour and
were held at the companys premises. The interviewees were previously briefed in the
objectives of the study by a letter sent via e-mail. The place, date and time of the interviews
285
were arranged by e-mail and telephone. The interview protocol was also provided and the
intended objectives of the interview were once again explained.
The interviews were carried out according to the functional role of each of the
interviewees and the research questions that are the object of this study. In summary, for each
company:
i)
The general manager provided information on the sustainability strategy, the motives
for and barriers to the implementation of sustainable practices, the economic,
environmental and social indicators used and the performance achieved by applying
these practices;
ii) The purchasing manager supplied information on the purchasing policy, the selection
and evaluation of suppliers and the way in which environmental and social practices
are integrated into the purchasing process. The performance of the suppliers in
relation to the adopted practices was also covered;
iii) The environmental and/or safety manager supplied information regarding the
operational social practices in place, as well as the relationship between these
practices and the performance obtained. The environmental and social practices in
respect of the customers were also included.
Recording the interviews helped increase the information captured, registering all
elements of the communication exchange, including pauses for reflection, doubts or
intonation in the voice, and providing a detailed account of the narrative (Schraiber, 1995).
When the interviews were over they were then transcribed, listening to the recording
several times before writing down the content, including signs indicating questions,
syllabification and other nuances of the interview. The expressions and grammatical errors
were removed from the transcription, providing a clean text in case it was necessary to
present this to the interviewee for comment (Lage, 2001). Following from the transcription of
the information, the data analysis was begun. Although identical questions were used for all
the companies, the interviewees were able to freely describe their opinions in response to
open questions.
This research also made use of secondary data including sustainability reports and other
external communication instruments: codes of conduct, ethical codes, company accounts,
corporate reports and company policies. These documents were analysed together with the
information available in the company websites, press releases and other miscellaneous
external communication documents, as well as internal documents supplied by the company.
The data collected from the different interviews were triangulated. This process was
designed to avoid discrepancies and improve the trustworthiness and validity (Eisenhart,
1989, Yin, 2009). To this end, the methodology adopted triangulated the data collected from
the semi structured interviews held with the different subjects; the sustainability reports; and
other secondary data, including both external communications(as itemised above) and internal
documents relating to practices of the company.
The data collected was analysed to see if similar patterns existed regarding the impact of
social practices on the different dimensions of company performance (sustainability,
economic, environmental and social).
286
Characterisation
Interviewee
1
Executive
Director
C1
Job Description
C2
Length*
Job Description
65
General
Manager
C3
Length
Job Description
68
Manager
Length
Job Description
95
Business
Administrator
Interviewee
2
Environmental
and Safety
Manager
99
Health and Safety
and
Environmental
Manager
95
Integrated
Systems Manager
Interviewee
3
Purchasing
Manager
105
Purchasing
Manager
Non-Cork
58
Purchasing
Manager
Interviewee
4
--
Human
Resources
Manager
45
Communication
and Public
Relations
Manager
45
--
195
67
Environmental
Purchasing
and Safety
Manager
Manager
Length
96
90
85
C5 Job Description
Quality, Environmental and Safety Manager
Length
217
C6 Job Description
Environmental, Safety and Sustainability Manager
Length
215
C7 Job Description General
Environmental
Purchasing
--Manager
and Safety
and Logistics
Manager
Manager
Length
70
86
58
-C8 Job Description General
Human
Purchasing
-Manager
Resources
Manager
Manager
Length
95
98
84
-* The time length of the interviews is shown in minutes.
C4
287
288
indicators are monitored on a daily and/or monthly basis, with either monthly or quarterly
analysis. The eight companies studied are proactive in terms of human resources and safety,
enacting different programmes designed to reduce accidents in the workplace, reduce
absenteeism, or increase worker motivation and satisfaction. The projects put in place vary in
size, depending on the company involved. Companies C2 and C6 have specific plans for
sustainability, reflecting the more direct commitment and involvement of top management to
the issue of sustainability.
Employment practices in all companies treat people as fundamental for achieving the
objectives proposed. A number of actions are envisaged for helping to involve and motivate
the workers in questions related with sustainability. The involvement and active participation
of the workers in the identification and resolution of problems related to environmental and
social issues is reflected in the large number of activities and projects that specifically target
worker awareness in this area.
Some of the companies in this study show more evidence of worker involvement than
others. Company C2 has specific projects and plans for retaining critical skills, helping to
ensure the sustainability of the business. Company C8 involves its employees in a variety of
activities such as Kaizen, Jishuken, and Quality Control Circles, encouraging the creation of
working groups that cover different areas.
Three of the companies aside, the study found numerous internal activities being
developed that involve the workers, such as: collection of food products; collection of waste
oil; blood donation; commemorating Environment Day; Safety Day, and International
Womens Day, among others. Other companies invested in more general projects to
encourage organisational culture and identity. This was the case with companies C2 and C6,
where activities seek to stimulate interdepartmental knowledge.
Two of the companies studied (C2 and C4) make particular use of Idea Management
Systems. Covering all the companies in the group, these systems seek to identify innovative
ideas and measures for improving management, the processes or the organisation. Covering
all business units and including all employees, rewards are available for those that come up
with the best ideas and suggestions.
Companies consider communication and transparency to be fundamental, with a variety
of different means of communication being used. Examples include a company portal, or the
publication of newsletters, while C6 has an internal television channel where employees are
kept up to date with the different activities of the company in different areas.
Training is considered to be a priority initiative by all companies, helping to encourage
changes in attitudes and behaviour. To this end, all companies invest heavily in the training of
their employees, including the areas of the environment and safety.
The companies do undertake an evaluation of the satisfaction and performance of their
employees. Some of the companies in the study use performance related pay, which may be
linked to individual or global indicators.
289
variety of actions were seen to be implemented to avoid workplace accidents and work related
diseases.
To identify the external social practices and analyse the level of implementation by the
companies, the different data was collated and summarised, as shown in Table 5.
Looking at external social practices, and in particular social collaboration with the
community, five of the eight companies studied were involved in social activities within the
community. These activities seek to raise awareness among employees of the need to adopt
social behaviours and extend to the implementation of activities for and with the community,
such as: collecting food products and clothing; collecting school books; financial donations;
voluntary activities in the local community; visits to educational establishments; and
partnerships with non-profit making organisations.
The relationship with the community is also implemented at a more academic level.
Collaborative ventures are common with schools and universities, leading to study visits,
placements and research work. Competitions are also used to encourage innovation in
partnership with different associations. Companies collaborate with non-profit organisations
on projects, which, as stated by the employees, consist of school visits that help develop
entrepreneurial spirit in children and young people. Three of the companies studied, C2, C3
and C6, carry out charity work with a diverse range of non-profit associations.
The company employees take part in colloquia and conferences to share best practice. In
all companies, apart from C5 and C7, interaction occurs with associations linked to the area
of social sustainability, including WBCSD, BCSD Portugal, EPIS, GRACE, the Global
Compact Network Portugal and the United Nations Global Compact.
Two of the companies studied, C2 and C8, have non-profit foundations, designed to
promote solidarity and stimulate community initiatives of an ethical, religious, cultural and
civil nature, besides the dimension of social and cultural support. They focus on support for
children and needy young people in the companys home region, following their progress in
school and creating opportunities for developing successful life projects. One of the
foundations awards prizes to employees that complete any year of schooling/training in the
educational system, also paying fees and textbooks to the orphans of employees and paying
out bonuses for births and marriages.
Social collaboration with the suppliers is based on interaction with the organisations that
make-up the supply chain. Here the different elements join together in planning activities
related to social questions, working so as to prevent and resolve social problems.
Table 5. Level of implementation with external social practices
Companies
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8
Social collaboration with the community
I
I
I
N
N
I
I
N
Social collaboration with suppliers
I
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
Social collaboration with customers
L
I
L
I
L
L
I
L
I Implementation of practices; L Limited implementation of practices; N No implementation of
practices.
External social practices
290
The relationship with the suppliers covering social questions complements that covering
environmental questions. C1 was found to have a code of conduct, which can be applied to all
suppliers, tier one and below, while the code in place at C4 is applicable only to tier one
suppliers. All companies have specific, very rigid regulations for service providers, requiring
a series of documents of a social, safety and environmental nature, which is not the case for
product suppliers. The current economic situation means that smaller suppliers are
experiencing many difficulties, leading companies to become more concerned with, and
sensitive to, social problems, such as late payment of salaries and delays in paying taxes. In
exceptional cases, C1 has been known to financially support its suppliers.
It should be stated that most suppliers to the companies studied have certified
management systems in one or more of the following areas: quality, environment, health and
safety in the workplace, and social responsibility. In turn, the companies then assure that their
suppliers comply with the legislation and standards.
Social questions start with the selection of suppliers and the respective auditing. Most of
the suppliers of the companies in question are from the European Union, where legislation is
very demanding and the social conduct rules must be upheld. These social conduct rules are
based on fundamental human rights found in conventions and international treaties, namely
the Universal Declaration of Human Rights from the United Nations and the International
Labor Organisation. The companies have an image to defend and as such do not wish to be
associated with companies that use child labour, forced labour, or slavery. None of the
companies studied jointly develop activities with their suppliers to meet social objectives.
The focal company customer relationship is at the heart of social collaboration with
customers, working towards making supply chains more socially responsible. This is based
on democratic and ethical decision making, taking responsibility for the impacts created by
the companys products and services on both customers and the wider community (which are
affected by negative externalities from other citizens consumption). Some of the areas of
action noted by customers were: the traceability of products, packaging integrity, product
labelling, health and safety of customers, responsible marketing, education and customer
privacy.
The companies studied guaranteed their customers quality products by defining
requirements and technical specifications which are subject to rigorous quality control and
legislative compliance within the companys sector of activity. These measures ensure the
health and safety of the customers and end consumers by controlling raw materials,
components and packaging.
Some of the companies are more forthright about their commitments in this area. This is
the case of C7 which runs responsible marketing campaigns based on commitments with
associations in the sector, amid other activities, such as: improvements in nutritional
information, including recommended daily intake on the label of the products; or bringing out
new products with a low glycaemic level. Company C4 commits itself to supplying its
customers and end consumers sufficient and reliable information regarding the nature, origin,
proper use and disposal of products. Companies C2 and C3 are measuring their carbon
footprint; in the case of C2, the companys activity is shown to benefit the planet in terms of
greenhouse gas emissions, absorbing more CO2 than it emits.
All the companies are united in their effort and dedication towards the question of
sustainability. These companies do not consider sustainability to be just a legal obligation, but
291
they believe that besides making profits, they have to work to achieve benefits for all
interested parties, society and the surrounding environment.
3.3. Performance
After having collated the data for the eight companies being studied, the most common
indicators of economic and social performance were listed, as shown in Table 6.
Table 6 shows commonly used indicators by companies to measure economic and social
performance. As can be seen in the table, the economic indicators used to measure economic
performance are sales and EBITDA (Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, and
Amortization).
In relation to the social indicators, the number of accidents and the frequency index are
monitored by all companies in the study. Six companies monitor the severity index and five
companies monitor the number of working days lost. The incidence rate and the number of
working hours lost due to illness are monitored by four companies.
Only three companies monitored the indicator covering workplace related illnesses. As
with the environmental indicators, C3 stands out by using a BSC for health and safety, with
indicators defined in four areas: accidents and workplace related illness; working conditions;
supply chain and stakeholders; and emergencies and continuous improvement. Only one
company monitors workplace incidents which follow the same process of analysis as that for
accidents.
Out of all the indicators used to measure external social practices, the customer
satisfaction rate is one of the indicators used by all of the companies to measure collaboration
with customers. Those companies that measure collaboration with the community use the
number of activities carried out, and, more generically, the result obtained from those
activities. As regards social collaboration with suppliers, the indicators used for measuring
this practice are related to supplier evaluation.
To study the relationship between the implementation of social practices and the
economic and social performance, a comparative analysis of the data for the eight companies
was carried out. To collect evidence of this relationship, the different interviewees were
questioned regarding the particular relationship that they felt existed between the
implementation of social practices and performance.
Table 6. Performance indicators
Economic Indicators
Sales
EBITDA
Social Indicators
Number of accidents
Number of working hours lost due to illness
Accident frequency index
Accident severity index
Absenteeism rate
Overall staff turnover rate
Training hours per employee
Age profile
Breakdown by gender
292
While certain trade-offs are considered part of the relationship between implementing
social practices and economic performance, three companies studied found that social
practices generate a positive effect on economic performance, increasing motivation,
satisfaction and pride among employees, with consequent effects on the product quality,
productivity and profitability for the company. However, differing opinions exist in two of
the companies, referring to difficulties in establishing a positive relationship between internal
social practices and performance. According to the interviews given, the relationship between
social practices and environmental performance (where this relationship was found to exist) is
positive. For most companies, this is a relationship that is hard to verify, although the
existence of environmental and social awareness by the employees does lead to a reduction in
risk.
Generally speaking, all companies studied were found to be unanimous in their opinion:
there is a positive relationship between implementing practices of health and safety and social
performance. This positive relationship is enhanced by drops in absenteeism, the number of
accidents and their severity, as well as costs associated with overtime all factors which
understandably have considerable economic impacts. It is without doubt that a win-win
relationship exists between internal social practices and social performance, with effects on
economic performance.
External social practices, namely those focused on the community, do not have a positive
relationship with economic performance. However, the objective is not to achieve an increase
in performance; these practices are related to the culture of the organisation, with a set of
intrinsic principles and values which have repercussions on reputation and image in the
marketplace. In other words, besides the internal impacts, the external impacts are reflected in
the recognition of companies by the wider community, such as with awards, partnerships
being forged with NGOs and participation in different research projects with different
stakeholders.
CONCLUSION
This chapter sought to analyse social practices and their relationship with economic and
social performance. To this end, a literature review was carried out to identify the internal and
external social practices and the associated performance indicators. Using eight medium and
large Portuguese companies, the most common practices used by the companies were
identified, along with the economic and social key performance indicators. An analysis of the
relationship between social practices and performance then followed.
The study carried out found that the actions of companies cannot be dissociated from
access to the resources that support their activities and the way in which they organise their
processes and implement social practices for continuous improvement of their businesses.
All companies studied employ widespread use of social practices, namely internal
practices. Application is based on certified management systems (reflecting internationally
recognised standards), and inter functional cooperation, that is enshrined in annually defined
objectives covering the different departmental managers, using diverse management
methodologies.
293
All except two of the companies embrace external social practices, developing actions in
the community of a social nature that are designed to increase employee awareness of the
importance of adopting sustainable behaviours, implementing activities for and with the
community. The companies studied guarantee their customers a quality product by defining
technical requirements that are subject to rigorous quality control and the legislation in the
sector where the company operates. Some companies are more forthright about their
behaviour in this area, using responsible marketing campaigns which vary depending on the
size of the company and the resources available. Nevertheless, the absence of joint decisions
to reduce environmental impact, with no joint plans implemented to anticipate and resolve
environmental problems, leads us to conclude that the implementation of such practices is
limited.
It is worth noting that the commitment to social practices varies according to the strategy
and size of the company, the financial resources and the needs and demands of the customers.
The observed diversity increases when considering training and awareness projects involving
employees and the levels of social collaboration with the community, suppliers and
customers.
Overall, drawing on the experience of the eight companies studied, it can be concluded
that implementing social practices has a positive impact on the social performance of the
company. Differing opinions were found in relation to the impact on economic performance.
However, when a relationship was found to exist, most interviewees thought it positive.
These results can help the professionals to understand how to implement social practices and
identify the impact that each practice has on performance. It can also help companies to
decide which social practices should be implemented, considering their relative social and
economic impact.
As with any other study, there are some recognisable limitations here which can
hopefully be improved upon with future studies. In particular, while the sample includes
companies from different sectors of the economy, it is based on a sample of eight case
studies. This limits the possibilities for generalising the results obtained to other contexts.
One of the paths for future work relates to the possibility of generalising the conclusions
obtained to other contexts. This can be done by replicating the research using other
companies in other sectors or by applying the methodology to small and medium sized
companies from other sectors of the Portuguese economy. Another suggestion for carrying
out future work would be the use of longitudinal case studies. This approach would help
analyse the implementation and structural dimensions of social practices and economic and
social performance over time. This technique benefits the analysis by providing a more
complete vision of the phenomenon, especially as sustainable management of the supply
chain is an emerging area, and the attitudes and behaviours can change significantly between
the short and long term.
REFERENCES
Amaeshi, K., Osuji, O. & Nnodim, P. (2008). Corporate Social Responsibility in Supply
Chains of Global Brands: A Boundaryless Responsibility? Clarications, Exceptions and
Implications. Journal of Business Ethics, Vol. 81, N1, 223234.
294
295
296
Sink, D. & Tuttle, T. (1989). Planning and measurement in your organization of the future.
Georgia: Industrial Engineering and Management Press.
Sloan, T. W. (2010). Measuring the Sustainability of Global Supply Chains: Current Practices
and Future Directions. Journal of Global Business Management, Vol. 6, N1, 92107.
Tate, W. L., Ellram, L. M., Kirchoff, J. (2010). Corporate Social Responsibility Reports: A
Thematic Analysis Related to Supply Chain Management. Journal of Supply Chain
Management, Vol. 46, N1, 19-44.
Teuscher, P., Grninger, B. & Ferdinand, N. (2006). Risk management in sustainable supply
chain management (SSCM): Lessons learnt from the case of GMO-free soybeans.
Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management, Vol.13, N1, 110.
Teuteberg, F. & Wittstruck, D. (2010). A Systematic Review of Sustainable Supply Chain
Management Research. Osnabrck, Germany, Wirtschaftsinformatik Proceedings,
University of Osnabrueck, 1001-1015.
Voss, C., Tsikriktsis, N. & Frohlich, M. (2002). Case research in operations management.
International Journal of Operations and Production Management, Vol. 22, N 2,
195219.
Wittstruck, D. & Teuteberg, F. (2012). Understanding the Success Factors of Sustainable
Supply Chain Management: Empirical Evidence from the Electrics and Electronics
Industry. Corporate Social Responsibility and Environmental Management., Vol.19, N
3, 141158.
Yakovleva, N., Sarkis, J. & Sloan, T. (2012), Sustainable benchmarking of supply chains: the
case of the food industry, International Journal of Production Research, Vol. 50, N5,
1297-1317.
Yin, R. (1984). Case study research: Design and Methods. London: Sage.
Yin, R. (2009). Case Study Research: Design and Methods-Applied Social Research
Methods, 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, Sage Publications, California.
Zhu, Q., Sarkis, J. & Geng, Y. (2005). Green supply chain management in China: pressures,
practices and performance. International Journal of Operations and Production
Management, Vol. 25, N5, 449468
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 17
ABSTRACT
Increased human population has placed great pressure on agriculture to meet ever
growing demands for food, feed, fiber and energy. Conventional tillage has been long
associated with increased fertility, originated from the accelerated microbial oxidation of
organic matter and the release of plant nutrients. However, this practise has been found to
adversely affect soil structure and cause excessive breakdown of aggregates, leading to
soil degradation and yield decrease. Worldwide, most efforts are currently directed to soil
sustainable management in order to minimize negative anthropogenic impacts on soil
resource. This chapter examines the principles of sustainable agricultural production and
the history of sustainable agriculture in the Argentine pampas over the last decades.
1. INTRODUCTION
During the last decades, increased human population has placed great pressure on
agriculture to meet ever growing demands for food, feed, fiber and energy. In Latin America,
agricultural production increased by more than 50 percent from 2000 to 2012, whereas
eastern Europe and central Asia expanded their production by almost 40 per cent (FAO
2012). Long-term experiments have provided some data on how certain agricultural practices
may negatively affect certain soil parameters. Soil erosion, soil pollution by trace elements or
pesticides, loss of biodiversity, deforestation, eutrophication of water bodies and nitrate
leaching are some examples, among others. There is also an increasing social pressure to
Email: torri@agro.uba.ar
298
299
2010). Conservation agriculture has been proposed as a widely adapted set of management
principles that can assure more sustainable agricultural production. Next to reducing soil
disturbance, it also recommends the preservation of a soil cover and the use of crop rotations.
Sustainable agriculture is deemed as the production of commodities (food, fiber or other plant
and animal products) emphasizing on the need to attain ecological, economic and social
sustainability. Conservation agriculture involves the application of three linked principles
which are applied simultaneously in the long term in order to develop synergies to optimize
natural resources management at the field level (FAO, 2012). These principles are:
1. minimum mechanical soil disturbance
2. retention of living or dead plant material as surface mulch
3. diversification of crop species grown in sequences and/or associations
The objective of reduced mechanical soil disturbance is to favour a better cohesion
between soil aggregates, to conserve soil moisture and reduce soil erosion. Sustainable
agricultural management includes a broad spectrum of different tillage practices, most of
which are non-inversion techniques. The no-till farming system is based on the complete
avoidance of tillage, except for that tiny slot needed to be opened on the soil to deposit seeds,
fertilizers or some other inputs. Other conservation tillage managements such as strip-till,
ridge-till or mulch-till constitute intermediate tillage intensity approaches.
Maintaining an effective amount of a continuous soil cover of living or dead plant
material as surface mulch is a crucial issue to protect soil from weather aggressions like the
physical impact of rain drops or erosion due to wind and/or water (Parr et al., 1990). A soil
surface reside cover of 30% or more decreases the amount of water evaporated from the soil
surface, increases water infiltration rates, suppresses weed growth and provides shelter and
food for soil biota (Blanchart et al., 2006). Levels of soil organic matter are built up in the
upper soil layer because decomposition of residues left on the soil surface is slow, loss of
nutrients are reduced, and soil temperature is moderated in favour of biological activity.
Ideally, the level of soil cover should be 100% of the soil surface, and never less than 30%.
Some authors reported that a residue cover of 20% to 30% after planting reduces soil erosion
by approximately 50% compared to a bare field (El Kateb et al., 2013).
The use of crop rotations or intercropping is considered essential to enhance the systems
resilience (Calegari, 2001). Plant species can include annual or perennial crops, trees, shrubs
and pastures in associations, sequences or rotations. The diversification of crop species offers
an option for pest or weed management by breaking the life cycle of insect pests, diseases and
weed (Sumner 1982). The use of deep-rooting leguminous crops in rotations or as intercrops
can further increase soil porosity as well as improve soil productivity through nitrogen
fixation (Thierfelder et al., 2012; Moreno et al., 2011). Added benefits of rotations include
increased biodiversity, a better use of natural resources through residue decomposition and
more efficient nutrient cycling.
Nevertheless, the three principles of sustainable agricultural production need to be
strengthened by additional best management practices. These include the use of well adapted
good quality seeds, enhanced and balanced crop nutrition, adjustment in fertilizer
management, integrated pests, diseases and weeds practices, and efficient water management
(Kassam et al., 2011).
300
Figure 1. Pampas region, Argentina, and its subdivisions 1: rolling Pampa; 2: inland flat Pampa; 3:
inland western Pampa; 4: southern Pampa; 5: mesopotamic Pampa; 6: flooding Pampa. Provinces lying
partly within the area of interest are named and their boundaries shown (
). Isohyets
(
) and isotherms (
) are also shown.
The climate of the western Pampas region is humid, characterized by long warm
summers and mild winters, whereas the eastern region has a sub humid/semiarid climate.
Mean annual rainfall ranges from 600 mm in the west to 1200 mm in the east, whereas mean
annual temperature ranges from 14 C in the south to 21 C in the north.
The Aeolian sediments from which the soils of the Pampas have developed were brought
from the south west, resulting in a progressively finer texture from south-west to north-east.
This, combined with a gradient in rainfall which increases in the same direction, has produced
a geographic sequence of Mollisols, with Entic Haplustolls (US Soil Taxonomy, USDA,
1999) at the western limit of the region, and the progressive appearance of Entic Hapludolls,
301
Typic Hapludolls, Typic Argiudolls and Vertic Argiudolls towards the east (Soriano, 1992).
These soils are associated with minor proportions of Aquolls in the drainage ways. The
variability in soil texture was originally caused by differences in the composition of the parent
material, but strong erosive processes, especially at the beginning of the agricultural period,
may have accentuated original differences (Covas, Glave 1988).
The Pampas was originally grassland, used primarily for livestock grazing with the
introduction of horses in 1536 and cattle in 1573. Cultivation began in the vastly fertile soils
of the central humid portion. In the last quarter of the 19th century, European immigrants
increased land cultivation, wide spreading to the south and the semiarid west regions. Due to
economic reasons, the cropped area gradually increased and the area under grazed pasture
diminished. Nowadays, row crop production is the basis of Argentinas economic
development. But in those days, it was usual to find mixed animal and crop production to
maintain soil fertility. The rotation included three to five years of wheat (Triticum aestivum)
and maize (Zea mays), followed by a similar period of pastures. This combination turned out
to be a very sustainable technology. With time, agriculture slowly became more profitable
and, in the northern region, was replaced by double cropping of wheat and soybeans (Glycine
max L. Merrill) (Cloquell, Denoia 1997). In the last two decades, many farmers in the
southern Pampas region also began to change to a continuous cropping system. In both
regions, agriculture was performed on well drained soils, with nearly 50% of the Pampas
Region cropped with soybean, maize and wheat. After several years, a large number of
farmers became aware that conventional tillage systems that employed the mouldboard plow
or disk were leading to a serious degradation of agricultural soils that inevitably led to a
decrease in productivity. Mobilization of topsoil by erosion processes and a net loss of soil
organic carbon (SOC) were noticed in different regions (Bernardos et al., 2001 Hevia et al.,
2003; Quiroga et al., 1996). Despite soil degradation, genetic improvement in wheat and corn
lead, in some cases, to yield increases (Calderini et al., 1999; Maddonni et al., 2000).
In order to overcome soil degradation, minimum mechanical soil disturbance was
introduced to the region as a new management practice. Panigatti (1998) reported that the first
no-till experiences occurred in the 1960s at the National Institute of Agricultural Technology
(INTA) research stations at Anguil (La Pampa province) and Pergamino (Buenos Aires
province). The advent of the no-tillage technology caused a paradigm shift in Argentina, and
the idea that tillage was necessary for crop production was finally abandoned. Since then,
adoption has increased year by year thanks to the intensive activities of the Argentinean
Association of no-till farmers (AAPRESID, Table 1). Nowadays, with more than 27 million
hectares under no-tillage systems, representing 78.5% of the country's arable land, Argentina
is among the first countries in terms of no-till adoption. No-till is almost exclusively
performed with disc seeders; and more than 70% of minimum mechanical soil disturbance in
Argentina is no till or zero till.
One of the main reasons that favoured the adoption of no till in the pampas region was
the economic benefit that the system offered: reduced labour requirement and reduction in the
use of fossil fuels (Daz Zorita et al., 2002). No-till seeding equipment manufacturers have
responded to the increasing demand in machines, facilitating the rapid growth of this
technology. No-tillage has even allowed expansion of agriculture to marginal soils in terms of
rainfall or fertility. Further benefits associated with conservation tillage included improved
soil physical properties and consequent increases in crop productivity, increased soil carbon
sequestration, better soil erosion control and soil water conservation (Gmez et al., 1999).
302
Year
Area (million hectares)
1993/94
1.81
1995/96
2.97
1997/98
5.00
1999/00
9.25
2001/02
15.10
2003/04
18.26
2005/06
19.72
2006/07
19,8
2007/08
22,6
2008/09
25,5
2009/10
25
2010/11
27,6
More information under Institucional, Siembra Directa at http://www.aapresid.org.ar/. Aapresid, 2012.
At present, agriculture in the Pampas region is very competitive and in the last five years
has been subjected to great technological changes. The widespread utilization of transgenic
crops, herbicides, pesticides, and fertilizers, with no-till farming prevailing in about half of
the cropland area are some examples. As a result of this technological package, crop yields
have markedly increased in the last few years. Due to its competitive prize and the availability
of gliphosate-resistant soybean, about half of the arable land is cropped with transgenic
soybean. The rest of the area is cropped with maize, wheat, sorghum, sunflower (Helianthus
annus L.), or barley (Hordeum vulgare L). Minor annual forage crops include oat (Avena
sativa L.), triticale (Triticum aestivum), rye (Secale cereale L.) and pastures composed of
alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and fescue (Festuca arundinacea L.).
The use of cover crops has been widely proposed aiming different purposes, such as
reducing nitrate leaching from the soil profile or as nutrient source to the following crop
(Zotarelli et al., 2009), among other objectives. However, It is widely accepted that soybean
yields in the Pampas have been reported to be higher when the crop is grown as a sole crop in
the year than when it is sown as a second crop after wheat (Calvio et al., 1999, 2003).
Nonetheless, research in the Northern Pampas has demonstrated that the previous inclusion of
a winter cover crop does not affect soybean yield and water content at the time of sowing,
provided winter cover crop is killed at the beginning of the spring rainfall period or before.
Therefore, the winter season would be devoted to confer sustainability to the agricultural
system. In this way, most of the alternatives for sustainable cropping intensification in the
Argentinean Pampas seem to be centred in the winter season, since the most profitable,
productive crops occupy the summer season.
303
agriculture are related to soil physical, chemical and biological properties. The most relevant
environmental impacts are discussed below.
304
1- 6C. In other studies, decomposition of maize residues under no-till treatment were
reported to be slower than when they were incorporated into soil by tillage. This has been
attributed to drier conditions in crop residues left on the soil surface (Sanchez 1988).
In the semiarid Pampas region, the inclusion of legumes and cattle grazing in crop
sequences on Entic Haplustolls from had positive effects on SOC and N contents (Miglierina
et al., 2000). Likewise SOC in the 030 cm layer was evaluated after 4 years of no-till.
Carbon accumulation increased with no-till crop production relative to the initial condition
(Diaz-Zorita et al., 2002).
An alternative to increase the amount of biomass returned to the soil is through the
sustainable intensification of agriculture. The intensification sequence index (ISI) is an
intuitive indicator that expresses the number of crops per year in a given crop sequence
(Farahani et al., 1998; Caviglia, Andrade 2010). Crop sequences usually grown in the Pampas
region usually show an ISI greater than 1, and include i) soybean, soybean, maize (3 years, 3
crops, ISI=1); ii) wheat, soybean, maize (2 years, 3 crops, ISI=1.5); iii) wheat, soybean,
wheat, soybean, winter cover crop, maize (3 years, 6 crops, ISI=2). The inclusion of cover
crops (CCs) during the winter season could be one strategy to increase the ISI in crop
sequences where soybean predominates (Martnez et al., 2013).
Microbial activity in the topsoil is higher under no till compared to conventional tillage
(Rabary et al., 2008). The straw left on the surface provides more substrates for microbes and
creates a stable environment for biological activity (Lupwayi et al., 2004). Micro and macro
faunal (earthworms) populations become more like those of natural soils. Soil fauna
decomposes the mulch, incorporates and mixes it with the soil, contributing to the physical
stabilization of soil structure. Moreover, larger organisms such as earthworms modify soil
physical structure by the creation of burrows, which can penetrate the sub-soil and control
soil aeration, improve fast water inltration and drainage, and decrease the risk of soil erosion
(Arden-Clarke, Hodges 1987).
In the semiarid Pampas region, the high SOC content in the top layer of no-tilled
promoted greater populations of earthworms (Falco et al., 1995). Fernandez Canigia et al.,
(2000 a,b) studied the effects of tillage practices and crop sequences on microbial diversity in
Typic Hapludolls under no-till. Results indicated that microbial diversity was more affected
by changes in crop productivity or the quality of crop residues than by tillage.
305
originate from soil physical degradation. Degradation of unprotected aggregates at the soil
surface results in the formation of crusts that reduce infiltration rate.
On the other hand, increased soil organic matter on the top layer due to no-tillage was
reported to improve aggregate stability, probably due to its binding effects on soil structure
(Sapkota et al., 2012). The enlarged biological and microbiological activity within the first
centimetres of the soil profile results in highly resistant soil aggregates. Increased aggregate
stability under limited tillage is associated to a higher proportion of macro and mesopores and
increased volumetric water content at field capacity (Chenu et al., 2000). Many studies in
different soil and climatic conditions have demonstrated a positive correlation between soil
organic matter and the structural stability of soil aggregates (Mikha, Rice 2004; Sapkota et
al., 2012).
In the pampas region, increase in soil aggregate stability in topsoil was widely reported as
a result of no till adoption (Colombani, 2004; Costa, Aparicio, 2006; Aparicio, Costa 2007,
Alvarez el al., 2009). Although macroporosity and water infiltration were also expected to
increase, several studies have shown that reduced till or no-till decreased macroporosity,
resulting in lower water infiltration rates (Taboada et al., 1998; Micucci and Taboada, 2006;
Sasal et al., 2006; Taboada et al., 2008). Results from Pergamino (Rolling Pampas) and
Anguil (semi-arid Pampas) indicated that soil physical status at the beginning of no-till
systems was a critical factor in the productivity of these soils (Ferrari, 1997; Quiroga et al.,
1998). The low macroporosity of the fine loamy soils of the western part of the Argentine
Pampas has been attributed to pedogenic factors (Taboada et al., 1998). In the northern
Pampas region, soils have a high fine silt content (60-65%) in the cultivated layer. Because of
this, compaction of the topsoil under no-till systems is a serious problem in the region
(Buschiazzo et al., 1999; Ferreras et al., 2000).
Conservation agriculture systems can induce higher infiltration rates, being sometimes
almost double of those of conventional systems. Surface residue cover reduces surface
sealing, thereby increasing water infiltration (Dardanelli, 1998). Furthermore, the mulch
limits the amount of solar energy reaching the soil surface, decreasing evaporation of soil
water by 10 to 50 % depending on the amount of mulch cover. This is a second reason for the
greater amount of soil water availability under reduced tillage systems. During the critical
period of water requirement, soil water content in the Pampas region was usually higher
under no-till than in conventional till. Soil water content differences were, in average, 7 mm
for soybean, 11 mm in for wheat and 19 mm in for corn, covering 1 to 3 days the
evapotranspiration demand during the flowering stage (Totis, Perez 1994). In the subhumid
and semiarid Argentinean Pampas, soil water contents were 11 to 15% greater with
conservation tillage than with conventional tillage at the end of the fallow period of different
crops (Buschiazzo et al., 1998).
Results from several studies have shown an increase in soil bulk density with the
conversion of conventional tillage to no-tillage (Arshad et al., 1999). Under conventional
tillage, bulk density in the plough layer is lowered by the mechanical inversion of the soil,
which increases soil porosity. Due to the lack of disturbance, bulk density was reported to be
significantly higher in no-till compared to conventional tillage management in the 05 cm
layer on Typic Argiudolls in the southern Pampas (Wyngaard et al., 2012; Fabrizzi et al.,
2005; Aparicio, Costa 2007). However, this trend was not observed in those soils in the 520
cm layer, indicating that the effect of the mechanical disturbance was just superficial.
Conversely, other studies reported that soil bulk density decreased with time (Pedrotti et al.,
306
2005; Sapkota et al., 2012; Mupangwa et al., 2013). A plausible explanation is that mulching
may have reduced bulk density through promotion of aggregation and pore development in
the soil system as the residues decomposed. In the subhumid and semiarid Argentinean
Pampas, Buschiazzo et al., (1998) reported lower bulk density values in conservation tillage
compared conventional tillage. These results were associated with greater soil biological
activity, especially earthworms.
In long-term experiments in the pampas region, higher soil compaction was observed in
no-till compared to conventional till (Sasal et al., 2006, Daz-Zorita et al., 2002). This was
associated with a gradual consolidation of the soil matrix over time due to rain and the
absence of annual loosening. Daz-Zorita et al., (2002) reported that although bulk soil
density values were above the threshold limit for normal crop growth (Vepraskas, 1994), the
reduction in crop yield was related to differences in the bulk density of the 015 cm layer at
seeding. After some years of continuous no till, many soils of the pampas region developed
shallow compaction and topsoil hardening, resulting in an increase in bulk density,
mechanical resistance and decreased macroporosity (Taboada et al., 1998; Daz Zorita et al.,
2002; Sasal et al., 2006). Nonetheless, the hardness of these soils diminished when the water
content increased, so the period with potentially limiting soil impedance was less in no-till
soils than in tilled soils (Quiroga et al., 1998). Soil compaction occurs in no-till because
vehicle tyres or tracks impose loads that cause vertical and horizontal soil deformation,
reducing porosity. A compacted soil layer produces a mechanical impedance to root growth,
reducing the soil volume explored by roots for nutrients and water (Dexter, 2004).
Considering modern Argentina's farm machinery equipment, agricultural soils of the Pampas
region receive about 20 Mg km ha1 of traffic intensity during seeding operations. Although
this value represents only 20% of the total traffic compared to conventional tillage systems, it
occurs at a moment of minimum mechanical stability (Botta et al., 2008).
307
management, originating lower nitrogen mineralization rates (Echeverria, Sainz Rozas 2001).
Significant increases in total N have been measured with increasing additions of crop residue
(Dalal et al., 2011). Several studies showed a significant decline in nitrate losses in soils with
reduced tillage compared to conventional tillage. Under no tillage, inorganic N can be
immobilized in some situations, for example when surface crop straw has a large C/N ratio
composition. Maize and soybean residues immobilized a very low quantity of fertilizer N
during the wheat growing cycle. On the other hand, differences in decomposition between
incorporated residue and surface residue affect timing of nutrient release. Some authors
postulated that short-term no till may be considered as a soil building phase where higher
rates of N cycling are occurring (Soon, Clayton 2003). Nevertheless, nitrogen fertilizer
requirements usually increase under conservation agriculture (Martens, 2000).
In the Rolling Pampa, Alvarez (2009) analysed data from 35 essays and found an
increase in nitrate content before sowing of 21 kg ha1 under CT compared with NT.
Temperature was reported to be the most important factor regulating microbial mineralization
processes in the Pampas region. However, at the beginning of the 20082009, soil nitrate and
sulphate content were not affected by medium-term fertilization or tillage in the Southern
Pampas region. This behaviour was explained by the high precipitation prior to soil sampling,
which may have caused N losses by leaching (Wyngaard et al., 2012).
Stratification of phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) at the soil surface (05 cm) has been
observed when no-till or other conservation tillage systems have been used for at least 3 or 4
years (Mallarino, Borges 2006). When soil moisture is adequate, nutrient stratification has not
been found to decrease nutrient availability because nutrients are absorbed as a result of root
activity near the soil surface. The straw left on the surface reduces water evaporation, and
helps to keep soil surface moist and cool, enhancing root activity near the soil surface.
However, P stratification is of concern for two reasons: low P concentrations in the rooting
zone may greatly reduce crop yields (Lupwayi et al., 2006) and high concentrations near the
soil surface may increase the runoff of dissolved P (Sharpley, Smith 1994). Numerous studies
have reported higher extractable P levels in zero tillage than in tilled soils, probably due to
reduced mixing of the P fertilizer with the soil, leading to lower P-fixation. It appears like that
no till enhances arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi development (Wright, 1998), improving P
uptake by lending their hyphal networks to plants (Nayyar et al., 2009). In a typic Argiudol of
the Southern pampas region, fertilization and tillage significantly affected P Bray
concentration in the 05 cm layer, whereas no differences between tillage systems were found
at the 520 cm layer (Wyngaard et al., 2012).
Stratication of soil K in no-till elds causes plant K uptake to be more dependent on
root system characteristics (Fernndez et al., 2008). Therefore, it may increase the likelihood
of K deciency in crop tissues as well as yield loss in growing seasons when drought occurs.
In the pampas region, the first soil analysis to measure soil fertility was performed in the
1930s. At that moment, very high levels of SOC, N, P and other nutrients were determined.
These findings validated the belief that Pampas soils were inherently rich in nutrients. For
many years, the doses of fertilizers applied replenished only a small percentage of the N, P, K
and S removed by wheat, maize, soybean and sunflower at harvest. Nowadays, soils of the
Pampas region are deficient in nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and, in the last years, sulfur (S),
but well provided with potassium (K), calcium (Ca), and magnesium (Mg) under native
conditions.
308
There is scarce information on the effects of tillage on crop yields in the Semiarid
Pampas region. In these soils, organic matter has been found to be closely related to soil
productivity, through its positive effects on soil aggregation and the storage and supply of
water and nutrients (D az-Zorita et al., 1999). It has been frequently demonstrated that in
semiarid regions, crop yields are commonly greater under conservation tillage to those under
conventional tillage due to greater soil water accumulation resulting from plant soil cover
(Lindwall et al., 1994). This agrees with the results of Buschiazzo et al., (1998) for soybean,
sorghum, and wheat cultivated in the subhumid and semiarid Argentinean Pampas. However,
yields of corn and sunflower may have been reduced by low soil temperatures at planting
time as compared to those with conventional tillage (Buschiazzo et al., 1998). In the humid
pampas region, the adoption of no-till or other limited tillage methods had no impact on
soybean, wheat or corn yields compared to conventional tillage if nitrogen fertilizer was used
to offset differences in nitrate availability (Wyngaard et al., 2012). Therefore, the increase in
crop yield in the humid Pampas region during the last decades does not seem to be related to
no-till adoption, but to the use of a technological package including transgenic crops,
herbicides, pesticides and fertilizers.
309
horizontal pores (Blackwell et al., 1990). Many of these pores would be biopores and would
extend well below the zone of tillage. Therefore, concern has raised on rapid nutrient
transport through these preferential flow paths to groundwater (Addiscott, Thomas 2000).
However, water infiltration, retention, and flow do not only depend on the quantity and size
of pores but also on the interconnectivity and shape of pores (Bouma, Anderson 1973). Drees
et al., (1994) found interconnection of fine macropores (50-100 m) throughout the profile in
zero tillage soil. Leaching of nitrate to groundwater may occur when nitrate in excess of crop
needs is present in the soil solution and water percolates through preferential flow paths. Risk
of leaching is greatest on coarse textured soils, with shallow aquifers being most vulnerable.
Although conservation tillage is sometimes hypothesized to increase the leaching risk due to
an increased pore connectivity within the soil, data comparing N dynamics under
conventional and conservation tillage are limited and inconclusive (Holland, 2004).
4.5. Pesticides
One of the main roles of tillage is to provide an efficient control of weeds. Competition
from weeds is the most important of all biological factors that reduce agricultural crop yield.
When tillage frequency and depth are reduced, fewer weeds are uprooted, dismembered, or
buried deep enough to prevent emergence (Peign et al., 2007). Tillage also changes the soil
climatic conditions which control weed dormancy, germination and growth, promoting or
inhibiting weeds germination and establishment. Reducing tillage intensity generally tends to
increase the concentration of weeds in the topsoil (Vasileiadis et al., 2007) and is very often
associated with an increase in herbicide use. In addition, the efficacy of many herbicides has
been shown to be reduced under conventional tillage due to i) increased adsorption in surface
layers of untilled soil with higher organic matter; ii) physical interception and adsorption of
soil surface residues; and iii) development of herbicide resistance. Therefore, an additional
concern is the perception that conservation tillage more heavily relies on pesticides to control
weeds, insects, and diseases than if tillage is used to suppress these problems.
In soils, pesticides can be found as dissolved molecules in the aqueous phase and/or as
molecules bound to the solid phase. The affinity of pesticides for the solid phase controls the
extent of sorption and thus their availability and their capacity to remain immobilized, to be
transformed, or to be transported in the environment. The accumulation of organic residues
on soil surface in conservation tillage generally leads to an increase in pesticides fixation in
this soil layer (Houot et al., 1997). The coarse SOM fraction (>50 mm) has greater capability
for binding pesticides than finer fractions (Barriuso et al., 1994). Theoretically, fixation and
accumulation of pesticides in the topsoil layers leave more time for microbial decomposition
and would be less prone to leach down the soil profile (Gavrilescu 2005). This is in part due
to soil organic matter stratification, which serves as an energy source for soil microorganisms.
Biotic degradation of pesticides is most often seen as quantitatively more important than
abiotic degradation. Depending its nature, interception of pesticides by superficial crop
residues may generate photodegradation, thus reducing the persistence of the molecules
(Selim et al., 2003). However, and in spite of all this background knowledge, runoff is one of
the major sources of non-point pesticide contamination of streams (Wauchope, 1978; Vera et
al., 2010).
310
In the pampas region, there is very little data on the extent of water contamination, and its
source is more likely to be industrial rather than rural, given the historically low use of
fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides. In the last years, due to increased use of herbicides and
pesticides, many researchers tried to assess the critical period in which pesticides would
transfer from the crop to the runoff in different crops (Jergentz et al., 2004; Jergentz et al.,
2005; Zanini et al., 2009; Vera et al., 2010; Mugni et al., 2011; Paracampo et al., 2012;
Mugni et al., 2012, among others).
Argentina is the worlds third largest transgenic soybean producer after the USA and
Brazil. Soybean production in Argentina has increased over the last decade, currently with 19
700 000 hectares of sowed area in 2012/2013. A total of 95% of this area corresponds to a
transgenic variety of glyphosate tolerant soybean, which is cultivated by direct sowing.
Glyphosate [N-(phosphonomethyl)glycine] is a broad-spectrum herbicide used to control a
wide range of pests and is the active principle in Roundup, a product widely applied in the
regional agriculture practice. Its wide use has led to controversy regarding its possible effect
on the environment. In the rolling pampas, the application period of pesticide for this crop is
between November to March. During this period, short and heavy rainfalls are very common
in this region and cause intensive surface runoff. Together with the suspended soil, pesticides
are transported to non-target compartments such as aquatic ecosystems (Peruzzo et al., 2008).
In the Rolling Pampas, glyphosate losses were reported to be lower that 0.03% by drainage
and 0.6 % by runoff throughout soybean growing period under no till (Sasal et al., 2010).
Likewise, rain increased the transport of glyphosate from the area of influence to downstream
sites, increasing glyphosate levels in the water stream (Sasal et al., 2010; Vera et al., 2010).
Although significant research advances have been made in the pampas region, the
environmental fate of pesticides under conservation tillage presents many contradictions and
remains poorly understood (Alletto et al., 2010).
CONCLUSION
Conservation tillage enhances the sustainability of agricultural systems, and minimizes
some environmental negative impacts of agricultural activities. Reduced tillage leads to
significant and complex changes in soil physical, chemical and biological properties. Several
soil properties were reported to improve as a consequence of decreased disturbance and the
maintenance of a crop residues cover in reduced or no-tillage systems: reduced soil erosion,
increased SOM, enhanced soil porosity, water holding capacity are some beneficial effects of
this practise. Lower susceptibility for soil crusting and erosion and a high abundance of
vertically oriented continuous earthworm burrows resulted in increased infiltration rates and
reduced soil losses Soil organic matter under conservation agriculture becomes increasingly
stratified over time. This stratification can be viewed as an improvement in soil quality.
Conservation tillage can mitigate sediment and nutrient loss to the environment. However,
runoff loss of bioavailable P and pesticides tend to be greater with conservation tillage than
with conventional tillage.
311
REFERENCES
Addiscott, T.M., and Thomas, D. (2000). Tillage, mineralization and leaching: phosphate.
Soil Till. Res., 53, 255-273.
Alvarez, S (2009). A review of the effects of tillage systems on some soil physical properties,
water content, nitrate availability and crops yield in Argentine Pampas. Soil Tillage Res
104: 1-15.
-, .., . (2005). Tillage and crop residue effects on soil carbon and carbon
dioxide emission in corn-soybean rotations. J. Environ. Qual., 34, 437445.
Alletto, L., Coquet, Y., Benoit, P., Heddadj, D., Barriuso, E. (2010). Tillage management
effects on pesticide fate in soils. A review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 30:
367-400.
lvarez, C.R., lvarez, R., Sarquis, A. 2008. Residue decomposition and fate of nitrogen-15
in a wheat crop under different previous crops and tillage systems. Commun Soil Sci. and
Plant Anal. 39: 574-586.
Alvarez, C.R.; Taboada, M.A.; Gutirrez Boem, F.H.; Bono, A.; Fernndez, P.L., Prystupa, P.
(2009). Topsoil properties as affected by tillage systems in the Rolling Pampa region of
Argentina. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., 73:242-1250, 2009.
Aparicio, V., Costa, J.L. (2007). Soil quality indicators under continuous cropping systems in
the Argentinean Pampas. Soil and Tillage Research. 96, 155-165.
Arden-Clarke, C., Hodges, R.D., (1987).The environmental effectsof conventional and
organic biological farming systems. I. Soilerosion, with special reference to Britain. Biol.
Hortic. Agric.4, 309357.
Arora, V.K., Singh, C.B., Sidhu, A.S., Thind, S.S. (2011). Irrigation, tillage and mulching
effects on soybean yield and water productivity in relation to soil texture. Agricultural
Water Management 98, 563-568.
Arshad, M.A., Franzluebbers, A.J., Azooz, R.H. (1999). Components of surface soil structure
under conventional and no-tillage in northwestern Canada. Soil and Tillage Research 53,
41-47.
Barriuso, E., Benoit, P., Bergheaud, V. (1994). Role of soil fractions inretention and
stabilization of pesticides in soils. In: Copin, A., Houins, G., Pussemier, L., Salembier,
J.F. (Eds.), EnvironmentalBehaviour of Pesticides and Regulatory Aspects, COST.
EuropeanStudy Service, Rixensart, Belgique, pp. 138143.
Bernardos, J.N., Viglizzo, E.F., Jouvet, V., Le rtora, F.A., Pordomingo, A.J., Cid, F.D.
(2001). The use of EPIC model to study the agroecological change during 93 yearsof
farming transformation in the Argentine Pampas. Agric. Syst. 69, 215234.
Blackwell P.S., A.J. Ringrose-Voase, N.S. Jayawardane, K.A. Olsson, D.C. McKenzie, W.K.
Mason.(1990).The use of air-filled porosity and intrinsic permeability to characterize
structure of macropore space and saturated hydraulic conductivity of clay soils. Eur. J.
Soil Sci., 41: 215228.
Blanchart, E., Bernoux, M., Sarda, X., SiqueiraNeto, M., Cerri, CC., Piccolo, M., Douzet,
JM., Scopel, E., Feller, C. (2007). Effect of direct seeding mulch-based systems on soil
carbon storage and macrofauna in central Brazil. Agric Conspec Sci. 72, 8187.
312
Botta G., D., Rivero, M., Tourn, F., Bellora M., O. Pozzolo, G., Nardon, R., Balbuena, A.,
Toln Becerra, H., Rosatto., S. Stadler. (2008). Soil compaction produced by tractor with
radial and cross-ply tyres in two tillage regimes. Soil Till. Res., 101, 4451.
Bouma, J., and Anderson, J.L. (1973). Relations between soil structure characteristics and
hydraulic conductivty. In Field soil water regime. SSSA Special Publication No. 5, ed. R.
R. Bruce, 77-105. Madison, Wisconsin: SSSA.
Buschiazzo, D.E., Panebianco, J.E., Guevara, G., Rojas, J., Zurita, J.J., Bran, D., Lpez, D.,
Gaitn, J., Hurtado, P. (2009). Incidencia potencial de la erosin elica sobre la
degradacin del suelo y la calidad del aire en distintas regiones de Argentina. Ciencia del
Suelo 27, 255-260.
Buschiazzo, D.E., Panigatti, J.L., Unger, P.W. (1998). Tillage effects on soil properties and
crop production in the subhumid and semiarid Argentinean Pampas. Soil and Tillage
Research 49, 105-116.
Cade-Menun, B.J., Carter, M.R., James, D.C., Liu, C.W. (2010). Les phosphates
dinositoldans le sol et le fumier: abondance, cycle et dosage. Journal of Environmental
Quality, 39(5), 1647-1656.
Calderini D.F., M.P. Reynolds, G.A. Slafer. (1999). Genetic gains in wheat yield and
associated physiological changes during the Twentieth Century. E.H. Satorre, G.A. Slafer
(Eds.), Wheat. Ecology and Physiology of Yield Determination, The Haworth Press, Inc.,
New York, 351377.
Calegari A. (2001). Cover crop management. In Garcia Torres L, Benites J, MartnezVilela A
(eds) Conservation Agriculture, a worldwide challenge. First World Congress on
conservation agriculture proceedings, Madrid, 15 October, vol 1, 8592.
Calvio PA., Sadras V.O. (1999). Interannual variation in soybean yield: Interaction among
rainfall, soil depth and crop management. Field Crops Research 63, 237-246.
Calvio PA, Sadras VO, Andrade FH (2003a). Development, growth and yield of late-sown
soybean in the southern Pampas. European Journal of Agronomy 19, 265-275
Carter M.R., Gregorich, E.G., Angers, D.A., Beare, M.H., Sparling, G.P., Wardle, D.A,
Voroney, R.P. (1999). Interpretation of microbial biomass measurements for soil quality
assessment in humid temperate regions. Can. J. Soil Sci., 79: 507520.
Caviglia OP, Andrade F. (2010). Sustainable intensification of agriculture in the Argentinean
Pampas: Capture and use efficiency of environmental resources. Am. J. Plant Sci.
Biotech.; 3: 1-8.
Cloquell, S., Denoia, J. (1997). Agricultura sustentable en un areadeproduccion familiar, in
Realidad Economica, no. 152, Buenos Aires.
Colombani, E. (2004). Evaluacin de propiedades fsicas de suelos del sudeste bonaerense
bajo distintos manejos. Tesis de graduacin para obtener el ttulo de Ingeniero
Agrnomo. UNMdP. FCA, Balcarce.
Costa J.L., Aparicio, V. (2006). Propiedades fsicas de suelo y rendimiento de cultivos en 7
aos de ensayos de rotaciones en campo de productores en el sudeste bonaerense. XX
Congreso Argentino de la Ciencia del Suelo, Salta, Argentina, pp. 15.
Covas, G., Glave, A. (1988). El deterioro del ambiente en la Argentina. Provincia de La
Pampa (Deterioration of theEnvironment in Argentina. La Pampa Province). FECIC,
Buenos Aires, Argentina, pp. 109114.
313
Dalal, RC, Allen, DE, Wang, WJ, Reeves, S and Gibson, I. (2011). Organic carbon and total
nitrogen stocks in a Vertisol following 40 years of no-tillage, crop residue retention and
nitrogen fertilisation. Soil and Tillage Research, 12, 133-139.
Dardanelli, J. (1998). Eficiencia del uso del agua segn sistemas de labranza. In Siembra
Directa, J.L.Panigatti et. al. Eds. Hemisferio Sur : Buenos Aires. pp.107-115.
Devlin, D.L., D.A. Whitney, and McVay, K.A., (2000). Phosphorus and water quality in
Kansas. Kansas State Univ. Ag. Exp. Station and Coop. Ext. Service.MF-2463.
Manhattan, KS.
Dexter, A.R., Czyz, E. A., Gate, O.P. (2004). Soil structure and the saturated hydraulic
conductivity of subsoils. Soil Till. Res. 79, 185 189.
Daz R.A., Barbero, N., Santanatoglia, O.J., Blotta. L. (1995). Soil organic carbon, microbial
biomass and COC production from three tillage systems. Soil Till. Res., (33), pp. 1728.
D az-Zorita M, Duarte, G A. Grove J H. (2002). A review of no-till systems and soil
management for sustainable crop production in the subhumid and semiarid Pampas of
Argentina. Soil and Tillage Research, 65, 118.
Drees, L.R., Karathanasis, A.D., Wilding, L.P., and Blevins, R.L. (1994).
Micromorphological characteristics of long-term no-till and conventionally tilled soils.
Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 58, 508-517.
Echeverria, H.E., Sainz Rozas, H.R. (2001). Efficiencia de recuperacion del nitrogeno
aplicado al estadio de seis hojas del maiz bajo riego en siembra directa y labranza
convencional | [Nitrogen recovery efficiency for fertilizations at six-leafstage of maize
irrigated under no-tillage and conventional tillage]. Ciencia delSuelo 19, 57-66.
Ehlers W., Claupein W. (1994). Approaches toward conservation tillage in Germany, M.R.
Carter (Ed.), Conservation Tillage in Temperate Agroecosystems, Lewis Publishers, CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA , 141165.
El Kateb, H., Zhang, H., Zhang, P., Mosandl, R. (2013). Soil erosion and surface runoff on
different vegetation covers and slope gradients: A field experiment in Southern Shaanxi
Province, China, Catena 105, pp. 1-10.
Falco, L., D az-Zorita, M., Momo, F. (1995). Cambios en las poblaciones de lombrices de
tierra en un suelo de pradera con rotacin maiz soja sometido a diferentes sistemas de
labranza (Changes in earthworm populations in prairie soil under maizesoybean rotation
with different tillage systems). In: Actas de la XVII Reunin Argentina de Ecolog a, pp.
193194.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization), 2012. Available online at:
http://www.fao.org/ag/ca/doc/FLYER_Conservation_Agriculture.pdf
Farahani, H.J, Peterson, G.A., Westfall, D.G. (1998). Dryland cropping intensification: a
fundamental solution to efficient use of precipitation. Adv. Agron. 64, 197-223.
Fernndez Canigia M.V., Coyne, M.S., D az-Zorita, M. (2000a.) Evidence that tillage and
crop sequences influence microbial diversity. Agron. Abstr., 92, 254255.
Fernndez Canigia, M.V., D az-Zorita, M., Coyne, M.S. (2000 b). Diversidad en
comunidades microbianas en un Hapludol T pico: Effecto de sistemas de labranza
(Diversity in microbial communities in a Typic Hapludoll: effect of tillage systems). In:
AACS (Ed.), Actas XVII Congreso Argentino de la Ciencia del Suelo, Mar del Plata,
Buenos Aires, Argentina, in CD.
314
Fernndez, F.G., Brouder, S.M., Beyrouty, C.A., Volenec, J.J., Hoyum, R., (2008).
Assessment of plant-available potassium for no-till, rainfed soybean. Soil Science Society
of America Journal 72, 1085-1095.
Ferrari, M. (1997). Los sistemas de labranza en el rea de influencia de la EEA-INTA
Pergamino: efectos sobre los rendimientos agr colas y las propiedades de los suelos
(Tillage systems in the rea influenced by EEA-INTA Pergamino: effects on crop yields
and soil properties). In: D az-Zorita, M. (Ed.), Curso de Actualizacin Profesional en
Labranzas y Rotaciones. EEA INTA General Villegas, Buenos Aires, Argentina, 4755.
Ferreras, L.A, Costa, J.L., Garca, F.O., Pecorari, C. (2000). Effect of no-tillage on some soil
physical properties of aestructural degraded PetrocalcicPaleudoll of the southern
Pampas of Argentina. Soil Till. Res. 54, 31-39.
Franzleubbers, A.J. (2008).Linking soil and water quality in conservation agricultural
systems. Electronic Journal of Integrative Biosciences 6(1),15-29.
Franzluebbers, A.J. (2002).Soil organic matter stratification ratio as an indicator of soil
quality. Soil Till. Res., 66, 95106.
Gao, Y., Zhu, B., Wang, T., Wang, Y. (2012). Seasonal change of non-point source pollutioninduced bioavailable phosphorus loss: A case study of Southwestern China. Journal of
Hydrology 420-421: 373-379.
Garbout, A., Munkholm, L.J., Hansen, S.B. (2013). Tillage effects on topsoil structural
quality assessed using X-ray CT, soil cores and visual soil evaluation. Soil and Tillage
Research 128:104-109.
Gavrilescu M. (2005). Fate of Pesticides in the Environment and its Bioremediation.
Engineering in Life Sciences, 6, 497526.
Gmez, J.A, Girldez, J.V., Pastor, M., Fereres, E. (1999). Effects of tillage method on soil
physical properties, infiltration and yield in an olive orchard. Soil and Tillage Research.
52, 167175.
Gurung, D.P., Githinji, L.J.M., Ankumah, R.O. (2012). Assessing the nitrogen and
phosphorus loading in the Alabama (USA) River Basin using PLOAD modelAir, Soil
and Water Research 6, 23-36.
Hamza M.A., Anderson W.K. (2005). Soil compaction in cropping systems: A review of the
nature, causes and possible solutions. Soil and Tillage Research, 82, 121145.
Hernanz J.L., Snchez-Girn V., Navarrete L. (2009).Soil carbon sequestration and
stratification in a cereal/leguminous crop rotation with three tillage systems in semiarid
conditions. Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 113, 114122.
Hevia, G.G., Buschiazzo, D.E., Hepper, E.N., Urioste, A.M., Anton, E.L. (2003). Organic
matter in size fractions of soils of the semiarid Argentina. Effects of climate, soil texture
and management. Geoderma 116, 265277.
Holland J.M. (2004).The environmental consequences of adopting conservation tillage in
Europe: reviewing the evidence-Agric. Ecosyst. Environ., 103, 125.
Houot S., Benoit P., Charnay M.P. & Barriuso E. (1997). Experimental techniques to study
the fate of organic pollutants in soils in relation to their interactions with soil organic
constituents. Analusis, 25, 4145.
Jensen, L.S., Salo, T., Palmason, F., Breland, T.A., Henriksen, T.M., Stenberg. Pedersen,
B.A., Lundstrom, C., and Esala, M. (2005). Influence of biochemical quality on C and N
mineralization from a broad variety of plant materials in soil. Plant and Soil, 273, 307
326.
315
Jergentz, S., Mugni, H., Bonetto, C., Schulz, R. (2004). Runoff-Related Endosulfan
Contamination and Aquatic Macroinvertebrate Response in Rural Basins Near Buenos
Aires, Argentina. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 46, 345-352.
Jergentz, S., Mugni, H., Bonetto, C., Schulz, R. (2005). Assessment of insecticide
contamination in runoff and stream water of small agricultural streams in the main
soybean area of Argentina. Chemosphere 61, 817-826.
Jordan, P., Melland, A.R., Mellander, P.-E., Shortle, G., Wall, D. (2012). The seasonality of
phosphorus transfers from land to water: Implications for trophic impacts and policy
evaluation. Science of the Total Environment 434, 101-109.
Kassam A H, Stoop W, Uphoff N. (2011). Review of SRI modifications in rice crop and
water management andresearch issues for making further improvements in agricultural
and water productivity. Paddy and Water Environment 9:163180.
Kassam, A., Brammer, H. (2013). Combining sustainable agricultural production with
economic and environmental benefits. Geographical Journal 179 (1), 11-18.
Kramer, S.B., Reganold, J.P., Glover, J.D., Bohannan, B.J.M., and Mooney, H.A. (2006).
Reduced nitrate leaching and enhanced denitrifier activity and efficiency in organically
fertilized soils. P. Natl. Acad. Sci.-USA. 103, 4522-4527.
Lindwall, C.W., Larney, F.J., Johnston, A.M., Moyer, J.R. (1994). Crop management in
conservation tillage systems. In: Unger, P.W. (Ed.), Managing Agricultural Residues.
Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, Florida, pp. 185209.
Lupwayi N.Z., Clayton, G.W., ODonovan, J.T., Harker, K.N., Turkington, T.K., Rice. W.A.
(2004). Soil microbiological properties during decomposition of crop residues under
conventional and zero tillage. Can. J. Soil Sci., 84, 411419.
Lupwayi, NZ., Clayton, G.W., ODonovan, J.T., Harker, K.N., Turkington. T,K,. and Soon,
Y.K. (2006). Soil nutrient stratification and uptakeby wheat after seven years of
conventional and zero tillage in the Northern Grain belt of Canada. Can. J. Soil Sci. 86,
767778.
Maddonni G.A., Crcova, J., Otegui, M.E., Slafer, G.A. (2000). Recent research on maize
grain yield in Argentina. M.E. Otegui, G.A. Slafer (Eds.), Physiological bases for maize
improvement, The Haworth Press, Inc., New York, pp. 191204.
Mallarino, A.P., and Borges, R. (2006). Phosphorus and potassium distribution in soil
following long-term deep-band fertilization in different tillage systems. Soil Sci. Soc. Am.
J. 70,702-707.
Marshall, T.J., Holmes, J.W. (1979). Soil Physics, Cambridge University Press, 374 pp.
Martens, D.A., (2000). Nitrogen cycling under different soil management systems. Adv.
Agron., 70, 143191.
Martnez, J.P., Barbieri, P.A., Sainz Rozas, H.R., Echeverra, H.E. (2013). Inclusion of cover
crops in cropping sequences with soybean predominance in the southeast of the humid
argentine Pampa. Open Agriculture Journal 7 (1 SPEC.ISSUE.1), 3-10.
Melero, S, Lpez-Garrido, R, Madejn, E, Murillo, JM, Vanderlinden, F, Ordez, ZR and
Moreno, F. (2009). Long-term effects of conservation tillage on organic fractions in two
soils in southwest of Spain, AgricEcosyst. Environ, 133, 6874.
Micucci, F.G, Taboada, M.A. (2006). Soil physical properties and soybean (Glycine max,
Merrill) root abundance in conventionally and zero-tilled soils in the humid Pampas of
Argentina. SoilTillage Res. 86, 152-162.
316
Miglierina A.M., Iglesias, J.O., Landriscini, M.R., Galantini, J.A., Rosell, R.A. (2000). The
effects of crop rotation and fertilization on wheat productivity in the Pampean semiarid
region of Argentina. 1. Soil physical and chemical properties. Soil Till. Res., 53,129135.
Mikha, M.M., Rice, C.W. (2004). Tillage and manure eects on soil and aggregate-asociated
carbon and nitrogen. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 68, 809-816.
Moreno, M.M., Lacasta, C., Meco, R., Moreno, C. (2011). Rainfed crop energy balance of
different farming systems and crop rotations in a semi-arid environment: Results of a
long-term trial. Soil and Tillage Research 114, 18-27.
Mugni, H., Demetrio, P., Paracampo, A., Pardi, M., Bulus, G., Bonetto, C. (2012). Toxicity
persistence in runoff water and soil in experimental soybean plots following chlorpyrifos
application. Bulletin of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 89 (1), 208-212.
Mugni, H., Ronco, A., Bonetto, C. (2011). Insecticide toxicity to Hyalella curvispina in
runoff and stream water within a soybean farm (Buenos Aires, Argentina). Ecotoxicology
and Environmental Safety 74, 350-354.
Mupangwa, W., Twomlow, S., Walker, S. (2013). Cumulative effects of reduced tillage and
mulching on soil properties under semi-arid conditions. Journal of Arid Environments 91,
45-52.
Nayyar, A., Hamel, C., Lafond, G., Gossen, B.D., Hanson, K., Germida, J. (2009) Soil
microbial quality associated with yield reduction in continuous-pea. Appl. Soil Ecol.
43,115121.
Panigatti, J.L., (1998). El INTA y la siembra directa (INTA and no-till). In: Panigatti, J.L.,
Buschiazzo, D.E., Marelli, H. (Eds.), Siembra Directa. Hemisferio Sur, Buenos Aires,
Argentina, 2528.
Paracampo, A.H., Mugni, H.D., Demetrio, P.M., Pardi, M.H., Bulus, G.D., Asborno, M.D.,
Bonetto, C.A. (2012). Toxicity persistence in runoff and soil from experimental soybean
plots following insecticide applications. Journal of Environmental Science and Health Part B Pesticides, Food Contaminants, and Agricultural Wastes 47 (8), 761-768.
Parr, J.F., Papendick, R.I., Hornick, S.B. and Meyer, R.E. (1990).The use of cover crops,
mulches and tillage for soil water conservation and weed control. In: Organic-matter
Management and Tillage in Humid and Sub-humid Africa. pp. 246-261. IBSRAM
Proceedings No.10. Bangkok: IBSRAM.
Pedrotti, A., Pauletto, E.A., Crestana, S., Holanda, F.S.R., Cruvinel, P.E., Vaz, C.M.P. (2005)
Evaluation of bulk density of Albaqualf soil under different tillage systems using the
volumetric ring and computerized tomography methods. Soil & Tillage Research 80,115
123.
Peign J., Ball B.C., Roger-Estrade J., David C. (2007) Is conservationtillage suitable for
organic farming? A review. Soil Use Manage., 23, 129144.
Peruzzo, P.J., Porta, A.A., Ronco, A.E. (2008). Levels of glyphosate in surface waters,
sediments and soils associated with direct sowing soybean cultivation in north pampasic
region of Argentina. Environmental Pollution 156, 61-66.
Quiroga, A., Ormeo, O., Peinemann, N. (1998b). Efectos de la siembra directa sobre
propiedades f sicas de los suelos (Effects of no-tillage on soil physical properties). In:
Panigatti, J.L., Buschiazzo, D.E., Marelli, H. (Eds.), Siembra Directa. Hemisferio Sur,
Buenos Aires, Argentina, pp. 5763.
Quiroga, A.R., Buschiazzo, D.E., Peinemann, N. (1996). Soil organicmatter particle
sizefractions in soils of the Semiarid Argentinean Pampas. Soil Sci., 161, 104108.
317
Rabary, B., Sall, S., Letourny, P., Husson, O., Ralambofetra, E., Moussa, N., Chotte, J.L.
(2008) Effects of living mulches or residue amendments on soil microbial properties in
direct seeding cropping systems of Madagascar. Appl. Soil Ecol. 39,236243.
Sanchez, C. (1988). Descomposicion de residuos vegetales en un suelo cultivado de la
provincia de Buenos Aires. Ciencia del Suelo, 6, 93102.
Sapkota, T.B., Mazzoncini, M., Barberi, P., Antichi, D., Silvestri, N. (2012).Fifteen years of
no till increase soil organic matter, microbial biomass and arthropod diversity in cover
crop-based arable cropping systems. Agronomy for Sustainable Development 32 (4), 853863.
Sasal, M.C., Andriulo, A., Taboada, M.A. (2006). Soil porosity characteristics on water
dynamics under direct drilling in Argiudolls of the Argentinean Rolling Pampas. Soil Till.
Res., 87, 918.
Sasal, M.C., Andriulo, A.E., Wilson, M.G., Portela, S.I. (2010). Prdidas de Glifosato por
Drenaje y Escurrimiento en Molsoles bajo Siembra Directa [Glyphosate losses by
drainage and runoff from Mollisolls under no-till agriculture]. Informacin Tecnolgica
21(5), 135-142.
Selim H.M., Zhou L., Zhu H. (2003). Herbicide retention in soil as affected by sugarcane
mulch residue. J. Environ. Qual. 32, 14451454.
Sharpley, A. N., and Smith, S. J. (1994).Wheat tillage and waterquality in the Southern
Plains. Soil Tillage Res. 30: 3338.
Shipitalo, M.J., Dick, W.A., Edwards, W.M. (2000). Conservation tillage and macropore
factors that affect water movement and the fate of chemicals. Soil and Tillage Research
53 (3-4), pp. 167-183.
Six, J., Elliott, E.T., Paustian, K. (1999). Aggregate and soil organic matter dynamics under
conventional and no-tillage systems. Soil Science Society of America Journal 63, 1350
1358.
Soriano, A., Len, R.J.C., Sala, O.E., Lavado, R.S., Deregibus, V.A., Cahuep, M.A.,
Scaglia, O.A., Velzquez, C.A., Lemcoff, J.H. (1992). Ro de la Platagrasslands: In:
Coupland, R.T. (ed.) Ecosystems of the world 8A.Natural grasslands. Introduction and
western hemisphere. Elsevier, New York, 367-407.
Spargo, J.T., Cavigelli, M.A., Alley, M.M., Maul, J.E., Buyer, J.S., Sequeira, C.H., Follett,
R.F. (2012).Changes in soil organic carbon and nitrogen fractions with duration of notillage management. Soil Science Society of America Journal 76 (5), 1624-1633.
SSSA, (1997). Glossary of Soil Science Terms. Soil Science Society of America, Madison,
WI, 134.
Sumner, D.R. (1982). Crop rotation and plant productivity. In M. Recheigl, (ed). CRC
Handbook of Agricultural Productivity, Vol.I CRC Press, Florida.
Taboada, M.A., Barbosa, O.A., Cosentino, D.J. (2008). Null creation of air-filled structural
pores by soil cracking and shrinkage in silty loamy soils. Soil Sci. 173, 130-142.
Taboada, M.A., Micucci, F.G., Cosentino, D.J., Lavado, R.S. (1998). Comparison of
compaction induced by conventional and zero tillage in two soils of the Rolling Pampa of
Argentina. Soil Tillage Res. 49, 57-63.
Thierfelder, C., Cheesman, S., Rusinamhodzi, L. (2012). A comparative analysis of
conservation agriculture systems: Benefits and challenges of rotations and intercropping
in Zimbabwe. Field Crops Research 137, 237-250.
318
Totis L., Perez, O. (1994). Relaciones entre el consumo de agua mximo de la secuencia de
cultivo trigo/soja y la evapotranspiracin potencial para el clculo de la dosis de riego.
INTA Pergamino-Carpeta de Produccin Vegetal, 12 (1994), 14.
Vasileiadis V.P., Froud-Williams R.J., Eleftherohorinos I.G. (2007). Vertical distribution,
size and composition of the weed seedbankunder various tillage and herbicide treatments
in a sequence of industrial crops. Weed Res. 47, 222230.
Vepraskas, M.J. (1994). Plant response mechanisms to soil compaction. In: Wilkinson, R.E.
(Ed.), PlantEnvironment Interactions. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 263387.
Vera, M.S., Lagomarsino, L., Sylvester, M., Prez, G.L., Rodrguez, P., Mugni, H., Sinistro,
R., Ferraro M, Bonetto C, Zagarese H, Pizarro, H. (2010). New evidences of Roundup
(glyphosate formulation) impact on the periphyton community and the water quality of
freshwater ecosystems. Ecotoxicology 19: 710-721.
Verhulst, N., Govaerts, B., Verachtert, E., Castellanos-Navarette, A., Mezzalama, M.,Wall,
P.C. Chocobar, A., Deckers, J., Sayre. K.D. (2010). Conservation agriculture, improving
soil quality for sustainable production systems?R. Lal, B.A. Steward (Eds.), Advances in
Soil Science: Food security and Soil Quality, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida, USA, pp.
137208
Wang, X., Wu, H., Dai, K., Zhang, D., Feng, Z., Zhao, Q., Wu, X., Jin, K Cai, D, Oenemac,
O., Hoogmoed, W.B. (2012). Tillage and crop residue effects on rainfed wheat and maize
production in northern China. Field Crops Research 132, 106-116.
Wauchope R.D. (1978). The pesticide content of surface water draining from agricultural
fieldsa review. J. Environ. Qual., 7, 459472.
Wauchope, R. D. (1978). The pesticide content of surface water draining from agricultural
fields--A review. J. Environ. Qual. 7, 459-472.
Wright, S. (1998). Increase in aggregate stability and glomalin form arbuscular mycorrhizal
fungi on no till farming systems. In Proceedings of the sixth AAPRESID annual No Till
Conference. AAPRESID : Rosario. pp. 195-202.
Wyngaard, N., Echeverra, H.E., Rozas, H.R.S., Divito, G.A. (2012). Fertilization and tillage
effects on soil properties and maize yield in a Southern Pampas Argiudoll. Soil and
Tillage Research 119, 22-30.
Zanini, G.P., Maneiro, C., Waiman, C., Galantini, J.A., Rosell, R.A. (2009). Adsorption of
metsulfuron-methyl on soils under no-till system in semiarid Pampean Region,
Argentina. Geoderma 149 (1-2), 110-115.
Zhang, J., Hao, Q., Jiang, C., Wu, Y. (2011). Effect of tillage systems on soil organic carbon
and soil quality in a purple paddy soil. Advanced Materials Research 183-185, 11901194.
Zotarelli, L., Avila, L., Scholberg, J.M.S., Alves, B.J.R. (2009). Benefits of vetch and rye
cover crops to sweet corn under no-tillage. Agronomy Journal 101, 252-260.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 18
ABSTRACT
Despite recent economic downturns, tourism-related capital investment has grown
massively during the last few decades and is predicted to continue growing after 2010.
There is increasing motivation from both the private and the public sectors to make this
investment more sustainable. There is also increasing awareness of the need to conserve
the unique natural, social and cultural assets of destinations. It is clear that a healthy
environment maintains the competitive advantage of a destination. Consumers also have
greater opportunities and access to information, and can better assess the sustainability of
their travel choices. However, the tourism investment process is a complex one,
involving a variety of stakeholders whose differences in nature, scale of operation and
planning time horizons make the effective application of sustainability principles to
tourism investments a difficult task to achieve. EU recorded in excess of more than 400m
visitor arrivals in 2010. Tourism, directly and indirectly, accounts for around 10% of
European GDP and 20m jobs. Tourism is the largest industry in the world with impacts to
match.
320
1. INTRODUCTION
Tourism activities are considered to be one of the sources of economic growth in the
world. Tourist spending has served as an alternative form of exports, contributing to an
ameliorated balance of payments through foreign exchange earning in many countries. A
balanced and harmonic growth of tourist economy in relation to the other sectors of economic
activity and mainly the most basic sectors, such as agricultural and industrial economy,
ensures with the types of nutrition and the capital equipment the production of tourist
products, which are necessary for the satisfaction of tourist needs or wishes. As a result, the
development of tourism has generally been considered a positive contribution to economic
growth. On the past, international tourism has been gaining importance in many economies of
the world. It continued to grow throughout the world, in line with strong world economic
expansion especially in countries with high tourist outflows. The number of tourists
worldwide went up in 2008 to almost 914 million. Europe remains the leading tourist
destination in world with 492 million visitors, posting a market share of 53.8% in 2008
(World Bank 2010).
There has been a number of empirical studies, focus on investigating the relationship
between tourism development and economic growth. Many studies about the relationships
between tourism development and economic give different results for different countries in
the same subject or region, different time periods within the same country and different
methodologies in different regions. However, such country analysis is invaluable for those
countries when they design their specific strategy.
However, when many countries (as Mediterranean countries) have the same aim for
tourism development, called for further in-depth studies, suggesting researchers might like to
compare inter-country relationships between economic development and tourism activity.
Responding for a better understanding of the relationship between groups of countries and
their interactions, it is recommended that the panel data approach be taken (Lee and Chang,
2008). There are cross-sectional studies, panel data-based studies and time-series studies.
Among the main issues examined has been cointegration between tourism and economic
growth and Granger causality in order to examine the direction of causation. Balaguer and
Cantavella-Jorda (2002) studied the role of tourisms long-run economic development in
Spain. The hypothesis of tourism-led economic growth was confirmed by applying
cointegration and causality tests. Eugenio-Martin et al. (2004) investigate the relationship
between tourism and economic growth for Latin American countries from 1985 until 1998.
They have underscored the fact that the tourism sector is conducive to economic growth in
medium- and low-income countries. With this in mind, dissimilarities in the degree of
economic development in various regions are considered to determine if tourism development
and the growth relationship differs for developed and developing economies. Consistently,
the empirical results by Kim et al. (2006) also indicated a long-run equilibrium relationship
and bidirectional causality between the two factors in examining the relationship between
tourism expansion and economic development in Taiwan using a Granger causality test and
cointegration approach.
321
322
operators and other intermediaries could play a key role in raising this awareness, as well as
promoting sustainability on site. Adequate and comparable market signalling of tourism
products is required, so that the private sector has a more tangible set of objectives to pursue
and potential tourists can be better informed about tourism products.
Each dimension of sustainable tourism requires close liaison between community, private
and public sectors. From the perspective of economics, recreational landscapes are common
goods supported by multi-functional ecosystems and this is why cooperation between
different stakeholders is so critical. The best way to understand these interrelations and the
repercussions for sustainable tourism is to look more closely at the tourism investment
process.
323
1.3. Management
Tourism operators are the key players in tourism management. Their role normally
begins at the end of the investment process, once development is complete. However, recent
analyses show that they could have a much more important bearing on destination planning
and growth. The operator is frequently more interested in sustainability than the
owner/builder. For example, lower energy and water costs are of interest to the operator, but
not necessarily to the owner who may wish to maximize short-term profitability. Tourism
operators handle the day-to-day running of tourist complexes (including accommodation and
leisure activities). For this group, not only is the site itself important (for access and
environmental reasons), but also the quality of facilities (including infrastructure and
architecture) and the target market. Using this information, operators can make profit
estimates. Their consistent presence puts tourism operators in a unique position to implement
environmental management strategies (like recycling or energy conservation measures) and
encourage owners to consider design options. If they are involved from the initial stages of
the tourism investment project, these management prerogatives can become part of the project
design. Large multinational tour operators an important subset of tourism operators are
often vertically integrated (UNCTAD, 1999). This allows them to maintain various links in
the distribution chain by exercising their management control over the fleet of planes, cruise
lines, a network of agencies, and hotels. Such vertical integration places them in a powerful
position in relation to destinations and hotel owners (Endo, 2006). Large multinational
tourism operators are often no longer owners of the properties they run. Their degree of
participation in hotels is classified into: equity investment ensuring some management
control; minority equity investment including joint venture; leasing agreement; management
contract; franchise agreement. Transnational corporations combine the above modes of
operations that best fit their interests according to the conditions of host countries. The modes
of operations differ even within the same hotel group, depending on the class of hotels and
the destination (Endo, 2006).
324
2. CONCEPT OF SUSTAINABILITY
The concept of sustainability was derived from environmentalism and grew to
prominence in the 1970s. In tourism, the World Tourism Organization (WTO, 2004)
proposed a definition of sustainable tourism development (STD) that meets the needs of
present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future.
It is envisaged as leading to management of all resources in such a way that economic, social
and aesthetic needs can be fulfilled while maintaining cultural integrity, essential ecological
processes, biological diversity and life support systems. Cater (1993) also identified three key
objectives for STD, which refer to meeting the needs of the host population in terms of
improved living standards in both the short and long term, satisfying the demands of a
growing number of tourists, and safeguarding the natural environment in order to achieve
both of the preceding aims. STD has attracted a lot of research interest and it has become a
tourism management guideline. Tourism development is a dynamic process of matching
tourism resources to the demands and preferences of actual or potential tourists (Liu, 1994).
Therefore, implementation of STD requires a rigorous monitoring mechanism to achieve a
balance point between stakeholders. Monitoring is the process of undertaking regular
measurements of one or more phenomena in order to assess their change over time. Indicators
serve as benchmarks to evaluate the sustainability of tourism development. Sustainability
indicators are useful tools (Zorpas et al., 2010). They are helpful in linking monitoring
programs with the evaluation process and, when linked to targets, they provide criteria by
which to judge progress. Hence, the introduction of indicators plays a crucial role for STD.
As Butler (1999) suggested, the term of sustainable development is meaningless without
indicators.
After more than a decades debate on STD, there is still disagreement on what should be
sustained and on the appropriate indicators for measuring sustainability (Liu, 2003). Previous
works have developed STD indicators, such as Miller (2001) and Twining-Ward & Butler
(2002). However, their indicators depicted only the progress on each aspect of STD, they
failed to display the progress as a whole. Ko (2001) divided components of STD into the
human system and the ecosystem and devised a barometer of tourism sustainability
(BTS) to assess progress of tourism sustainability. However, the BTS model assumes that all
indicators are of equal importance, although this is unlikely to be the case. This may lead to a
misleading perception of tourism development sustainability for any particular destination.
Furthermore, STD issues are different from destination to destination. Hence, it is necessary
to apply a different evaluation framework to each particular destination.
Small islands are the most popular and visited destinations in the world over time. They
generally possess a rich diversity of endemic flora and fauna but relatively few natural
resources. Their geographical isolation, small economy and dependence on a narrow range of
products often lead them to be highly dependent on exchange with external markets and
vulnerable to external shocks. Therefore, small islands are expected to face many challenges
and constraints in pursuing sustainable development due to their ecological fragility and
economic vulnerability (Ghina, 2003). The benefits of tourism development to small islands
are increased tax revenues, expansion of otherwise limited employment opportunities,
promotion of business development, improved life of local residents and so on. Nevertheless,
tourism development can also jeopardize the sustainability of small islands. Britton (1982)
325
326
b.
c.
Make optimal use of the environmental resources that constitute a key element in
tourism development, maintaining essential ecological processes and helping to
conserve natural heritage and biodiversity.
Respect the socio-cultural authenticity of host communities, conserve their built
and living cultural heritage and traditional values, and contribute to inter-cultural
understanding and tolerance.
Ensure viable, long-term economic operations, providing socio-economic
benefits to all stakeholders that are fairly distributed, including stable
employment and income-earning opportunities and social services to host
communities, and contributing to poverty alleviation. Besides tackling the
different aspects above, sustainable tourism development requires the informed
participation of all relevant stakeholders, as well as strong political leadership to
ensure wide participation and consensus building. Achieving sustainable tourism
is a continuous process and it requires constant monitoring of impacts,
introducing the necessary preventive and/or corrective measures whenever
necessary (WTO, 2004). Finally, sustainable tourism should also maintain a
high level of tourist satisfaction and ensure a meaningful experience to the
tourists, raising their awareness about sustainability issues and promoting
sustainable tourism practices amongst them
ii.
iii.
iv.
v.
327
328
The above aims should also apply to policies and actions affecting the impact of outgoing
tourism from Europe and support the industry as an international development tool.
329
The Mediterranean region is the leading tourist destination worldwide. Tourism is mainly
concentrated in the coastal areas that receive 30% of international tourist arrivals. The most
widely used tourism development model used in the region is based on seaside summer
holidays and the attainment of quantitative goals. Of the total 46,000 km of coastline, 25,000
km is urbanized and have already exceeded a critical limit.
International tourist arrivals (excluding domestic arrivals) in 1999 totaled 219.6 million
(4.7% increase over 1998). Projections show that this figure could reach 350 million by 2020.
84% of the tourists in the Mediterranean come from Europe, mostly from northern and
western countries.
Germany is the largest market followed by the United Kingdom, France and Italy. Spain,
France, Italy, and Greece receive almost 80% of Mediterranean tourism. The Mediterranean
receives 1/3 of the income of international tourism. Tourism receipts in 1999 totaled US$
131.8 billion. Over the last three years, 2/3 of the income returned to the hands of less than 10
tour operators from northern Europe.
The environment and society of many Mediterranean destinations are under threat due to
the inappropriate practice and development associated with mass tourism. With current
development models based on quantity, the projected growth of tourism development in the
region will continue to damage landscapes, cause soil erosion, put pressure on endangered
species, further strain available water resources, increase waste and pollution discharges into
the sea and lead to cultural disruption.
The Mediterranean is under threat due to the inappropriate practice and development
associated with mass tourism. With current development models based on quantity, the
projected growth of tourism development in the region will continue to damage landscapes,
cause soil erosion, put pressure on endangered species, further strain available water
resources, increase waste and pollution discharges into the sea and lead to cultural disruption.
Most Mediterranean coastal aquifers suffer from over-exploitation due to the
concentration of agriculture and tourism in coastal areas where the mild climate favours both
economic activities. Coastal groundwater has been reduced to below sea level by excessive
pumping in Cyprus, Greece, Israel, Italy, Libya, Spain (Plan Bleu, 1999) and Turkey (EEA,
2003).
330
strategic sector (Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt and Jordan) and countries closed to tourism
(Algeria and Libya).
Tourist affluence to countries of the Middle East (Syria, Lebanon, Israel and Palestinian
Territories) varies in alternating cycles according to the political crises striking the region,
although the general trend is towards growth in the ensemble of these countries. In the 20052010 period, it was Morocco, Egypt and Jordan that took the lead in the SEMCs with an
average annual growth rate (AAGR) of over 9% in arrivals and over 10% in international
tourism revenues. Tunisia, the pioneer of tourism development on the South Mediterranean,
has become the country with the poorest performance in the region.
Table 1. The Tourism Sector in the Southern and Eastern Mediterranean Countries
(SEMCs)
International
arrivals (1)
(in thousands)
Algeria
Egypt
Jordan
Israel
Lebanon
Libya
Morocco
Syria
Tunisia
Palestinian
Territories
Total
2005
2010
AAGR
20052010
2005
2010
AAGR
20052010
Number
of Direct
Jobs
Number Drop in
of Indirect Arrivals
Jobs
in 2011
1443
8608
3200
1916
1140
n/a
6077
5859
6378
88
1912
14051
4557
2803
2168
34
9288
8546
6902
522
5.79
10.3
7.33
7.91
13.72
n/a
8.85
7.84
1.59
n/a
477
7206
2004
3427
5531
250
4610
1944
2143
119
n/a
12528
3413
4768
8012
60
6720
6190
2645
522
n/a
11.7
11.24
6.83
7.69
n/a
7.83
24.92
4.3
n/a
354
1677
130
85
119
27
815
305
256
n/a
698
3683
321
259
426
51
1,806
772
531
n/a
n/a
-33.2
-15.7
0.6
-24.4
n/a
1.6
-40.7
-30.7
-11.7
Drop in
Tourism
Revenue
in 2011
n/a
-25.7
-17.7
n/a
n/a
n/a
4.6
n/a
-50.7
n/a
34709
50783
7.91%
27711
44858
10.60%
3,768
8,547
-22%
n/a
(1) UN World Tourism Organisation (UNWTO); (2) World Travel and Tourism Company (WTTC) and
TSA Research (Tourism Satellite Account). AAGR: Average Annual Growth Rate. n/a: not
available.
With nearly 300 million international arrivals in 2010, i.e., approximately a third of the
total international tourist flow worldwide, the Mediterranean is the worlds premiere tourist
region. South Mediterranean tourism is characterised by strong dependence on European
flows, which on average account for 60% of international arrivals.
These flows nurture an economy that represents an important source of employment and
investment, whether tourism is the object of economic strategies or not. On the eve of the
Arab Spring, the sector accounted for 3.8 million direct jobs in the SEMCs, i.e. 7% of total
jobs, and 8.5 million indirect jobs, i.e. 15% of total jobs (TSA) By entailing a drastic fall in
tourism activity in the region, the revolutions have endangered one of the most dynamic and
strategic economies on the South shore.
331
332
revolution and the Syrian crisis, with a drop in international arrivals of 41% in Syria, 24% in
Lebanon and 16% in Jordan. Israel and Morocco are the only SEMCs having continued to
experience growth of international arrivals, though much slower (0.6% and 1.6%,
respectively), (Weigert, 2012).
Domestic tourism, less sensitive to endogenous or exogenous crises, is much less volatile
than international tourism. Finally, the social and economic urgency arising from the Arab
Spring and the need to support job creation at any cost could relegate the environmental
issues of tourism development to the background. However, ecological constraint remains
imperative in these countries, where mass tourism has a serious impact on the environment, in
particular along the coast (waste, concreting, overconsumption of water resources, threatened
ecosystems). Moreover, in the next century, climate change will have grave consequences in
the Mediterranean Basin, with a significant rise in temperatures, a fall in precipitation and a
rise in sea level. These developments will influence the location and volume of tourist flows,
as the heat waves become more frequent and water resources dwindle, in particular in Egypt
and Libya. Under such conditions, the use of green technologies for adaptation to climate
change can hardly be avoided in the SEMCs. But in the midst of this crisis in tourism
investment, priority short-term issues may limit the capacity of policymakers to opt for these
often costly prevention strategies.
333
wrong. As any type of activity, the implementation of this type of tourism originates,
inevitably, impacts, either positive or negative, (Queiroz, 2009). However, it must not be
forgotten that tourism itself is not harmful and that the mistake of many tourism destinations
of the developing countries is related to the management models adopted. The conquest of
sustainability can and must be associated to all the tourism modalities, and in order to achieve
this, proper planning and control are extremely necessary.
Nonetheless, in spite of such apparent and evident consequences, many are the managers
who deny recognizing the impacts inherent to tourism and refuse to carry out any proposals
for assessing the development of its activities. The lack of a responsible management has
provoked some vulnerability in the destinations, and consequently, the resources upon which
the tourism prosperity was based on are being degraded. For this reason, in order for the
receiving communities to move from the extractive development, instead of strictly economist
principles, those focused on the social development should be followed (Queiroz, 2009). A
persistent resistance still prevails in those countries preventing the development of means of
management related to the sustainability. It is necessary to arouse new consciousness, which
will lead to a reduction of the risks of the activities related to this sector. Unless there is a
general awareness of the responsibilities to which this process leads, the possibility of
achieving progress concerning sustainability will be scarce. The sustainable tourism
development implies in decision-making, very often hard and mainly demanding long-term
view.
334
environmental and economical effects, the understandingof sustainability within these scopes
depends on a humanistic analysis (Swarbrooke, 1998), as the awareness, which will ensure
sustainability of the natural surroundings, depends entirely on the human being
(Krippendorff, J 1987). As it defended by Hunziker quoted by Queiroz (2009) tourism
constitutes an economical aspect only in a subsidiary way. The man is its real core.
Sustainability must be understood as a development process centered on people, and capable
of mobilizing, motivating behavior and reinforcing values. Such principles, properly
considered and analyzed are able to promote considerable changes in the dominant models,
causing improvements in the human and institutional relations. There is no necessity for
distinct tourism activities, but for distinct human beings. It is necessary a change in the
everyday context for tourism to follow a similar process.
335
Public goods are non-rival and non-excludable (Samuelson, 1954). Non-rivalry implies
that one individuals consumption does not prevent another persons consumption (this is the
same as saying that once a public good is provided, the cost of any additional user is zero).
Hence, many people can consume any non-rival good without being depleted. A tourism
jurisdiction basing its final product on public goods will surely have a higher scope for
growth than a jurisdiction relying on intensive use of limited resources.
336
reproduction of material form even though it cannot escape having inputs of energy. Indeed,
it could be argued that there is no way to escape the apparent unsustainability of development
and growth in tourism municipalities as a destination.
337
political processes involved while creating synergies between public and private sector
stakeholders. The success of the destination brand is based on a vision which is founded on
intensive stakeholder, consumer and competitor research and which is expressed with care
and discipline in everything that communicates the brands personality. Morgan et al (2003),
explained that country brandings in not merely a rational marketing activity but a political
act based on issues such as local pride. This stakeholder vision for product development can
be extended to more integrated sustainable marketing strategies. For tourism marketing
strategies, it needs to be acknowledged that traditional destination branding is not effective
anymore in a global environment, that branding is connected to the complexity of a place, and
that all stakeholders needed to be involved in the process. The proposed marketing strategy
illustration is built on networks and stakeholder collaboration. A more sustainable approach
provides a macro holistic view of marketing and integrates economic viability, social equity
and environmental responsibilities. The paradigm shift includes changes in philosophy, such
as adopting a theoretical (eco) system community perspective, a focus on dynamic holistic
exchanges, and goals such as quality life in a just and diverse society. The Sustainable
Marketing Strategy Network (Jarmozy, 2008) as presented in Figure 3 is designed to
introduce an integrated system approach to marketing. The principle propositions made are
that sustainable marketing decisions are dynamically influence each other and are based on
partnerships and shared visions of sustainability.
338
establishment of co-operation and partnerships among local, regional and state stakeholders
and authorities as the most sustainable actions. All businesses, which do not believe in that,
are due to oversupply and low quality of tourism product.
Similarly to the tourism enterprises, the local authorities also believe that sustainable
tourism growth has a positive prospect in some countries, as the vast majority of them believe
that their area, on a destination and on an operational level, is able to meet sustainable
growth. Local authorities suggest that the most crucial activities for them to meet sustainable
tourism growth are the organization of environmental and energy-save programmes,
setting a marketing plan for tourism development, developing infrastructure, and local
stakeholders dynamic participation in decision making process. In addition, they feel that
local tourism enterprises can easily implement sustainable tourism development principles,
mainly through recycling measures, collaborating with the local community and with the
promotion of local culture. It is important to note the emphasis given by them on collective
co-operation and the creation of an integrated framework. On concluding, most of the tourist
enterprises and the local authorities believe that tourism business could gain economic
benefits through sustainable tourism development and the role of all groups involved is
crucial for the sustainable tourism development.
339
conservation and environmental NGOs (e.g. WWF-UK) for giving companies recognition on
the basis of commitment only and for becoming a for-profit organization. Despite this Green
Globe is reviewing its criteria to include more performance related criteria.
In December 1998, the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) published a
first analysis of tourism certification programs called Ecolabels in the Tourism Industry. It
found that programs were concentrated mainly in Europe, with a handful in other
geographical regions, including the Certification for Sustainable Tourism (CST) in Costa
Rica, the Nature and the Ecotourism Accreditation Program (NEAP) in Australia, and Ecotel,
a program run worldwide.
In 1998, the EC contracted several NGOs to undertake a study and consultative process
on the feasibility of a single European Ecolabel for hotels. The exercise was completed in
August 2000 and is documented in a report called Feasibility and Market Study for a
European Eco-Label for Tourist Accommodations (FEMATOUR). This report blames the
limited industry participation in the project on the differences in the certification systems
within each EU member state. In March 2000, these issues were also discussed and clarified
at the International Tourism Bourse (ITB) in Berlin, by a board of tourism professionals
invited by the German organization, Ecotrans.
In November 2000, in New Paltz, New York, an international Ecotourism and
Sustainable Tourism Certification Workshop was organized by the Institute for Policy
Studies. The product emerging from that meeting, known as the Mohonk Agreement, outlined
the fundamental Principles of Ecotourism and Sustainable Tourism Certification.
During 2001, the WTO contracted research through the European Network for
Sustainable Tourism Development (Ecotrans) and Oceans Blue Foundation to identify the
current ecolabels, awards and codes of practice, in order to gain a truly global understanding
of what programs exist and in what form. Around 500 initiatives were identified, from which
104 were selected for further analysis. This reflects both the number of efforts operating in
parallel to promote sustainable tourism, and shows the potential for cross-fertilization and
benefits of economies of scale. At the same time, the WTO was dedicating its 37th meeting of
the Commission for the Americas (CAM), held in May 2001 in Oaxaca, to tourism standards,
including largely efforts to certify standards.
Increasingly governments and NGOs are supporting new ecotourism and sustainable
tourism certification programs. These range from EU programs such as the WWF Artic, and
the Ecotourism Society of Sweden, to new Latin American programs in Brazil, Peru,
Ecuador, Bolivia, and elsewhere, to new initiatives in Kenya and South Africa, as well as a
Fair Trade for Tourism Network intended to cover all of Africa.
At the same time programs are looking for common components, with Green Globe 21
entering into a working agreement with NEAP and promoted by Ecotourism Australia
(formerly Ecotourism Association of Australia). Governments have stepped up their
participation, with the CST potentially becoming the most powerful sustainable tourism
concept, to be adapted to the local realities across most countries in Latin America. The EU
has revived its interest in environmental accommodation certification standards, and is cofunding of the Voluntary Initiatives for Sustainability in Tourism (VISIT) project, bringing
together 10 European labels to work on common marketing, standards, and processes.
340
CONCLUSION
Concerning the sustainability of tourism, it is already well established in Europe. It is a
subject that has received considerable attention from the European Commission, the European
Parliament, and the Economic and Social Committee. The response of tourism businesses to
sustainability has been quite variable. Some larger companies in the sector are pursuing
sustainability by introducing corporate social responsibility strategies. Only a small
proportion of small tourism businesses have sought to become recognized for their
environmental and social policies and practices, and it appears that in most cases positive
action has depended on a personal interest and commitment by the proprietor. However, there
are clear signs that the level of interest and response is growing. This has been helped by the
work of trade associations and by business-to-business contact in the supply chain. The last
few years have seen a considerable increase in consumer awareness of the impact of
holidaymaking, partly fuelled by extensive media coverage. Tourists are clearly concerned
that the destinations visit should be attractive, which means for them a clean environment
from any angles. Nature and culture based tourism market segments have been strongly
growing. A number of surveys in different European countries have revealed that when asked
the majority of travelers who care for the environment equally, they would be more likely to
choose enterprises that care for the environment and local community. However, the
proportion of Europeans who chose a particular type of travel specifically for reasons of
environmental impact is probably still low.
In conclusion, most of the tourist enterprises and the local authorities believe that tourism
business could gain economic benefits through sustainable tourism development and the role
of all groups involved is crucial for the sustainable tourism development.
REFERENCES
Allin, P., Bennett, J., and Newton, L. (2001). Defining and measuring sustainable tourism:
Building the first set of UK indicators. In J. Lennon (ed.) Tourism Statistics:
International Perspectives and Current Issues (pp. 163174). London: Continuum.
Balaguer, J., and Cantavella-Jorda, M., (2002). Tourism as a long-run economic growth
factor: The Spanish case, Applied Economics, Vol.34, pp. 877-884.
Bell, S., and Morse, S. (2001). Breaking through the glass ceiling: Who really cares about
sustainability indicators? Local Environment 6 (3), 291309.
Bossel, H. (2001). Assessing viability and sustainability: A system-based approach for
deriving comprehensive indicator sets. Conservation Ecology 5 (2), art. 12. On WWW at
http://consecol.org/vol15/iss12/art12/.
Boulding, K. E. (1966). The economics of the coming spaceship earth. In H. Jarrett (Ed.),
Environmental quality in a growing economy. Essays from de Sixth RFF Forum.
Britton, S. G., (1982). The political economy of tourism in the Third World. Annals of
Tourism Research 9 (3), 331358.
Butler, R. W. (1999). Sustainable tourism: a state-of-the-art review. Tourism Geographies 1
(1), 725.
341
Cater, E. (1993). Ecotourism in the third world: problems for sustainable tourism
development. Tourism Management 14 (2), 8590.
Ceron, J., and Dubois, G. (2003). Tourism and sustainable development indicators: The gap
between theoretical demands and practical achievements. Current Issues in Tourism 6
(1), 5475.
Checkland, P.B. (1981). Systems Thinking, Systems Practice. Chichester, UK:Wiley.
Checkland, P.B. and Scholes, J. (1990). Soft Systems Methodology in Action. Chichester,
UK: Wiley. P 18.
Choi, H.C., and Sirakaya, E. (2006). Sustainability indicators for managing community
tourism. Tourism Management 27, 12741289.
Cornes, R.., & Sandler, T., (1996). The theory of externalities, public goods and club goods.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
CTO, Cyprus Tourism Organization (2007). Mediterranean standard for sustainable tourism,
situation analysis of the sustainable tourism development in Cyprus, sponsored by the
European community initiative programme Interreg III B Archimed.
EN 15565:2006, European Standard. Tourism Services - Requirements for the provision of
professional training and qualification programmes of tourist guides, DRAFT.
Endo, K. (2006). Foreign direct investment in tourism-flows and volumes, Tourism
Management, Vol. 27: 600-614.
EU. (2007). Actions for More Sustainable European Tourism. Report of the Tourism
Sustainability Group.
Eugenio-Martin, J. L., Morales, N. M., and Scarpa, R. (2004). Tourism and economic growth
in Latin American countries: A panel data approach Social Science Research Network
Electronic Paper, No. 26.
European Environment Agency (EEA) (1999). Environmental Indicators: Typology and
Overview. Copenhagen: European Environmental Agency.
European Environment Agency, (EEA)(2003). Europe's water: An indicator-based
assessment.
Freeman, E. Strategic Management: A stakholder approach. Pitman Publisherrs; Boston. USA
Fullana, P., and Ayuso, S., (2002). Turismo Sostenible, Rubes Editorial ; Barcelon.
Galal Ahmed and Reiffers Jean-Louis (eds.). Towards a New Med Region: Achieving
Fundamental Transitions, FEMISE Report on the Euro-Mediterranean Partnership,
October 2011.
Gallopin, G.C. (1997). Indicators and their use: Information for decision-making. In B.
Moldan, S. Billharz and R. Matravers (eds) Sustainability Indicators: A Report on the
Project on Indicators of Sustainable Developmen: Scope 58 (pp. 1327). New
York:Wiley.
Ghina, F. (2003). Sustainable development in small island development states: the case of
Maldives. Environment Development and Sustainability 5 (1/2), 139166.
Gustavson, K.R., Lonergan, S.C., and Ruitenbeek, H.J. (1999). Selection and modeling of
sustainable development indicators: A case study of the Fraser River Basin, British
Columbia. Ecological Economics 28, 117132.
Holling, C.S. (ed.). (1978). Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management.
Chichester, UK:Wiley.
Hughes, G. (2002) Environmental indicators. Annals of Tourism Research 29 (2), 457477.
342
Hyde, R., Moore, R., Kavanagh, L., Schianetz, K., Prasad, D., Blair, J., Watt, M., Bayada, B.,
and Hair, A., (2007). Planning and Design Standard for Improving Sustainability of
Neighbourhoods and Precincts. Gold Coast, Australia: CRC for Sustainable Tourism
Kim, H. J., Chen, M. H., and Jang, S. (2006). Tourism expansion and economic
development: The case of Taiwan. Tourism Mamagement, Vol.27, No.5, pp. 925933.
Ko, J. T. G., (2001). Assessing progress of tourism sustainability. Annals of Tourism
Research 28 (3), 817820.
Krippendorff, J. (1987). The Holiday Markers: Understanding the impact of leisure and
travel, Heinemann: London, UK
Lee, C.-C., and Chien, M.-S. (2008). Structural breaks, tourism development, and economic
growth: evidence from Taiwan, Mathematics and Computers in Simulation, Vol. 77, pp
358368.
Li, W. (2004). Environmental management indicators for ecotourism in Chinas nature
reserves: A case study in Tianmushan Nature Reserve. Tourism Management 25, 559
564.
Liu, Z. H. (1994). Tourism development: a systems analysis. In A. V. Seaton (ed.), Tourism:
The State of the Art, 2030. Chichester: John Wiley & Sons.
Liu, Z. H. M. (2003). Sustainable tourism development: a critique. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism 11 (6), 459475.
Lootsma, F.A. (1997). Fuzzy Logic for Planning and Decision Making. Dordrecht, Boston:
Kluwer.
Manning, E.W., Clifford, G., Dougherty, D. and Ernst, M. (1996). What Managers Need to
Know A Practical Guide to the Development and Use of Indicators of Sustainable
Tourism. Madrid:World Tourism Organization.
Manning, T. (1999). Opinion piece: Indicators of tourism sustainability. Tourism
Management 20 (2), 179181.
Mathieson, A., and Wall, G. 1982. Tourism Economic, Physical and Social Impacts,
Longman Group Limited; New York.
Meadows, D. (1998). Indicators and Information Systems for Sustainable Development. A
Report to the Balaton Group. Hartland Four Corners, USA: The Sustainability Institute.
Miller, G. (2001). The development of indicators for sustainable tourism: results of a Delphi
survey of tourism researchers. Tourism Management 22 (4), 351362.
Miller, G. and Twining-Ward, L. (2005). Monitoring for a Sustainable Tourism Transition:
The Challenge of Developing and Using Indicators.Wallingford, UK: CABI Publishing.
P.116, 117.
Moldan, B., Billharz, S., and Matravers, R. (eds) (1997). Sustainability Indicators: A Report
on the Project on Indicators of Sustainable Development. New York:Wiley.
Morgan, N.J, Pritchard, A., Piggott, R. Destination branding and the role of the stakeholders :
Th case of New Zealand. Journal of Vacation Marketing, 9(3), 285-299.
Mowfort, M. and Munt, I. (1998). Tourism and Sustainability: new tourism in the third world,
Routledge: London 1998
Niemeijer, D., and de Groot, R.S. (2007). Framing environmental indicators: Moving from
causal chains to causal networks. Environment, Development and Sustainability 9, 89
106.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (2003) OECD
Environmental Indicators Development, Measurement and Use. Paris: OECD.
343
Plan Bleu. (1999). Mediterranean Vision on water, population and the environment for the
XXIst century. Jean Margat, Domitille Valle. Contribution to the World Water Vision of
the World Water Council and the Global Water Partnership prepared by the Blue Plan in
the Framework of the MEDTAC/GWP. December 1999.
Plan Bleu. (2004). L'eau des Mditerranens : situation et perspectives. Margat Jean, avec la
collaboration de Sbastien Treyer.
Queiroz, S.F. (2009). Stakeholders theory and its contribution to the sustainable development
of a tourism destination. Sustainable Development and Planing IV, WIT Press, Vol 2;
791-798.
Reed, M.S., Fraser, E.D.G., and Dougill, A.J. (2006). An adaptive learning process for
developing and applying sustainability indicators with local communities. Ecological
Economics 59, 406418.
Salma, U. (2006) Tourism investment in Australia, Tourism Economics, Vol. 12(2): 207224.
Samuelson, P. (1954). The pure theory of public expenditure. Review of Economics and
Statistics, 36, 12431259.
Swarbrooke, J. (1998). Sustainable Tourism Management, CABI Publishing: Wallingford,
1998.
TSA Research, World Travel and Tourism Company (WTTC).
Twining-Ward, L., and Butler, R. (2002). Implementing STD on a small island: development
and use of sustainable tourism envelopment indicators in Samoa. Journal of Sustainable
Tourism 10 (5), 363387.
UNCTAD (1999). Recent developments in trade and competition issues in the services
sector: a review of practices in travel and tourism. UNCTAD Series on Issues in
Competition Law and Policy. New York and Geneva, United Nations.
UNEP-WTO (2005) Making tourism more sustainable A guide for Policy Makers.
United Nations Environment Programme, http://www.unep.org/.
UNWTO/UNEP. (2008). Climate Change and Tourism, Published by the World Tourism
Organization and the United Nations Environment Programme Printed by the World
Tourism Organization, Madrid, Spain First printing 2008, Responding to Global
Challenges (http://sdt.unwto.org/sites/all/files/docpdf/climate2008.pdf, Access on
Aprill 2013)
Weigert, M. (2012). The challenges of Tourism in the Mediterranean Region, Economy and
Territory, Productive Structure and Labour Market
World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) and the United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP) (2005) identified an agenda of 12 aims for sustainable tourism,
(UNWTO/UNEP, 2005 Making Tourism More Sustainable, A guide for policy makers
UNWTO/UNEP.
World Tourism Organization (WTO). (2004). Concepts & Definitions: Sustainable
Development of Tourism Conceptual Definition. from http://www.world-tourism.org/
frameset/frame_sustain able.html
World Tourism Organization (WTO). (2004). Indicators of Sustainable Development for
Tourism Destinations: A Guidebook. Madrid:WTO.
WTO. 1995. World Tourism Organization (WTO), United Nations Environment Programme
(UNEP), United Nations Educational, & Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
344
and European Union (1995), Lanzarote Charter for Sustainable Tourism, http://www.
world-tourism.org/ sustainable/doc/Lanz-en.pdf.
WTO. 2004. World Tourism Organization (2004). Sustainable Definition of Tourism.
Conceptual Definition, http://www.world-tourism.org/frameset/frame_sustainable.
html.
Zadeh, L.A., and Kacprzyk, J. (ed.) (1992). Fuzzy Logic for the Management of Uncertainty.
New York:Wiley.
Zorpas Antonis. (2007). Mediterranean Standard For Sustainable Tourism-Me.S.S.T.
European Union, Programme Interreg IIIB, ARCHIMED 2007.
Zorpas, A.A., Tsartas, P., Aristidis, G., Theocharous, O. (2008). Mediterranean standard for
sustainable tourism (MESST) - General requirements, objectives and the philosophy
of MESST. WIT Transactions on Ecology and the Environment, 39, 261-274.
Zorpas A.A., Voukkali, I. (2010). Sustainable Tourism Development In The Mediterranean.
An Alternative Approach of A Proposed Methodology. (Eds Petter M. Berge and Sondre
B. Eliassen. Hospitality and Tourism Management), Nova Science Publisher, 1-36.
Zorpas, A., Malamis, S., Lambrou, G., Loizidou, M., Voukkali, I. (2010) Development of
sustainability indices for the wider area of Troodos in Cyprus. WIT Transactions on
Ecology and the Environment. 130, pp. 65-75.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 19
ABSTRACT
It is widely accepted that the transport sector is currently the driving force of the
economy in every country all around the world. It is the key to a well-functioning internal
market and the ability of all countries and regions to remain part of a fully integrated
world economy. A transportation system can enhance the productivity and quality of life
of a community if properly planned and managed. At the same time, development
stimulates demand for transport. Although the needs in passenger and freight
transportation are increasing at rates greater than the economy and population growth, the
transport sector cannot be characterized sustainable long term. There is now an increased
understanding of the need to design urban transport and land-use systems to be more
sustainable, and of the policies which are needed to achieve this. Efficient, sustainable
transport with less congestion and fewer emissions that enables economic growth and job
creation is a precondition for maintaining a countrys prosperity. This chapter describes
the current situation of urban transport, giving more emphasis in the urban transport of
European cities, and discusses the term sustainability and how could this be applied to
transportation. The chapter then shows why urban transport needs change and proposes
different strategies for implementation in order to achieve sustainable urban transport.
Finally, the chapter ends with describing what the future of the transport sector would be
in the next 20 years.
1. INTRODUCTION
The transport sector is currently the driving force of the economy all across the world. It
is fundamental to both our economy and society. Mobility is vital for the quality of life of
citizens, as they enjoy their freedom to travel, and also for the internal market of each
*
346
Marios Valiantis
country. Transport enables economic growth and job creation: it must be sustainable in the
light of the new challenges we face. Transport is global, so effective action requires strong
international cooperation.
Road transport is part of the lifeblood of the European economy and single market. It
delivers goods across Europe fast, efficiently, flexibly and cheaply. About half of the goods
transported in Europe are transported by road. People also travel mainly by road, with private
cars accounting for almost 75% of passenger traffic. Road transport is a vital economic sector
in its own right, employing about 5 million people across the EU and generating close to 2%
of its GDP.
Efficient and sustainable transport is a precondition for maintaining the EUs prosperity.
What is needed is less congestion, fewer emissions, more employment and more growth.
Efficient and sustainable transport is also the key to a well-functioning internal market and
provides the ability of all of our regions to remain part of a fully integrated world economy.
Transport is also an important part of the economy itself: many European companies are
world leaders in infrastructure, logistics and the manufacture of transport equipment and
traffic management systems. It must be kept that way.
Increasing at a much higher rate than population growth, the transport sector cannot be
characterised as sustainable long term. In a world of rising oil prices, growing congestion and
looming climate change, the EUs transport system needs a radical overhaul to maintain its
role of growth engine and keep pace with mounting global competition. In order to avoid
having to limit our freedom of movement, transports dependency on oil must break without
sacrificing its efficiency.
The future prosperity of Europe and other continents will depend on the ability of all of
their regions to remain fully and competitively integrated in the world economy. Efficient and
sustainable transport is vital in making this happen.
2. URBAN TRANSPORT
An urban area is a complex of inter-related and interconnected human needs and
activities. For these needs and activities to happen an efficient transportation system is
required to ensure the efficient movement of people, foods and services, effective commerce
and trade system, and that long term economic growth and development is sustained. Such a
system must be sustainable to meet the basic transportation needs of all citizens without
compromising the economic and natural resource base of the future generations. The
significance of transport to the development of a country lies in the fundamental fact that
mobility and accessibility are essential for economic growth. For instance, transport allows
accessibility to agricultural lands, health, education, employment, commerce, mineral
resources base, forests, industries and various other activities in a community.
Since the 1987 Brundtland Commission report which managed to receive global attention
to the concept of sustainable development, academics and policy professionals have worked
to apply its principles in the urban and metropolitan context. Sustainable development has
shown to be a compelling concept because it points policy in a clear, intuitive direction, but
flexible enough to adapt to emerging new issues, technological and economic conditions, and
social aspirations. Advocates and scholars find it appealing because it implies a systemic view
347
of economy and environment, and requires comprehensive solutions that protect the interests
of future generations. It is a testament to the power and utility of this concept that after nearly
two decades, efforts to translate it into the mechanisms of urban policy continue to flourish,
despite tremendous political, economic, social, institutional, and technological challenges.
Yet, the transportation sector has proven to be a particularly difficult territory for the
advancement of sustainable development policy. Transportation is a complex social,
technical, and economic system, difficult to address comprehensively. To the extent that
policy guidance has been developed to address sustainability issues in general, it has only
touched on a fraction of the myriad ways that transportation is integrated into larger systems
of human activity. Meanwhile, current trends are not encouraging. Cities around the world
that have traditionally been considered as transport-efficient are now facing escalating
motorization and mobility demands. Travel is increasing in virtually all regions of the world,
usually at or faster than the rate of population and economic growth, and generally faster in
the long run than the rate of the reduction of energy and pollution intensity. In Europe, known
for its historically compact urban centres, suburbanization and regional economic integration
are powering the same growth in intercity goods movement and passenger transport observed
elsewhere. In the newly created megacities of East Asia, a surging middle class is pouring its
new wealth into automobiles, while governments are pushing bicycles off the streets and
expanding roadways at breakneck pace. Automakers that had to close their businesses due to
the economic crisis in Europe have now been purchased by this newly found wealth of China
to produce the much needed automobiles to help increasing the standards of living in these
huge cities, giving rise to even more bigger environmental and air quality problems. If these
cities, with historically efficient urban structures, are facing such setbacks, then the prospects
for other cities look dim.
Urban transport in the European Union accounts for 80% of congestion costs, 15% of all
greenhouse gas emissions, 20,000 road fatalities annually and more than 100,000 premature
deaths each year from air pollution. There is thus ample evidence that, unfortunately, the
European urban transport policies are currently far from sustainable. The European
Commission has already accepted that these impacts justify the commissions involvement in
what had previously been seen as the privilege of national and local governments. It initially
recommended that all cities with populations of over 100,000 should produce sustainable
transport plans, and provided guidance on how these plans should be developed and
structured and subsequently issued a Green Paper on urban transport.
In European cities, the adverse impact of traffic resulting in air pollution, noise and
greenhouse gas emissions, traffic delays as well as traffic accidents causes an economic
damage amounting to around 100 billion EUR each year. This figure corresponds to about 1
% of the EUs GDP. Such immense damage to economies, humans and the environment has
to be attributed to decades of lack of knowledge and understanding of the concept of mobility
- and to the transport policy resulting from it. The social need for mobility was misunderstood
to be equivalent to enhancing car transport infrastructure. Transport by car, though, is only
one possibility to fulfil the need for mobility and in cities often not the best solution. The
EU Commission recognised this problem and in the autumn of 2007, presented a Green Paper
entitled Towards a new culture for urban mobility. It has been the objective of this Green
Paper to create a new culture of mobility in European cities. In the context of sustainable
development, the Paper is aimed at reconciling the improvement of environmental protection
and of the quality of life with economic development and accessibility of cities.
348
Marios Valiantis
A key driver for action is to help internalise the external costs of road transport, in line
with the White Paper on Urban Transport and Action 12 of the Action Plan on Urban
Mobility. Besides infrastructure costs, these include the environmental impacts and accidents,
and they can be particularly high in cities. Without policy intervention, these so called
external costs are not taken into account by road users when they make a transport decision.
Users are thus faced with incorrect incentives, leading to welfare losses.
There is no single market without integrated transport networks. The principle of a
common transport policy was set out in the founding treaties of the European Union (EU). In
1992, the transport market began to gradually liberalise and framework rules for access to the
profession of road transport operator and for road safety measures were established for all
Member states.
Today, road transport faces considerable challenges. The March 2011 White Paper on
transport defined these challenges as follows: ensure mobility on ever more congested road
networks, significantly further reduce road fatalities, lower CO2 and other emissions of
pollutants from road transport to preserve the environment and lessen the impact of climate
change on future generations, and decrease fossil fuel use to improve the Europes fuel
security. These challenges must be addressed in order to be able to have sustainable transport.
349
350
Marios Valiantis
around EUR 210 billion for the EU. If we do not address this oil dependence, peoples ability
to travel and our economic security could be severely impacted with dire consequences
on inflation, trade balance and the overall competitiveness of the EU economy.
At the same time, the EU has called for, and the international community agreed on, the
need to drastically reduce world greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, with the goal of limiting
climate change below 2 C. Overall, the EU needs to reduce emissions by 8095 % below
1990 levels by 2050, in the context of the necessary reductions of the developed countries as
a group, in order to reach this goal. The European Commission analysis shows that while
deeper cuts can be achieved in other sectors of the economy, a reduction of at least 60 % of
GHGs by 2050 with respect to 1990 is required from the transport sector, which is a
significant and still growing source of GHGs. By 2030, the goal for transport will be to
reduce GHG emissions to around 20 % below their 2008 level. Given the substantial increase
in transport emissions over the past two decades, this would still put them 8 % above the
1990 level.
Since the first big oil crisis 40 years ago despite technical progress, potential for costeffective energy efficiency improvements and policy efforts the transport system has not
fundamentally changed. Transport has become more energy efficient, but EU transport still
depends on oil and oil products for 96% of its energy needs. Transport has become cleaner,
but increased volumes mean it remains a major source of noise and local air pollution.
New technologies for vehicles and traffic management will be the key to lower transport
emissions in the EU as in the rest of the world. The race for sustainable mobility is a global
one. Delayed action and timid introduction of new technologies could condemn the EU
transport industry to irreversible decline. The EUs transport sector faces growing
competition in fast developing world transport markets.
Infrastructure plays a major role in shaping mobility. No major change in transport will
be possible without the support of an adequate network and more intelligence in using it.
Overall, transport infrastructure investments have a positive impact on economic growth,
create wealth and jobs, and enhance trade, geographical accessibility and the mobility of
people. It has to be planned in a way that maximises positive impact on economic growth and
minimises negative impact on the environment.
Congestion is a major concern in urban transport and compromises accessibility. In
addition, transport infrastructure is unequally developed in the eastern and western parts of
the EU which need to be brought together. There is increased pressure on public resources for
infrastructure funding and a new approach to funding and pricing is needed.
Since the 2001 White Paper on transport, a lot has been achieved. Still, the transport
system is not sustainable. Looking 40 years ahead, it is clear that transport cannot develop
along the same path. If we stick to the business as usual approach, the oil dependence of
transport might still be little below 90%, with renewable energy sources only marginally
exceeding the 10% target set for 2020. CO2 emissions from transport would remain one third
higher than their 1990 level by 2050. Congestion costs will increase by about 50% by 2050.
The accessibility gap between central and peripheral areas will widen. The social costs of
accidents and noise would continue to increase.
Initiating sustainable and competitive urban transport, local and national government
authorities should develop for themselves a policy with an explicit system of quality and
action targets. Using such a system of targets will lay down what is to be achieved and when
results shall be available. It will not only take into account environmental and health
351
protection but also supporting economic activity through reducing congestion, and the
improvement of the quality of life to be achieved through for example improving accessibility
to jobs and services and increasing the reliability of journeys. A sustainable transport policy
does not contradict the economic development of an urban area, or its accessibility. By
default, the requirements of environmental protection can and should be understood as a
chance to improve the economic prosperity and accessibility of the city in question. This is
why targets such as emission reduction, noise abatement or improvement of the ambient
conditions for outdoor public life in the streets as well as a reduction of air pollution are very
important.
352
Marios Valiantis
Fare Integration
Many regions are modernizing their fare payment technologies, while simultaneously
unifying their many agencies and modes under a single fare media brand. This strategy
includes fare structure simplification, inter-agency fare payment integration, adoption of timesaving fare collection technologies, and implementation of smart cards with multiple uses
(e.g. parking or car sharing payments, or even as a cash alternative). These improvements cut
barriers to transit access, encourage participation in monthly pass programs, and potentially
serve as new revenue sources for transit agencies. London, Paris, Bremen, and other cities
have all undertaken ambitious fare integration and branding strategies.
Car-Sharing
Car-sharing provides access to automobiles as a subscription service, allowing customers
to reserve vehicles by the hour, over the phone or the Internet. Both cars hiring businesses and
nonprofit car clubs are beginning to thrive throughout the US and Europe. They provide the
convenience of inexpensive access, reserved parking in local neighborhoods, and a variety of
trendy and fuel-efficient vehicle models. They also provide significant environmental benefits
by helping maintain or expand the public transportation user base, and by reducing the
individual carbon footprint. San Francisco, Philadelphia, and many European cities actively
promote car sharing, by providing subsidized or preferential parking, or contracting with car
share groups in place of maintaining large municipal fleets. Car sharing is a fertile area for
innovation. In California, researchers are exploring business models for the suburbs, such as
arranging for families, commuters, and employers to share cars at different times of day on an
ongoing basis. In Berlin, experiments are underway with cash cars: participants lease
vehicles for their personal use from dealerships, and loan them to car sharing groups when
they are not needed (in exchange for half of any revenue).
Bike-Sharing
Bike-share has seen explosive, global growth over recent years. As of April 2013 there
were around 535 bike-sharing programmes around the world, made of an estimated fleet of
517,000 bicycles. In May 2011 there were around 375 schemes comprising 236,000 bikes. So
those two years saw a doubling of bike share globally. Many bike-share systems offer
subscriptions that make the first 3045 minutes of use very inexpensive, encouraging their
use as transportation. In most bike-share cities, people seeking a bicycle for casual riding over
several hours or days are better served by bicycle rental than by bike-share.
Bike-share use is made more predictable with Smartphone mapping apps which show
where nearby stations are located and how many bikes are available at each station. This is
also important for riders looking to return a bike; they need to know if there is a dock open at
a certain station, since stations can fill up with bikes. So using bike-share to get around a city
is made far easier with real-time, GPS-based smartphone apps with bike-share station
information overlaid on a city map.
Deutsche Bahn, the German railway company, offers Call-a-Bike programs in Berlin,
Frankfurt, Cologne, and Munich. Self-locking bicycles are distributed around the city, and
may be unlocked by calling a phone number and entering a code and credit card information.
Customers are charged by the minute, the day, or the week. Customers can also use their cell
353
phones to locate the nearest bikes. In Lyon, the bikes are equipped with sensors that
automatically diagnose and report maintenance needs.
Auto-Free Housing
Some cities provide incentives for reduced auto ownership. In the San Francisco Bay
Area, some cities have granted developers density bonuses or exceptions to minimum parking
requirements for new rental housing at transit hubs, on the condition that tenants agree not to
own cars. Some of these developers, in turn, have offered car sharing as a marketing tool for
these developments. The practice of reducing off-street parking requirements for
developments that provide access to car-sharing has also been seen in Bremen and other
German cities.
New Service Paradigms
In the emerging networked economy, retailers have learned to compete in new ways by
reorganizing around customer needs, adapting continuously, and cultivating brand loyalty.
Transit agencies, too, are beginning to reinvent themselves around this model. No longer just
providers of service, many now seek to act as integrated mobility service providers,
ensuring a reliable, convenient, efficient and seamless experience from origin to destination.
They are developing partnerships and marketing strategies so that they can more effectively
compete for discretionary travelers.
Paris has been in the forefront of this approach. Its transit agency, the RATP, provides
real-time, door-to-door online journey planning for its rail and bus routes. This service will
eventually deliver information about all modes, as well as information on entertainment,
cultural institutions, and other services. It is evolving into a seamless mobility service,
integrating traditional transit offerings with bike rental, para-transit, car-sharing and
carpooling services. In its stations, it provides amenities to minimize the inconvenience of
waiting, and will soon provide cell phone and internet service throughout its network. Its new,
integrated smart cards feature distinct branding strategies and packages of benefits for youth,
adults, seniors, and tourists.
354
Marios Valiantis
Many of these projects were short-lived, but some remain. In downtown Monte Carlo,
Monaco and Bremen, Germany single municipal carriers now make all deliveries from
centralized depots. Nuremberg and Freiburg, Germany and Bristol, UK have encouraged (and
in some cases subsidized) voluntary, private cooperatives among shippers or major retailers to
coordinate deliveries. The positive effects of such programs can be substantial; in Bremen,
the number of truck trips into the city was cut by about 70%, while Freiburgs program
reduced truck journeys by 33% and truck operating times by 48%.
Stockholms Hammarby Sjostad development, a model sustainable city for 20,000
residents and 10,000 workers in an old industrial area near downtown, attempts to take city
logistics a step further. As in other programs, deliveries to the community will use electric
vehicles coordinated through a privately operated logistics center. In addition, this center will
operate a web-based service featuring 15 local businesses and 300 local farmers, from which
it will deliver everything from food to dry cleaning services. Suppliers or shops pay the center
by the shipment; participating households pay a monthly subscription fee. The early success
of this program has led nearby Old Town Stockholm to pursue its own logistics center.
355
and transform bus service throughout London. It increased service frequencies (using
revenues from the congestion charge), and established the London Bus Priority Network, an
860 km system of streets managed and enforced to maximize the efficiency of bus service. It
launched the London Bus Initiative to provide a highly reliable, whole route, interagency
approach to enhancing and enforcing bus services. This initiative envisioned creating 70
BusPlus routes that feature enhanced passenger information, real-time bus arrival displays,
low floor buses, more regular cleaning, modern bus shelters, transit priority traffic signals,
and automatic vehicle location and driver instruction systems to reduce bus bunching and
improve reliability. The city is also revamping how it procures bus services, by introducing
Quality Incentive Contracts that include financial incentives for operators to improve the
quality and reliability of the services that they provide, and attract additional ridership.
356
Marios Valiantis
over other uses of public space. Examples of Urban Livability can be found in cities all
around the world.
Pedestrian Realms
Bogota has a long tradition of closing many of its roadways on Sundays to motor
vehicles, so that they can be used for recreational purposes. Recently, it also began
developing a permanent network of streets exclusively for the use of bicycles and pedestrians.
It built Alameda Porvenir, the worlds longest pedestrian and bicycle roadway, stretching 18
km through the urban center, poor neighborhoods, and out beyond the citys developed limits.
By creating a grand non-motorized promenade in advance of development, it hoped to create
a transportation, social, and recreational resource that would shape the citys future evolution.
It also banned parking on sidewalks, began an extensive network of bicycle paths, reined in
the colonization of plazas by street vendors, and fostered the use of sidewalks as public
spaces.
Breaking the Driving Routine
The city of Bogot has also developed a number of strategies for preventing its residents
from becoming habitual car drivers. The city observes annual car free days, helping its
citizens to become familiar with transit or non-motorized alternatives for their daily routines.
Bogota also rations the privilege of driving in the city during peak hours, by requiring each
car to be removed from the citys streets two days a week.
Bus Rapid Transit
Bogota has developed a sophisticated, highly efficient, and large-capacity bus rapid
transit system, the Transmilenio. Already profitable and rivaling the passenger volumes of
large urban rail systems, its network is envisioned to reach within half a kilometer of 85% of
Bogotas residents. By creating a ubiquitous, inexpensive, high-efficiency transit system,
Bogota hopes to maximize its poor populations access to employment and other
opportunities.
Shared Space
Many other cities have developed their own approaches to livability. The United
Kingdom, Denmark, Sweden, Germany and the Netherlands have seen numerous cities and
towns redesign neighborhood streets to create home zones or woonerfsareas where cars,
bicyclists, and pedestrians coexist on equal terms Unlike conventional traffic calming
techniques that add infrastructure to slow traffic, home zones and similar strategies promote
shared spaces. These can significantly improve traffic and pedestrian safety, encourage use of
non-motorized modes, create a more aesthetically pleasing urban landscape, and foster greater
opportunities for social interaction in public spaces.
Traffic Calming
Traffic calming is all about reducing traffic and thus allows the free flow of vehicles
travelling at higher speeds where the engines emit less emissions compared to very low
speeds. It reduces exposure to noise, greenhouse gases and air pollutants and enhances
transport safety. This applies particularly to busy roads where air pollution due to motor
357
vehicle traffic is high. For example, owing to a 30 km/h speed limit, the levels of particulate
matter (PM10) detected in the Schildhornstrae in Berlin could be reduced by 6 %, which can
be modelled to be equivalent to 10 days less exceeding EU PM10-Emission levels.
Drivers will not always adhere to speed limits in urban areas. The frequency of speeding
will not only depend on the operation of speed controls but also on the perception of road
widths. This is why in addition to a regulatory stipulation of speed limits, the design of street
areas is also important.
Whenever possible, traffic-calmed street areas should already be envisaged during the
planning and settlement of urban district development. Slower motor traffic will require less
space: street areas gained in this way should be used for urban improvement, such as the
construction of bicycle paths, wider pavements, open spaces for street life, the removal of
some tarmac surfaces and the development of green areas.
358
Marios Valiantis
Particularly in European cities, people may become exposed to extreme noise levels with
road traffic being the main emission source in most cases. According to the World Health
Organization, noise causes disease, reduces job performance and well-being of people,
dampens property prices, reduces the revenue of communities and causes several billion euro
worth of follow-up costs each year. Noise should be primarily tackled at the source, which
includes avoiding car transportation as much as possible and adequate spatial planning.
Major cities are currently affected by noise. Compulsory limit values of 55 dB during the
day and 45 dB at night would considerably reduce the damage caused by noise. According to
an EEA report almost 67 million people (i.e. 55 % of the population living in agglomerations
with more than 250,000 inhabitants) are exposed to daily road noise levels exceeding 55 Lden
(an EU benchmark for excessive noise).
359
360
Marios Valiantis
Congestion Charging
Congestion charging is a way of ensuring that those using valuable and congested road
space make a financial contribution. It encourages the use of other modes of transport and is
also intended to ensure that, for those who have to use roads; journey times are quicker and
more reliable.
The London Congestion Charge Scheme (CCS) started in February 2003. Traffic
movement in central and inner London is severely hampered by congestion the average
speed in some roads has fallen below 3 miles per hour. The scheme reduces the congestion,
improves the bus network, and makes central London a more pleasant location for residents,
visitors and businesses. It encourages people to think again about using their vehicles in
central London and to choose other forms of transport. Motorists who still wish to travel in or
through central London will have to pay a daily charge. The charge is active between 7am
and 6:30 pm, Monday to Friday, excluding public holidays.
The congestion charge scheme ultimately reduces the number of vehicles entering the
designated area thus reducing the traffic flow of roads. This reduction of flow increases the
average traffic speeds which will have an effect on emissions the emissions will be lowered.
Beevers and Carslaw made an analysis in the changes in emissions brought by the
introduction of the CCS. This analysis showed that the effect of increased vehicle speed in the
congestion charging zone of London has reduced PM10 emissions in the zone by around a
factor or two compared with the reduction of vehicle flows. The analysis did not account for
any potential reduction in tyre and brake wear thus underestimating the benefit of the CCS in
terms of the total reduction of PM10 emissions.
Low Emission Zones
A low emission zone (LEZ) is a defined area that can only be entered by vehicles that
meet specified emissions criteria or standards. Such standards can be applied to the entire
fleet or to specific types of vehicles such as Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs). A LEZ would
seek to deter the most polluting vehicles from driving in urban areas at national scale. The
aim of the LEZ would be to encourage the operators to clean up their vehicles through vehicle
replacement or modification, thus eventually making an economic decision as to whether or
not to they drive their vehicles in the LEZ.
The set up of the LEZ starting point criteria depends on factors such as the emissions
reductions required to meet air quality objectives, the geographic and temporal extent of the
zone, the costs associated with its implementation, and how it can be enforced. The LEZ uses
Automatic Number Plate Recognition (ANPR) cameras which check vehicle details against a
database of compliant and non-compliant vehicles. Vehicles that comply with the proposed
emission standards would be able to operate in the LEZ without paying the charge. Operators
wishing to drive vehicles in the zone that did not meet the proposed emission standards of the
LEZ could still enter, but they would be required to pay a substantial charge for each day of
use. The charge would be set at such a level as to encourage operators to modify or replace
their vehicles to comply with the proposed LEZ standards. To encourage compliance, the
level of the charge and associated penalties would need to be set at a far higher level than that
for the Congestion Charging Scheme. However, in reality not every old vehicle will be
replaced, but rather some will be driven longer to travel around the restriction area, causing
traffic redistribution and maybe even congestion, thus producing more emissions in other
areas.
361
362
Marios Valiantis
would pay for the environmental damage it causes in terms of greenhouse gas emissions and
noise.
In cities, switching to cleaner transport is facilitated by the lower requirements for vehicle
range and higher population density. Public transport choices are more widely available, as
well as the option of walking and cycling. Cities suffer most from congestion, poor air quality
and noise exposure. Urban transport is responsible for about a quarter of CO2 emissions from
transport, and 69% of road accidents occur in cities.
The gradual phasing out of conventionally fuelled vehicles from the urban environment
is a major contribution to significant reduction of oil dependence, greenhouse gas emissions
and local air and noise pollution. It will have to be complemented by the development of
appropriate fuelling/charging infrastructure for new vehicles.
A higher share of travel by collective transport, combined with minimum service
obligations, will allow for increasing the density and frequency of service, thereby generating
a virtuous circle for public transport modes. Demand management and land-use planning can
lower traffic volumes. Facilitating walking and cycling should become an integral part of
urban mobility and infrastructure design.
The use of smaller, lighter and more specialised road passenger vehicles must be
encouraged. Large fleets of urban buses, taxis and delivery vans are particularly suitable for
the introduction of alternative propulsion systems and fuels. These could make a substantial
contribution in reducing the carbon intensity of urban transport while providing a test bed for
new technologies and opportunity for early market deployment.
Technology and innovation are making road transport greener. R&D helps to produce
more energy-efficient engines which consume less fuel and therefore produce lower exhaust
emissions. The so-called Euro-VI standard for engines that were introduced in 2013 and are
mandatory as from 2014 will reduce emissions by more than 60%. Cleaner fuels are also
being developed, with electricity being the preferred new power source for short distances,
methane and hydrogen for middle distances, and liquefied gas (LNG and LPG) for longer
journeys. The EU finances R&D programmes and works on standards on vehicles and
infrastructures to facilitate the development of electric transport (like accessible charging
points). The shift towards new hybrid and electric propulsion systems is a huge challenge for
the future that can only be met through a coordinated approach by the automotive industry at
European level. It is important for European industry to be at the cutting edge in those
technologies which can improve its share of international markets.
363
accidents involving heavy duty vehicles). Driver fatigue and users behaviour on the road are
the main cause or an aggravating factor in one out of three of these accidents.
a daily driving period of no more than nine hours, with a break of at least 45 minutes
after 4.5 hours of driving. Ten-hour driving periods are possible twice a week;
a maximum weekly driving time of 56 hours (or 90 hours per fortnight);
daily rest periods of at least 11 hours (with the option of cutting this to nine hours,
three times per week);
a weekly rest period of 45 continuous hours; this can be cut to 24 hours every second
week (with appropriate compensation).
Training of Drivers
The EU promotes appropriate training for drivers. Under a 2003 Directive, they must
undergo formal vocational training. Until then, most drivers gained experience on the job
which allowed them to move on to larger categories of vehicles. Now the EU insists that
formal training is the only way to ensure that drivers have the requisite up-to-date skills and
knowledge. The Directive imposes on drivers 35 hours of periodic training every five years.
Drivers learn about safe and eco-friendly driving, vehicle loading, and passenger comfort.
Working Time for Drivers
Since 2005, drivers must respect an average maximum working time of 48 hours per
week (averaged out over a four-month period), while night work cannot exceed 10 hours in
any 24-hour period. No more than six hours can be worked consecutively without a break of
at least 30 minutes.
Seen and Be Seen
Dedicated daytime running lights (DRLs) are the lamps on vehicles that switch on
automatically when the engine is started. They substantially increase the visibility of motor
vehicles. In contrast to conventional headlights, DRLs do not help the driver see the road but
rather help other road users see the approaching vehicle. DRLs (already in use in most EU
countries) became mandatory from 2011 for all new cars and light commercial vehicles in the
EU. Trucks and buses were to follow in August 2012.
Removing Blind Spots
Any truck driver knows that big vehicles have a blind spot when they turn right (or left in
the case of right-hand-drives). The European Commission estimated that the problem was
364
Marios Valiantis
causing about 400 road deaths a year in Europe, with cyclists being particularly vulnerable.
Since 2009 (2007 for new vehicles) all trucks above 3.5 tonnes are fitted with upgraded wideangle rear-view mirrors which reduce the blind spot by at least 85%.
Passenger Rights
The EU adopted a new regulation in February 2011 setting for the first time a series of
rights for passengers travelling long distance by coach or bus. This brings road transport in
line with rail, air and sea travel where passengers already enjoy a series of rights. The
Regulation came to force on March 2013. Subject to certain exceptions, this Regulation
applies to passengers travelling with regular services where either the boarding or the arriving
point is within the European Union (EU) and where the scheduled distance of the service is
250 km or more. The Regulation covers non-discrimination between passengers regarding
transport conditions offered by carriers, rights of passengers in the event of accidents, nondiscrimination and assistance for disabled persons and persons with reduced mobility, rights
of passengers in case of cancellation or delay, minimum information to be provided to
passengers, the handling of complaints and general rules on enforcement.
365
Meeting the above target the following three routes are available within the transport
sector:
The question how and if Europe can secure the supply of energy, the knowledge that we
have limited fossil energy resources, especially of crude oil in the future, the expected oil
production peak, the uncertainty how alternative and especially renewable/decarbonised
energy can substitute fossil energies all make it necessary to analyse new energy pathways
for the future of the transport system.
The White Paper on Transport includes Ten Goals for a Competitive and Resource
Efficient Transport System. These goals are the benchmarks for achieving the 60% GHG
emission reduction target and are defined in three sections:
Developing and deploying new and sustainable fuels and propulsion systems
Optimising the performance of multimodal logistic chains, including by making
greater use of more energy-efficient modes
Increasing the efficiency of transport and of infrastructure use with information
systems and market-based incentives.
Alternative and decarbonised fuels will highly contribute to the target to achieve 80%
of CO2 reduction in 2050
Decarbonisation in this context is a cross sectorial topic aimed at all kinds of
energy users, not just transport. Available energy sources, especially renewable,
have to be shared in an optimised manner by an energy strategy addressing all
users. In the face of limited availability of affordable renewable and sustainable
energy, the special demand on energy carriers in the different road transport
sectors and in some cases the lack of alternatives, means that dedicated energy
sources for dedicated sectors need to be prioritised.
Energy Security: The fuel has to allow reducing usage of imported crude oil and
to have alternative and better geopolitically distributed sources than crude oil
with a suitable ratio in terms of consumption / reserves.
Safety: The fuel has to guarantee the same or better safety standards than
gasoline / diesel oil or natural gas.
Economics: The fuel has to be more economical than gasoline / diesel oil to
recover the additional vehicle cost within a reasonable period of time. To
366
Marios Valiantis
overcome the chicken and egg problem, reliable and binding European wide
harmonized political boundary conditions need to be defined.
Quality: According to the Fuel Quality Directive 2009/30/EC, the mainstream
fuels will resemble current fuels (diesel oil and gasoline) and will consist of
blends of fossil fuel with increasing amounts of biomassderived / decarbonised
components. Biofuels have to fulfil at least the current standards of quality.
Customer Acceptance: The fuel has to comply with customer appeal comparable
to refuelling stations per area and / or citizens
Energy Consumption: The goal is to apply fuels / energy carriers which allow
high efficient powertrains and reduce the energy consumption significantly with
respect to current technology.
It is therefore clear that optimising the whole chain form the sustainable production of
energy, the energy carriers and the energy distribution via the infrastructure and use will be
one of the most challenging goals for the next decades.
With the rising demand in energy coming especially from emerging countries / regions
like China and India the energy situation will become more challenging. Today, more than
half of the crude oil is consume by road transport. Without a dramatic change, oil will stay the
main energy source for transport, even if there are strong efforts to substitute oil, to develop
new renewable and alternative fossil energy sources and to use sources independent from
fossil / imported oil import.
Further future exploitations in Europe are strongly required and their benefits and
challenges can be summarised as follows:
367
The parallel optimisation of the production pathways for the energy carrier and the
vehicle propulsion technology opens potential to save CO2 and other emissions.
Advanced biofuels have a high potential to use residuals or CO2 and Sunlight as
feedstock of the future. Those fuels could achieve in future a very high quality and
therefore the powertrain can become more efficient and clean.
New combustion systems, optimised for hybrid or plug-in powertrains offer potential
to reach higher efficiencies.
Drop-in type fuel will not require vehicle modifications or induce additional vehicle
costs.
For commercial vehicles, new vehicle concepts adopting vehicle weight and/or
dimensions enables higher payload efficiencies and reduces greenhouse emissions.
The refuelling station infrastructure needs to become harmonised Europe-wide and
able to fulfil customers demands.
Harmonised fuel qualities and blend levels of bio-components offer more crossEuropean customer acceptance and the technical potential for further optimisation of
powertrains. The engines can be optimised and adapted for the harmonised
introduced qualities.
Natural gas powertrains have not reached their theoretically achievable performance
as todays engines have the drawback of either being developed based on
conventional gasoline-fuelled combustion engines or derived from diesel engines,
and not designed and optimised for natural gas only. New dual fuel combustion
concepts can moreover bring an additional gain in efficiency in the near future.
Electric mobility with battery electric vehicles (BEV) is for urban areas the most
efficient and cleanest (locally) option for mobility. Moreover, the integration in the
flexible energy network will help to overcome the storage problem of volatile green
electricity. Surplus of green electricity can be stored in automotive batteries and/or
be converted into chemical energy carriers like power to gas hydrogen, methane
or liquid fuels. In this way the energy sector and the mobility can both reached
advantages such as the long-term storage of electricity and utilisation of
decarbonised energy carriers for mobility.
The benefits and challenges for the Energy Carriers for Powertrains are as follows:
Due to higher density, liquid and liquefied fuels will play an important role for long
distance mobility. The integrated optimisation of the vehicle and the powertrain
systems will lead to higher efficiency and lower emissions.
Green electricity and Battery Electric Vehicles will highly contribute to the CO2
emission reduction.
By developing new decarbonised pathways to liquid and gaseous fuels the existing
infrastructure can be used.
Drop-in fuels offer the potential to decarbonise the energy in the existing fleet and
offer the potential for more efficiency in new dedicated vehicles.
Natural gas will play a major role in terms of affordability and energy security. Gas
powertrains can reduce the CO2 emissions compared to gasoline engines by 20 to
25%, considering the even stronger potential in optimised engine technologies.
368
Marios Valiantis
CONCLUSION
It is widely accepted that transport is fundamental to our economy and society. Mobility
is vital for the internal market and for the quality of life of citizens as they enjoy their
freedom to travel. Today the road transport sector is facing a number of challenges. Drivers
are confronted with ever more congested roads while one out of four heavy goods vehicles
still runs empty. Road users expect safer and more secure roads and the working conditions of
professional drivers should remain attractive.
At the same time, fuel prices keep on rising, as does the need to reduce air and noise
pollution and the carbon foot-print to which road transport contributes. Road transport is
today strongly dependent on crude oil for its energy supply. The combustion of the transport
fuels constitutes a 20-25% share of overall GHG emissions in the industrialized countries.
The transport sector is the only sector that the GHG emissions are still rising due to the fact
that the demand is still increasing, resulting in ever higher emissions in the future. The
increasing demand for resource limited fossil energy carriers and climate change concerns
due to anthropogenic global GHG emissions represent major challenges for the society in
general and for the mobility in particular.
The challenge is to break the transport systems dependence on oil without sacrificing its
efficiency and compromising mobility. The paramount goal of transport policy is to help
establish a system that underpins economic progress, enhances competitiveness and offers
high-quality mobility services while using resources more efficiently. In practice, transport
has to use less and cleaner energy, better exploit a modern infrastructure and reduce its
negative impact on the environment and key natural assets like water, land and ecosystems.
Action cannot be delayed. Infrastructure takes many years to plan, build and equip and
trains, planes and ships last for decades the choices we make today will determine
transport in 2050. We need to act on a global level to ensure the transformation of transport is
defined together with our partners rather than determined elsewhere in the world.
REFERENCES
Admission to the occupation: Regulation (EC) No 1071/2009 of 21 October 2009 establishing
common rules concerning the conditions to be complied with to pursue the occupation of
road transport operator and repealing, Council Directive 96/26/EC
Akinbami, J. & Fadareb, S. (1997). Strategies for sustainable urban and transport
development in Nigeria. Transport Policy, 4, (4) 237-245.
ApSimon, H., Oxley, T., Valiantis, M., 2006. Attaining urban air quality objectives links to
transboundary air pollution. Task Force on Integrated Assessment Modelling (TFIAM)32nd meeting.
Bower, J., Valiantis, M., Loader, A., Targa, J., Stedman, J., Kent, A., Yardley, R., and others,
2009. Air Pollution in the UK: 2007. A report prepared by AEA for DEFRA and the
Devolved Administrations.
Clean Transport Systems Initiative: European Alterative Fuel Strategy. Report of the Joint
Expert Group on Transport and Environment. Brussels, May 2011.
369
Driving time, working hours and rest periods: Directive 2002/15/EC of 11 March 2002 on the
organisation of the workingtime of persons performing mobile road transport activities.
EC 2013, Clean Power for Transport: A European alternatives fuel strategy, 2013.
Energy Carriers for Powertrains: for a clean and efficient mobility. Report of the ERTRAC
Working Group: Energy and Environment, February 27, 2014.
European conference of ministers of transport. Urban travel and sustainable development:
overview of the project; August 19, 2004. Available from: http://www.cemt.org/
UrbTrav/overview.htm.
Goddman, T. & Gorham, R. (2006). Sustainable urban transport: four innovative directions.
Technology and Society, 28, 261-273.
Infrastructure on Alternative Fuels. Report of the European Expert Group on Future Transport
Fuels. Brussels 2011.
May, A., Page, A., & Hull, A. (2009). Developing a set of decision-support tools for
sustainable transport in the UK. Transport Policy, 15, 328-340.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Report of the workshop on
innovation for environmentally sustainable transport: mobility services and logistics for
passenger and freight transport, Berlin, September 27-28 1999. Paris: OECD; 2002.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development. Environmental criteria for
sustainable transport: report on phase 1 of the project on environmentally sustainable
transport. Paris: OECD; 1996.
Oxley, T., ApSimon, H. & Valiantis, M., 2008. Modelling national Air Quality Strategy
scenarios with UKIAM: uncertainties emerging from the integration of multiple spatial
scales, International Journal of Environment and Pollution (Special Issue).
Oxley, T., Valiantis, M., ApSimon, Helen., 2009. Background Rural and Urban Transport
modelling of Air quality Limit values (The BRUTAL model). Environmental Modelling
and Software. 28-01-08.
Riccardo-AEA: Powering Ahead The Future of low carbon cars and fuels. Duncan Kay;
Nikolas Hill and Dan Newman; April 2013.
Shaheen S. Carlink II: a commuter carsharing pilot program final report Paper UCD-ITS-RR04-30. Davis, California: Institute of Transportation Studies; 2004.
Urban road charge in European cities: a possible means towards a new culture for urban
mobility? Report of the Joint Expert Group on Transport and Environment on urban road
pricing schemes in European cities of the EU Commission, UK Department of Transport;
2010.
Valiantis, M., 2008. Assessing Alternative Future Scenarios in Relation to Air Quality. PhD
Thesis.
Vardoulakis, S., Valiantis, M., Milner, J., ApSimon, H., 2007. Operational air pollution
modelling in the UK street canyon applications and challenges. Atmospheric
Environment 41, 4622 4637.
White paper on transport: Roadmap to a single European transport area towards a
competitive and resource-efficient transport system, COM(2011) 144 final.
World business council for sustainable development. Mobility 2030: meeting the challenges
to sustainability. Geneva: The Council; 2004.
World commission on environment and development. Our common future. New York:
Oxford University Press; 1987.
ISBN: 978-1-63321-573-3
2014 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 20
CONCRETE SUSTAINABILITY
Demetris Nicolaides*
Department of Civil Engineering, Frederick University,
Nicosia, Cyprus
ABSTRACT
Within the European Union, the construction and demolition wastes come to at least
450 million tons per year. Roughly 75% of the waste is disposed to landfill, despite its
major recycling potential. The bulk constituents of demolition debris are concrete and
masonry with only small percentages of other materials. Therefore, it is considered as of
primary importance the enhancement of the international knowledge and experience
concerning the reuse of waste materials in building industry, and particular concrete
rubbles, in order to ensure the best possible management of the vast quantities of feed
materials that derive worldwide. At the same time, the production of concrete is energy
intensive and environmentally detrimental. It is the aim of this chapter to thoroughly
review research that focuses on the potential use of concrete rubbles as a construction
material, along with the production of new, environmental friendly concrete materials.
1. INTRODUCTION
Sustainability is a key element to all fields of economic and social activity worldwide.
Since the Brundtland Report (1987), sustainability has achieved global political acceptance.
The Construction Industry, being one of the most important consumers of energy and raw
materials, as well as one of the greatest producers of solid waste, cannot ignore requirements
of sustainable development any longer. Further, the ongoing discussion about climate change
and the need for the prudent management of resources put additional pressure on the
immediate implementation of the principles of sustainable construction.
The promotion of environmental management and the mission of sustainable
development worldwide have exerted the pressure for the adoption of appropriate methods to
*
Demetris Nicolaides
372
Typically ordinary concrete contains about 12% cement, 8% mixing water, and 80%
aggregate by mass. This means that, in addition to the 3.58 billion tons of cement used
worldwide, the concrete industry is consuming 24 billion tons of sand and rock, and 2.4
billion tons of mixing water annually, becoming the largest user of natural resources in the
world. Mining, processing and transporting huge quantities of aggregates, in addition to the
Concrete Sustainability
373
vast quantity of the raw materials needed every year for cement manufacturing, consume
considerable energy and adversely affect the ecology of the planet.
At the same time, within the European Union, the construction and demolition wastes
come to at least 450 million tons per year. Roughly 75% of the waste is disposed to landfill,
despite its major recycling potential. Some Member States (in particular Denmark, The
Netherlands and Belgium) investigated thoroughly the technical and economic feasibility of
recycling, achieving recycling rates of more than 80%. On the other hand, the South
European countries recycle very little of their construction wastes (Corinaldesi and Moriconi,
2009). The bulk constituents of demolition debris are concrete (50-55%) and masonry (3040%) with only small percentages of other materials such as metals, glass and timber (Tam et
al., 2007). Therefore, it is considered as of primary importance the enhancement of the
international knowledge and experience concerning the reuse of waste materials in building
industry, and particular concrete rubbles, in order to ensure the best possible management of
the vast quantities of feed materials that derive worldwide.
The term green concrete refers to concrete being produced and used in an
environmentally friendly manner. This chapter critically explores recent research advances
that focus on the development of green sustainable concretes worldwide. The discussion
will be divided into three main sections, namely: 1) Recycled Aggregates Effectively Reused
in Concrete Mixes, 2) Supplementary Cementitious Materials and Special Concretes and
finally 3) Recycled Fibres.
374
Demetris Nicolaides
Concrete Sustainability
375
durability properties, namely water absorption, total pores volume, and carbonation. The
authors concluded that for replacement of natural aggregates by recycled lower than 20%, the
resulting recycled concrete will exhibit similar and even better behavior than the reference
concrete, in terms of the properties studied in this investigation. It has been also showed that
some compositional characteristics of concrete could have more influence on the durability
than the traditional physical aspects. Evangelista and Brito (2010) investigated the durability
performance of concrete made with fine recycled concrete aggregates. Different concrete
mixes (with increasing rates of substitution of fine natural aggregates with fine recycled
aggregates from crushed concrete) were prepared and tested. The results were then compared
with those for a reference concrete with exactly the same composition and grading curve, but
with no recycled aggregates. The authors presented the results for water absorption and
capillarity, chloride penetration, and carbonation resistance. Water absorption, chloride
migration coefficient and carbonation depth increased with the replacement ratio of fine
natural with fine recycled aggregates. It was concluded that for durability reasons the total
replacement of the fine natural by fine recycled aggregates in a concrete mix may present
serious difficulties; however, for smaller replacement ratios (e.g. 30%), the use of fine
recycled aggregates for structural concrete production is feasible, contrary to the widespread
notion (even in codes) that they are inappropriate for this purpose. Finally, they suggested the
use of alternative binders (supplementary cementitious materials) other than ordinary Portland
cement, in order to compensate the presence of fine recycled aggregates. Water permeability
is an important durability indicator which quantifies concrete resistance to penetration by
external agents, as water is one of the main carriers of aggressive substances. The study by
Medina et al. (2013) explored whether the substitution of 20% and 25% of recycled ceramic
sanitary ware as coarse aggregates affected the resistance to water of structural recycled
concrete. The findings revealed that the slightly higher porosity in the recycled concrete did
not translate into greater permeability. Therefore, these new recycled concretes were proved
to be as durable as the conventional material, and will therefore perform well throughout their
design service life.
Research on the potential reuse of recycled aggregates has been continuing intensively
for at least the last twenty years. However, the vital mission of sustainable development and
the ongoing discussion for the production of environmentally friendly and commercially
viable alternatives to traditional building materials has been the inspirational reason for many
recent studies. Several scientists are still investigating the potential use of recycled aggregates
for the production of new concrete mixes. The results of a wide experimental campaign
carried out on concretes made using recycled concrete aggregates (RCAs) and fly-ash (FA) in
partial substitution of natural aggregates and cement were presented by Lima et al. (2013).
Concretes characterised by variable waterbinder ratios and produced with different
percentages of RCA and variable the content of FA have been tested. Test results revealed a
significant reduction of workability, a reduction in compressive and tensile strength by
increasing the percentage of recycled aggregates in the mix, and a higher permeability
(resulting to a smaller resistance to chlorides penetration). The addition of fly ash in the
mixtures enhanced the workability, the mechanical properties and durability performance of
the concrete, thus mitigating the worsening effects of RCAs. In the work by Hoffmann et al.
(2012), variations in the composition of Recycled Aggregates (RA) were studied over a
period of several weeks. Concrete mixtures were then produced with these aggregates in order
to evaluate the resulting variations in concrete properties. Although the high variability in
376
Demetris Nicolaides
Concrete Sustainability
377
was recommended that the GP waste should be subjected to a chemical bleaching process
prior to blend in the concrete to increase the sulphate resistance. Hu et al. (2013) studied the
development of an effective method for using deconstructed, lead-contaminated masonry
materials in new concrete so as to minimize the environmental impact, cost, and time of the
deconstruction. Their approach was to use crushed masonry materials to replace natural
aggregates in conventional concrete. Two different types of masonry materials (concrete
blocks and clay bricks) were collected, painted with lead-based paint (LBP), and then crushed
to simulate recycled LBP-contaminated masonry materials. Three types of cement (type I
Portland cement, Calcium Sulfoaluminate (CSA) cement, and Portland cement with 5%
phosphate addition) were selected for sequestering lead in the recycled aggregate. A concrete
mix design matrix was developed with different water-to-cement ratios (w/c), aggregate-tocement ratios (a/c), types of cements, and types of masonry materials. Test results indicated
that the lead can be sequestered, or rendered non-leachable, due to the high alkalinity of
cement. The concrete therefore had no longer the toxicity characteristic for lead and was
suitable for various types of new construction.
Much research has been conducted regarding the use of recycled concrete aggregates
(RCA) in concrete mixes recycled from parent concrete of natural source aggregates, referred
as first generation. Recycling the RCA forming a second loop of recycling concrete is
referred as the second generation of RCA. The study by Marie and Quiasrawi (2012)
concentrated on the properties of the second generation concrete. The concrete mixes
considered in their study were conventional mixes made of 100% natural aggregates (NA),
mixes containing up to 20% replacement of NA with RCA, producing first generation
concrete and mixes containing up to 20% replacement of NA with aggregates obtained by
recycling the first generation concrete (R-RCA), producing the second generation concrete.
Properties that have been studied are workability, absorption, compressive and tensile
strengths. The results showed that the use of RCA and R-RCA had an adverse effect on
concrete properties. Results showed that the use of up to 20% replacement of NA by RCA or
R-RCA instead of NA was allowed for producing concretes of accepted quality. The second
generation RCA performed better than the first generation RCA. It was also shown that the
closed-loop recycling is possible and advantages maintaining the sustainability of the natural
resources and the environment. Also, Xiao et al. (2012) experimentally investigated under
low cyclic horizontal loading one cast-in situ natural aggregate concrete (NAC) column, one
cast-in situ recycled aggregate concrete (RAC) column and four semi-precast RAC columns
are.
This work mainly focused on the effects of three parameters, i.e., the recycled coarse
aggregate (RCA) replacement percentage (0 vs. 100%), the construction sequence (partially
precast and partially cast-in situ vs. fully cast-in situ) and the size of core column
(150x150mm vs. 200x200 mm) on the seismic behaviour of the semi-precast RAC columns
based on their hysteretic feature, stiffness, energy dissipation and failure pattern. It was
concluded that the semi-precast RCA columns have similar seismic behaviour as that of the
fully cast-in situ columns. The construction sequence and column core size could also affect
the seismic behaviour of the semi-precast column. Both the experiments and the numerical
analysis indicated that the seismic behaviour of the semi-precast RAC column was well
suitable for general engineering applications.
378
Demetris Nicolaides
Concrete Sustainability
379
showed significant differences in the measured values of the strength of concrete composites
with the same portion of fly ash using various chemical admixtures. The differences in
strength values were attributed in the admixture constitution. Berry et al. (2011) studied the
use of fly ash as a replacement for 100% of the portland cement in concrete and also the use
of recycled pulverized glass as a replacement for traditional aggregate. The developed
material was proved promising with respect to its fundamental mechanical properties (i.e.
compressive and tensile strength), durability (alkali-silica reaction and freezing-thawing
resistance), and structural performance (behaviour of reinforced concrete beams). The
strength and durability of recycled aggregate concrete containing milled glass as partial
replacement for cement was investigated by Nassar and Soroushian (2012). Results showed
that waste glass, when milled to micro-scale particle size, was estimated to undergo
pozzolanic reactions with cement hydrates, forming secondary calcium silicate hydrate (CS
H). These reactions brought favourable changes in the structure of the hydrated cement paste
and the interfacial transition zones in recycled aggregate concrete. The authors claim that
milled waste glass was also found to suppress alkali-silica reactions and also the filling effect
of sub-micron sized milled glass particles resulted to a less permeable microstructure of
recycled aggregate concrete. As it is mentioned in their research paper entitled Strength and
durability of recycled aggregate concrete containing milled glass as partial replacement for
cement, the use of milled waste glass as partial replacement of cement resulted also in
enhanced durability characteristics such as sorption, chloride permeability, and freezethaw
resistance through improvement in pore system characteristics, filling effect of glass particles,
and conversion of CH to CSH available in the old mortar/cement paste attached to the
surface of recycled aggregate. Significant increase in the later age strength was also achieved
through the formation of denser and less permeable microstructure which was expected to be
the result of the filling effect of sub-micron sized glass particles. Milling of waste glass to
sub-micron particle size was the key to benefit from its pozzolanic reaction. Gencel et al.
(2012) studied the combined effects of fly ash and waste ferrochromium on properties of
concrete. Cement was replaced with fly ash at the ratios of 10, 20 and 30 wt.%. Coarse
limestone aggregates were replaced with coarse ferrochromium aggregate at the ratios of 25,
50 and 75 wt.%. The authors concluded that the use of fly ash resulted in lower values of
compressive and splitting tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and wear resistance. In
contrast, freezethaw resistance was increased. The usage of ferrochromium aggregates
increased the strength of concrete and also the abrasion wear resistance. Finally, they have
concluded that the effect of ferrochromium aggregates on the porosity and water absorption
of concrete was insignificant while fly ash enhanced these properties. Finally, Durn-Herrera
et al. (2011) conducted research work for the study of the synergistic effect of fly ash and a
polycarboxylate superplasticizer in the production of conventional concrete. The different
concretes considered in this study were produced with mass substitutions of cement by fly ash
between 15% and 75%, and a target slump of 200 mm 20 mm. The total water content was
minimized through the use of an optimum superplasticizerdosage that resulted in water and
cement reductions.
An exceptional group of sustainable concretes is the so called, Geopolymer Cementless
Concretes. The development of these materials is based on the chemical reaction between
various supplementary cementitious materials with pozzolanic properties (e.g. pfa and ggbs)
with alkaline solutions, for the production of a dense, compact paste with cementing
properties. The utilization of this reaction could enable the production of concrete containing
380
Demetris Nicolaides
no cement. Initial research relating to this reaction and the production of concrete based on it
has mostly been conducted by Bakharev et al. (1999), Puertas et al. (2000), Palomo et al.,
(1999) and Hardjito et al. (2004). These materials are being investigated for structural
concrete applications and hazardous waste immobilization. Two reaction models for alkali
activation of pozzolans have been described in the literature (Palomo et al., 1999). In the first
model, a pozzolan containing high levels of calcium and silicon, e.g. ggbs, reacts with a low
to mild alkali, producing calcium silicate hydrate as in Portland cement hydration. The
reaction is rapid even at ambient temperature and early age strengths may be equivalent to the
28-day strength of Portland cement concrete. The reaction is significantly accelerated by heat
treatment (Bakharev et al., 1999). In the second model, a strong alkali reacts with a pozzolan
containing silicon and aluminium at elevated temperatures. Pozzolans reacting according to
this model include pulverised fuel ash and metakaolin and the reaction product is believed to
be a zeolite precursor. Materials reacting according to this model are frequently referred to as
geopolymers. Low-Ca pfa pastes activated with a solution containing sodium hydroxide and
sodium silicate and cured at 65C have been produced with compressive strengths of 60
N/mm2 after 24 hours (Palomo et al., 1999). The higher temperatures needed make this
material ideal for precast concrete applications where higher curing temperatures are
routinely used to enhance early strength of concrete. Combinations of pfa and ggbs have also
been investigated (Puertas et al., 2000). Pastes containing 50%pfa/50%ggbs activated with
sodium hydroxide and cured at ambient temperature can have 28-day strengths of 50 N/mm2.
In general, the chemical reaction of these systems is fast and there is no significant strength
gain after 24 hours. Although the mechanism of these reactions has been well-established for
some pozzolans, considerable further investigation is required to advance this technology to a
point where it can be exploited by relevant companies and applied at factory scale to produce
environmentally friendly and commercially viable alternatives to Portland cement in concrete.
Geopolymer-like products such as Pyrament (Wheat, 1992) have seen brief commercial
utilization over the past 30 years, and alkali-slag cements have been very successfully used in
the former Soviet Union (Krivenko, 1994, 2002), but large-scale commercial success has
generally been elusive. However, the worlds first commercial geopolymer concrete batching
operation has opened in Australia during 2008, gaining significant media attention in the
current environment where environmental gains are increasingly being viewed as important
(Nowak, 2008). Pilot studies have shown that waste alkali solutions and basic oxygen steel
slag can be successfully used to activate ggbs, but these were not as effective with fly ash.
The reason for having less success with fly ash has been identified as the non-availability of
calcium but this can be supplemented from several other different waste stream sources. More
recent studies on geopolymer concretes have been conducted by scientists around the world.
Vora and Dave (2013) cast 20 geopolymer concrete mixes in order to evaluate the effect of
various parameters affecting compressive strength. The parameters under investigation were
the ratio of alkaline liquid to fly ash, concentration of sodium hydroxide, ratio of sodium
silicate to sodium hydroxide, curing time and temperature, superplasticiser dosage, rest period
and additional water content in the mix. The test results showed that compressive strength
increases with increase in the curing time and temperature, rest period, concentration of
sodium hydroxide solution and decreases with increase in the ratio of water to geopolymer
solids by mass and admixture dosage, respectively. Ahmari et al., (2012) studied the
production of geopolymeric binder from ground waste concrete powder mixed with fly ash,
which was then used with recycled concrete aggregates to produce new concrete. They
Concrete Sustainability
381
examined the effect of composition and concentration of the alkaline solution and the content
of ground waste concrete on the unconfined compressive strength of the produced
geopolymeric binder. The results revealed that utilization of up to 50% of ground waste
concrete together with fly ash can increase the unconfined compressive strength of the
geopolymeric binder. Further increase of ground waste concrete decreases the unconfined
compressive strength of the geopolymeric binder. Finally, Kupaei et al. (2013) recently
presented the experimental results of an on-going research project which aims to produce
geopolymer lightweight concrete using two locally available waste materials, namely low
calcium fly ash and oil palm shell as the binder and lightweight coarse aggregate,
respectively.
5. RECYCLED FIBRES
The last section of this review chapter will emphasize in the use of recycled waste
materials as fibre reinforcement in concrete mixtures. The most common types of fibres used
in concrete are steel, glass, and plastic. The selection of the appropriate type is based mainly
on the material property that needs to be improved. However, the production of most of these
materials requires considerable energy and affects adversely the ecology of the planet.
Therefore, the use of appropriate recycled waste materials as fibre reinforcement in concrete
mixtures has nowadays become more popular. Ochi et al. (2007) described a method that can
be used to produce concrete-reinforcing polyethylene terephthalate (PET) fibres from used
PET bottles. Using this method, the concrete and PET fibres were easily mixed at fibre
contents as high as 3%. The issue of concern in the development of PET fibre is its alkali
resistance; however, the authors encountered no problems when using the fibre in normal
concrete. Similar work on PET fibres has been conducted by Kim et al. (2010), where short
fibres made from recycled PET were used within structural concrete. Experimental results
showed that compressive strength and elastic modulus both decreased as fibre volume
fraction increased. Cracking due to drying shrinkage was delayed in the PET fibre reinforced
concrete specimens, compared to such cracking in non-reinforced specimens without fibre
reinforcement, which indicates crack controlling and bridging characteristics of the recycled
PET fibres. Foti (2013) also used recycled waste PET bottles fibres for the reinforcement of
concrete. The fibers were obtained by simply cutting the bottles. They were added in the
concrete mix or they were used as discrete reinforcement of specimens and small beams in
order to substitute steel bars. Results that have been obtained are very interesting, especially
regarding the adherence between PET and concrete, suggesting a possible use of this material
in the form of flat or round bars, or networks for structural reinforcement. Moreover,
Fraternali et al. (2011) performed an experimental study of the thermo-mechanical properties
of recycled PET fiber-reinforced concrete. Specifically, thermal conductivity, compressive
strength, first crack strength and ductility indices of recycled PET fiber-reinforced concrete
were determined. The authors investigated PET filaments industrially extruded from recycled
PET bottle flakes with different mechanical properties and profiles. They observed significant
improvements in thermal resistance, mechanical strengths and ductility of recycled PET fiberreinforced concrete, as compared to plain concrete.
Recycled steel fibres recovered from post-consumer tyres were used by Graeff et al.
(2012) as reinforcement in concrete in order to enhance its post-cracking flexural behaviour
382
Demetris Nicolaides
and improve its fatigue resistance. The authors examined the use of recycled steel fibres as
fatigue reinforcement for concrete pavements. Concrete prisms were subjected to cyclic thirdpoint flexural loads. Two types of mixes, conventional and roller compacted concrete, and
two recycled fibre contents, 2% and 6% by mass of concrete were used. Unreinforced and
industrially produced fibre reinforced concrete mixes were also tested for comparison
purposes. The recycled fibres were found to improve the fatigue behaviour of concrete,
especially for conventional plastic concrete mixes. Finally, Awwad et al. (2012) used
industrial hemp fibres as concrete reinforcement. They performed tests for the determination
of flexural, compressive and splitting tensile strengths, modulus of elasticity, thermal
conductivity, density and slump. Experimental results indicated that the use of industrial
hemp fibres led to a reduction in coarse aggregate quantity without affecting the flexural
performance of concrete, in addition to a significant enhancement in ductility of load
deflection behaviour.
CONCLUSION
Selected studies that focused on concrete sustainability were reviewed in this chapter. As
it was amply indicated, several waste materials can be used as value-added constituents in
concrete mixes for a wide range of applications. However, the common understanding
remains that, for several waste materials to be accepted as true value-added products in
concrete technology, the modification of existing legislation and practice standards to
incorporate appropriate specifications is required.
Further research on green concrete is considered imperative for the enhancement of the
state-of-the-art knowledge concerning the reuse of waste materials in construction industry
and the boost of the recycling process with all possible social, economic, technical and
environmental benefits. Finally, the findings of such research will contribute to the alleviation
of scepticism of end users regarding green concrete.
REFERENCES
Ahmari, S., Ren, X., Toufigh, V. & Zhang, L. (2012). Production of geopolymeric binder
from blended waste concrete powder and fly ash. Construction and Building Materials,
35, 718729.
Ajdukiewicz, A. & Kliszczewicz, A. (2002). Influence of recycled aggregates on mechanical
properties of HS/HPC. Cement and Concrete Composites, 24(2), 269-279.
Andreola, F., Barbieri, L., Lancellotti, I., Bignozzi, M. C. & Sandrolini, F. (2010). New
Blended Cement from Polishing and Glazing Ceramic Sludge. International Journal of
Applied Ceramic Technology, 7, 546555.
Bakharev, T., Sanjayan, J. G. & Cheng, Y.-B. (1999). Alkali activation of Australian slag
cements. Cement and Concrete Research, 29, 113-120.
Berry, M., Stephens, J. & Cross, D. (2011). Performance of 100% Fly Ash Concrete with
Recycled Glass Aggregate. ACI Materials Journal, 378-384.
Concrete Sustainability
383
384
Demetris Nicolaides
Imbabi, M. S., Carrigan, C. & McKenna, S. (2013). Trends and developments in green
cement and concrete technology. International Journal of Sustainable Built Environment,
(In Press).
International Cement Review, (2013). The cement industry in figures (Updated 2012).
Available at http://www.cemnet.com [Accessed 26 July 2013].
Khalaf, F. M. & Devenny, A. S. (2004). Recycling of demolished masonry rubbles as coarse
aggregate in concrete: review. Journal Materials Civil Engineering, 16(4), 33140.
Kim, S. B., Yi, N. H., Kim, H. Y., Kim, J- H. J. & Song, Y. C. (2010). Material and structural
performance evaluation of recycled PET fiber reinforced concrete. Cement & Concrete
Composites, 32, 232240.
Kou, S-C., Poon, C-S. & Wan, H-W. (2012). Properties of concrete prepared with low-grade
recycled aggregates. Construction and Building Materials, 36, 881889.
Krivenko, P. V. (1994). Alkaline cements. Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on
Alkaline Cements and Concretes, Kiev, Ukraine, (Editor: Krivenko), 11-129.
Krivenko, P. V. (2002). Alkaline cements: From research to application. Proceedings of
Geopolymers. Turn Potential into Profit, Melbourne, Australia, (Editor: Lukey).
Kupaei, R. H., Johnson Alengaram, U., Jumaat, M. Z. B. & Nikraz, H. (2013). Mix design for
fly ash based oil palm shell geopolymer lightweight concrete. Construction and Building
Materials, 43, 490496.
Levy, S. M. & Helene, P. (2004). Durability of recycled aggregates concrete: a safe way to
sustainable development. Cement and Concrete Research, 34, 1975-1980.
Lima, C., Caggiano, A., Faella, C., Martinelli, E., Pepe, M. & Realfonzo, R. (2013). Physical
properties and mechanical behaviour of concrete made with recycled aggregates and fly
ash. Construction and Building Materials, 47, 547559.
Manzi, S., Mazzotti, C. & Bignozzi, M. C. (2013).Short and long-term behavior of structural
concrete with recycled concrete aggregate. Cement & Concrete Composites, 37, 312318.
Marie, I. & Quiasrawi, H. (2012). Closed-loop recycling of recycled concrete aggregates.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 37, 243248.
Mas, B., Cladera, A., Bestard, J., Muntaner, D., Lpez, C. E., Pia, S. & Prades, J. (2012).
Concrete with mixed recycled aggregates: Influence of the type of cement. Construction
and Building Materials, 34, 430441.
Medina, C., Snchez de Rojas, M. I. & Fras, M. (2013). Properties of recycled ceramic
aggregate concretes: Water resistance. Cement & Concrete Composites, 40, 2129.
Nassar, R. & Soroushian, P. (2012). Strength and durability of recycled aggregate concrete
containing milled glass as partial replacement for cement. Construction and Building
Materials, 29, 368377.
Nowak, R. (2008). Geopolymer concrete opens to reduce CO2 emissions. New Scientist, 197.
Ochi, T., Okubo, S. & Fukui, K. (2007).Development of recycled PET fiber and its
application as concrete-reinforcing fiber. Cement & Concrete Composites, 29, 448455.
Ondova, M., Stevulova, N. & Estokova, A. (2012). The study of the properties of fly ash
based concrete composites with various chemical admixtures. 20th International
Congress of Chemical and Process Engineering CHISA 2012, Procedia Engineering, 42,
18631872.
Palomo, A., Grutzeck, M. W. & Blanco, M. T. (1999). Alkali-activated fly ashes. A cement
for the future. Cement and Concrete Research, 29 (8), 1323-1329.
Concrete Sustainability
385
Portland Cement Association (2013). Cement and Concrete Basics - Concrete Basics
(Updated 2013). Available at www.cement.org/basics/concretebasics_concretebasics.asp
[Accessed 6 August 2013].
Puertas, F., Martinez-Ramirez, S., Alonso, S. & Vazquez, T. (2000). Alkali-activated fly
ash/slag cement: Strength behaviour and hydration products, Cement and Concrete
Research, 30 (10), 1625-1632.
Rao, A., Jha, N. K & Misra, S. (2006). Use of aggregates from recycled construction and
demolition waste in concrete. Resources Conservation & Recycling, 50(1), 71-81.
Ravindrarajah, R. S. & Tam, C. T. (1988). Methods of improving the quality of recycled
aggregate concrete; demolition and reuse of concrete and masonry. Proceedings of the
second international RILEM symposium (ed. Kasai, Y.), 575-84.
Saccani, A., Sandrolini, F., Andreola, F., Barbieri, L., Corradi, A. & Lancellotti, I. (2005).
Influence of the pozzolanic fraction obtained from vitrified bottom-ashes from MSWI on
the properties of cementitious composites. Materials and Structures, 38, 367-371.
Shi, C., Wu, Y., Riefler, C. & Wang, H. (2005).Characteristics and pozzolanic reactivity of
glass powders. Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 987993.
Snyder, K., Bentz, D., Bullard, J., Ferraris, C., Garboczi, E., Martys, N. & Stutzman, P.
(2012). Measurement Science Needs for the Expanded Use of Green Concrete. NIST
Technical Note 1783, Workshop Summary Report, Gaithersburg, Maryland.
Tam, W. Y. V., Tam, C. M. & Wang, Y. (2007). Optimization on proportion for recycled
aggregate in concrete using two-stage mixing approach. Construction and Building
Materials, Vol. 21, 1928-1939.
Vijayalakshmi, M., Sekar, A. S. S. & Ganesh prabhu, G. (2013). Strength and durability
properties of concrete made with granite industry waste. Construction and Building
Materials, 46, 17.
Vora, P. & Dave, U. (2013). Parametric Studies on Compressive Strength of Geopolymer
Concrete. Chemical, Civil and Mechanical Engineering Tracks of 3rdNirma University
International conference on Engineering (NUiCONE-2012) Procedia Engineering, 51,
210219.
Wheat, H. G. (1992). Corrosion behavior of steel in concrete made with Pyrament blended
cement. Cement and Concrete Research, 22, 103-111.
World Commission on Environment and Development, (1987). Our Common Future. Annex
to General Assembly Document A/42/427, Development and International Co-operation:
Environment, Oxford University Press.
Xiao, J., Huanga, X. & Shen, L. (2012). Seismic behavior of semi-precast column with
recycled aggregate concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 35, 9881001.
Zadeh, V. Z. & Bobko, C. P. (2013). Nanoscale mechanical properties of concrete containing
blast furnace slag and fly ash before and after thermal damage. Cement & Concrete
Composites, 37, 215221.
INDEX
#
21st century, 9, 45, 54, 230, 294
A
abatement, 28, 50, 351
absorption spectroscopy, 130
access, 49, 52, 59, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 93, 102, 105,
126, 211, 213, 226, 279, 292, 319, 323, 327, 331,
348, 352, 353, 356
accessibility, 116, 263, 346, 347, 350, 351, 355
accommodation, 40, 323, 339
accountability, 64
accounting, 5, 98, 99, 160, 235, 239, 346
accreditation, xii, 14
acid, 146, 150, 247, 248
acidic, 246, 247, 263
acidity, 247
acquisitions, 67
activated carbon, 153, 167, 183
actuality, 44
adaptability, 298
adaptation, 73, 107, 108, 280, 332
ADC, 93
additives, 183, 237
adjustment, 40, 146, 158, 177, 200, 299
adsorption, xvi, 83, 260, 309
adults, 353
advancement, 280, 347
adverse effects, 13, 237, 244, 267
aesthetic, 117, 199, 324
affluence, 330
AFM, 181
Africa, 5, 74, 75, 87, 88, 89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96,
98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107,
108, 127, 133, 246, 249, 316, 339
age, 89, 173, 244, 379, 380
388
Index
antibiotic, xx
antibiotic resistance, xx
antioxidant, 170
application techniques, 308
aptitude, 372
aqueous solutions, 82
aquifers, 76, 309, 329
arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, 307, 318
Argentina, 248, 297, 300, 301, 302, 306, 310, 311,
312, 313, 314, 315, 316, 317, 318
Aristotle, xix, xx, xxii, xxv, xxvi, xxvii, 157, 202,
203, 204, 205, 219
armed conflict, 13, 90
arousal, 37
arsenic, 132
Asia, 101, 102, 103, 202, 217, 231, 245, 246, 249,
297, 372
Asian countries, 156
assessment, xiv, 3, 18, 113, 114, 132, 159, 174, 203,
219, 223, 236, 238, 240, 251, 255, 256, 257, 258,
262, 267, 271, 272, 294, 312, 341, 358
assessment tools, 159
assets, 91, 92, 94, 97, 319, 368
assimilation, 40
asthma, 270
athletes, 61
atmosphere, 102, 139, 145, 146, 164, 245, 251, 298
atrium, 52
attitudes, 8, 37, 42, 118, 119, 229, 230, 288, 293
audit, 70, 201, 290
Austria, 96, 357
authenticity, 83, 321, 326
authoritarianism, 331
authority(s), 29, 136, 174, 244, 254, 255, 256, 264,
337, 338, 350, 354, 357
automatic processes, 37
automation, 66, 172, 173, 184, 186
automobiles, 347, 352
autonomy, 171
avoidance, 66, 113, 140, 252, 299
awareness, 1, 35, 38, 39, 60, 115, 128, 211, 288, 289,
292, 293, 319, 322, 325, 326, 333, 334, 340
B
bacteria, 156, 163, 168, 176, 177, 180, 232, 233,
236, 250
balance of payments, 320
balance sheet, 46
bandwidth, 58
Bangladesh, 156, 245, 278
barriers, 49, 63, 147, 180, 227, 285, 349, 352
base, xi, 2, 38, 49, 79, 80, 104, 126, 212, 242, 246,
264, 346, 352
basic needs, 92
basic services, 325
batteries, 367
beams, 79, 379, 381
bedding, 79, 80, 249, 250
beef, 221, 240
beetles, 125
behaviors, xviii, 35, 37, 39, 40, 42, 211
Beijing, vii, xiii
Belgium, 373
belief systems, 63
benchmarking, 296
benchmarks, 59, 324, 338, 365
beneficial effect, 124, 125, 310
benzene, 152
bias, 39, 284
bicarbonate, 76
Bilateral, xxiv
bioavailability, 237, 241
biodegradable materials, 143
biodegradable wastes, 145, 150
biodegradation, 150, 152, 232
biodiesel, 82, 189
biodiversity, vii, xxvii, 2, 18, 24, 27, 30, 37, 89, 92,
103, 108, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117,
118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 125, 128, 130, 131,
133, 277, 297, 299, 326, 327
biogas, 82, 150, 157, 174, 176, 184, 185, 191, 192,
194, 195, 196, 197, 198, 219, 220, 221, 222, 223,
226, 227, 250
biological activity, 299, 304, 306
biological processes, 147, 158, 178
biomass, xiii, 78, 82, 97, 98, 99, 100, 139, 166, 167,
221, 222, 226, 233, 247, 259, 304, 312, 313, 317,
366
bioremediation, xxi, xxv
biotechnological applications, xxvii
biotechnology, 44, 124
biotic, 270
birds, 103, 115, 117, 120
births, 289
bleaching, 377
blends, 156, 366
blind spot, 363
blood, 132, 245, 288
blueprint, 9, 42
boilers, 196, 197
boils, 158
Bolivia, 339
bonds, 212
bones, 245
Index
bonuses, 289, 353
Botswana, 101, 102, 105
brand image, 45
brand loyalty, 353
Brazil, 6, 8, 9, 59, 100, 310, 311, 339
breakdown, 233, 297, 298
breeding, 81, 99, 126, 221, 222, 244
Britain, 311
bronchial asthma, 246, 272
Bulgaria, xxiv
bureaucracy, 49
Burkina Faso, 104, 105
burn, 146
Burundi, 104, 105
business model, 351, 352
business processes, 283
Business Roundtable, 94
business strategy, 54, 63, 66
businesses, 12, 45, 46, 47, 54, 59, 65, 292, 337, 338,
340, 347, 352, 354, 357, 360
by-products, 82, 85, 117, 152, 247, 270, 378
C
cabinets, 357
cadmium, 25, 198
calcium, 78, 100, 254, 258, 259, 307, 378, 379, 380
calcium carbonate, 258
CAM, 339
Cameroon, 96, 99, 104, 105
campaigns, 290, 293, 358
candidates, 187
CAP, 114, 115, 122
capacity building, 93
capital expenditure, 55, 58
capital flows, 93
capital markets, 50
carbohydrate(s), 127, 150
carbon dioxide, 12, 29, 53, 139, 149, 150, 152, 167,
171, 233, 245, 251, 311, 372, 378
carbon emissions, 51, 52, 103
carbon monoxide, 245, 359
carbon neutral, 59
carcinogenicity, 237
career development, 281
cascades, 61
case study(s), 50, 66, 70, 117, 238, 283, 284, 286,
293, 295, 314, 328, 336, 341, 342
cash, 45, 66, 352
cash flow, 45, 66
catalyst, 198
category a, 136, 232
cation, 306
389
390
Index
391
Index
conviction, 332
cooking, 143
cooling, 58, 59, 171, 190, 192, 197, 227, 233
cooperation, 108, 265, 281, 287, 292, 322, 346
coordination, 62, 109, 114, 118, 121, 130, 354
copper, 198, 244, 259
corporate governance, 65, 92, 93
Corporate Social Responsibility, 280, 293, 294, 296
correlation, 3
corrosion, 146
corruption, 13, 45, 331
cosmetic, 81
cost, 21, 49, 53, 56, 58, 59, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 82, 83,
84, 104, 136, 152, 160, 161, 165, 166, 175, 176,
177, 178, 179, 180, 183, 185, 192, 193, 199, 201,
204, 231, 253, 267, 276, 277, 321, 331, 332, 335,
338, 350, 357, 361, 365, 377
cost benefits, 178
cost effectiveness, 66
cost saving, 53, 61, 175, 177
Costa Rica, 339
Cte dIvoire, 95, 99
cotton, 53, 125, 222, 224
Council of Ministers, 273
covering, xii, 111, 230, 277, 278, 279, 287, 290, 291,
292, 305, 357
CPU, 56
cracks, 308
creative potential, 89
creep, 376
crises, 67, 107, 275, 330, 331, 332
critical period, 305, 310
critical thinking, 39
criticism, 113, 338
Croatia, 247
crop production, xix, 130, 241, 244, 246, 298, 301,
304, 312, 313
crop residue, 246, 298, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309,
310, 311, 313, 315, 318
crop rotations, 298, 299, 316
cross-fertilization, 339
crowns, 76
crude oil, 99, 364, 365, 366, 368
crystallization, 11
CSA, 377
CST, 339
CT, 307, 314
cultivars, 126, 130, 131
cultivation, 53, 73, 74, 75, 78, 85, 126, 226, 247,
248, 301, 316, 361
cultural differences, 115
cultural heritage, 326
cultural influence, 83
D
damages, 39
danger, 113
data analysis, 95, 285
data center, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59
data collection, 139, 284
database, xxiii, 255, 256, 258, 266, 267, 360
deaths, 364
decay, 139, 306
decentralisation, 331
decision makers, 118
decision-making process, 3, 49, 113, 118
decomposition, 146, 147, 150, 152, 163, 231, 232,
233, 238, 248, 260, 261, 299, 303, 304, 306, 307,
309, 311, 315
deconstruction, 377
decontamination, xix, 186, 187
decoupling, 22, 27, 62, 97, 106
deforestation, 22, 37, 89, 104, 297
deformation, 306, 374
DEFRA, 368
degradation, xxi, 28, 89, 92, 97, 104, 142, 146, 211,
234, 245, 252, 257, 258, 261, 262, 263, 267, 272,
297, 298, 301, 305, 309, 327, 328, 373
degradation mechanism, 373
degradation process, 252
degradation rate, 245
deindustrialisation, 88
democracy, 12, 92
democratic elections, 94
democratisation, 331
demographic structure, 211
demography, 135
denitrification, 165, 176, 178, 185
Denmark, xxv, 14, 49, 228, 356, 373
density values, 306
Department of Agriculture, 252
deposition, 189, 306
392
Index
draught, 145
drawing, 53, 145, 284, 293
drinking water, 31, 117, 158, 244, 328
drought, xvii, 74, 75, 103, 127, 307
dry matter, 25, 174
drying, 145, 152, 160, 161, 168, 191, 194, 196, 197,
227, 328, 381
ductility, 381, 382
dumping, 231
duopoly, 50
durability, 372, 374, 375, 376, 378, 379, 384, 385
dynamism, 61
E
early warning, 17
earnings, 325
Earth Summit, 8, 9, 10, 13, 16
earthworms, 259, 304, 306
East Asia, 347
ecological indicators, 21, 32
ecological processes, 2, 4, 117, 324, 326
ecological restoration, 127
ecological systems, 21, 89, 117
ecology, xxii, xxvii, 32, 117, 122, 129, 241, 373, 381
economic activity, 46, 78, 81, 211, 320, 331, 334,
335, 351
Economic and Monetary Union, 93
economic crisis, 8, 347
economic damage, 50, 347
economic development, vii, 9, 46, 90, 109, 110, 111,
112, 115, 116, 118, 301, 320, 342, 347, 348, 351
economic downturn, 319
economic efficiency, 91, 226, 353
economic growth, 2, 3, 22, 27, 46, 88, 89, 90, 92, 94,
95, 106, 119, 208, 210, 212, 320, 334, 340, 341,
342, 345, 346, 347, 348, 350
economic indicator, 291
economic integration, 11, 347
economic performance, 10, 278, 279, 282, 291, 292,
293
economic problem, 226
economic progress, 368
economic systems, 36, 103, 210
economic values, 81
economic welfare, 355
economics, xii, 3, 49, 68, 322, 340
economies of scale, 339
ecosystem, vii, 3, 22, 24, 28, 31, 92, 97, 104, 132,
143, 240, 252, 257, 263, 275, 324
ecosystem capacity, vii
ecosystem integrity, vii
Ecotourism, 121, 339, 341
Index
Ecuador, 339
editors, 68
education, 9, 10, 93, 158, 279, 281, 290, 337, 346,
362
educational opportunities, 210
educational system, 289
EEA, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 29, 30,
32, 244, 271, 314, 329, 341, 358
effluent(s), xix, 157, 158, 161, 162, 165, 168, 173,
175, 176, 187, 190, 244, 248, 250, 270
egg, 125, 366
Egypt, xxiv, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105,
330, 331, 332
electric current, 198
electrical conductivity, 78, 257, 259, 261, 263
electricity, 26, 52, 53, 101, 152, 153, 158, 160, 161,
162, 171, 174, 175, 180, 186, 190, 191, 194, 195,
196, 197, 198, 199, 200, 213, 219, 220, 221, 226,
227, 361, 362, 364, 365, 367, 372
electrolyte, 197
electron(s), 197, 198
e-mail, 284
emission, 15, 29, 139, 272, 311, 351, 358, 359, 360,
364, 365, 367
emitters, 361
empirical studies, 49, 320
employees, 46, 49, 51, 52, 61, 65, 67, 282, 283, 284,
287, 288, 289, 292, 293, 327, 357
employers, 352, 357
employment, 10, 46, 65, 89, 95, 115, 125, 211, 280,
321, 324, 325, 326, 327, 330, 346, 356
employment opportunities, 324, 327
EMS, 49
encouragement, 280
endangered, 103, 115, 116, 329, 330
endangered species, 115, 329
endotoxins, 236
endowments, 334
enemies, 125
energy conservation, 51, 323
energy consumption, 26, 52, 53, 54, 59, 65, 96, 102,
160, 161, 163, 166, 169, 171, 172, 173, 175, 176,
177, 179, 180, 183, 184, 185, 186, 188, 192, 194,
207, 208, 209, 227, 327, 366, 372
energy efficiency, 13, 15, 54, 55, 155, 171, 172, 179,
196, 202, 207, 208, 213, 218, 350, 365
energy input, 192
energy prices, 227
energy recovery, 145, 160, 171, 188, 189, 191, 192,
194, 195, 201, 204, 228, 231, 251
energy security, 208, 367
energy supply, 28, 168, 364, 368
enforcement, 49, 68, 69, 70, 355, 362, 364
393
394
Index
F
Facebook, 40
facies, 76
factories, 62, 278
fairness, 3
faith, 14, 48
families, 13, 127, 352
family relationships, 325
famine, 126
fantasy, 118
farm size, 88
farmers, 63, 81, 114, 116, 123, 251, 261, 266, 301,
354
farmland, 116, 234
Index
food industry, 221, 243, 244, 250, 296
food production, 81, 116, 361
food products, 279, 282, 288, 289
food safety, xx, xxv
food security, 88, 98, 131
forage crops, 302
force, 10, 11, 14, 22, 25, 46, 55, 113, 174, 325, 345,
364
forecasting, 21
foreign direct investment, 93
foreign exchange, 320, 325
forest resources, 28, 29, 104
formation, xxi, 146, 156, 193, 237, 239, 298, 303,
304, 359, 379
fouling, 147, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 201
foundations, 3, 67, 289
fragility, 324
France, 32, 119, 121, 217, 218, 247, 248, 329
franchise, 323
freedom, 266, 279, 345, 346, 368
freezing, 175, 379
freshwater, 26, 89, 104, 318, 328
friction, 182
fruits, 74, 79, 81, 125
fuel cell, 152, 180, 197, 198, 201, 203, 204
fuel prices, 349, 368
functional food, 128
funding, xvi, 93, 109, 114, 339, 350
funds, 47, 59, 66, 69
fungi, 232, 233, 234, 236
G
Gabon, 93, 101, 102, 105
garbage, 139, 140, 156
gasification, 146, 148, 154, 188
GDP, 22, 28, 29, 88, 97, 98, 102, 103, 104, 136, 213,
319, 346, 347, 349
gender balance, 280
gene pool, 126
genes, xx, 126
genetic diversity, 2, 3, 126, 128
genus, 74, 234
Geographic Information System, xxii
geography, 68, 102, 135
geology, 256, 258
Georgia, 296
Germany, xvi, 207, 217, 226, 248, 296, 313, 329,
354, 356, 361, 374
germination, xxii, 82, 247, 298, 309
GHG, 12, 15, 30, 102, 139, 235, 236, 238, 350, 364,
365, 368
GIS, xxiv, 255, 256, 263, 267
395
396
Index
H
habitat(s), xxvii, 9, 24, 92, 103, 113, 114, 115, 116,
117, 123, 125, 128, 327, 328, 348
hair, 37
hardness, 306
harmful effects, 358
hazardous materials, 65
hazardous waste(s), xii, 49, 71, 142, 270, 380
hazards, 103, 257
health, xii, xx, 4, 9, 13, 24, 27, 31, 45, 51, 66, 67, 93,
124, 132, 133, 144, 159, 211, 230, 235, 236, 237,
252, 257, 263, 270, 271, 278, 279, 281, 282, 288,
290, 291, 292, 346, 348, 350, 355, 359
health care, 132, 133
health care system, 133
health effects, 24, 124
health information, 279
health risks, 236
heat pumps, 190
heat release, 233
heating rate, 148
heavy metals, xvi, 28, 123, 127, 130, 144, 150, 152,
176, 236, 237, 241, 248, 254, 255, 257, 263, 272
height, 162, 173, 190
hemicellulose, 234
hemisphere, 317
hemp, 382
herbicide, 124, 309, 310, 318
high strength, 374
high-value crops, 241
hiring, 352
history, 44, 74, 75, 78, 83, 85, 117, 126, 210, 256,
264, 297
HIV, 13
HIV/AIDS, 13
hobby, 238
Holocene, 74
homes, 53
honesty, 287
hormones, 245
horses, 301
horticultural crops, 84, 245
host, 51, 56, 321, 323, 324, 325, 326, 327
host population, 324
hot spots, 193, 273
hotel(s), 323, 328, 335, 336, 339, 358
hotspots, 117, 119, 121, 132
housing, 210, 249, 250, 278, 353
HPC, 382
hub, 204
human activity, 36, 97, 114, 347
human behavior, 35, 37, 38, 42
I
ICE, 196
ideal(s), 92, 143, 234, 276, 380
idealism, 50
identification, 19, 40, 85, 111, 116, 145, 256, 257,
264, 286, 288
identity, 40, 41, 42, 43, 62, 82, 288, 325, 336
image(s), 21, 40, 41, 48, 50, 76, 277, 278, 290, 292,
321
imbalances, 268
immigrants, 301
immobilization, 245, 380
Impact Assessment, xii, xxvi, 6
imported merchandise, 63
imports, 81, 97, 98, 100
improvements, 49, 54, 55, 60, 66, 87, 89, 106, 124,
180, 208, 275, 276, 281, 282, 290, 315, 334, 350,
352, 357, 364, 381
in transition, 26
incidence, 291
income, 22, 81, 91, 92, 102, 117, 139, 211, 226, 320,
326, 329, 335
income distribution, 91, 92
indentation, 378
independence, 46, 171, 199
397
Index
India, 74, 100, 132, 154, 156, 217, 245, 246, 271,
273, 366
indirect effect, 211
individuals, 47, 211, 212
Indonesia, 50, 70, 245
induction, 287
industrial policy, 10
industrial revolution, 73, 81
industrial sectors, 49
industrial wastes, xiii, 150
industrialization, 88, 101
industrialized countries, 7, 11, 12, 364, 368
industry(s), xii, xx, 41, 50, 54, 55, 58, 62, 63, 64, 66,
68, 71, 81, 85, 88, 93, 105, 117, 148, 158, 208,
220, 227, 243, 245, 246, 248, 250, 270, 278, 279,
282, 283, 319, 323, 325, 328, 338, 339, 346, 350,
362, 371, 372, 373, 376, 378, 382, 384, 385
industry consolidation, 63
inefficiency, 97
INF, 272
inflation, 350
information exchange, 282
infrastructure, 13, 54, 55, 59, 87, 90, 93, 107, 113,
116, 147, 188, 189, 212, 213, 226, 323, 325, 333,
338, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 356, 361, 362, 365,
366, 367, 368
ingestion, 236
ingredients, 53
inhibition, 247
injury(s), 257, 283
insecticide, 315, 316
insects, 125, 309
insecurity, 107
inspections, 49, 68
instinct, 37
institutions, xiv, 10, 60, 63, 92, 212, 281, 353, 358
insulation, 150, 233
integration, 8, 12, 64, 93, 109, 111, 118, 124, 176,
185, 210, 276, 352, 367, 369
integrity, vii, 10, 91, 290, 321, 324, 327
intelligence, xxiii, 350
interdependence, 210
interface, 92, 95, 165, 182, 265
interference, 131
intermediaries, 322
internal environment, 280
internal validity, 283
internalization, 50, 92
International Energy Agency (IEA), 101, 102, 103,
107, 208, 213, 217, 349
international standards, 21, 49, 277
interrelations, 110, 322
intervention, 31, 54, 67, 114, 127, 175, 269, 332, 348
intonation, 285
inversion, 299, 305
investment(s), 47, 48, 51, 59, 63, 66, 67, 69, 88, 93,
107, 115, 185, 212, 222, 319, 321, 322, 323, 325,
330, 332, 343, 350, 355, 357, 358, 361
investors, 47, 51, 59, 61, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67
ions, 82
Iran, 74
Iraq, 74
Ireland, 44, 59, 114, 126, 270
iron, 100, 177, 185, 204, 244, 259, 263, 273
irrigation, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 83, 85, 97, 104,
176, 247, 258, 260, 261, 266, 328
islands, 111, 224, 324
isolation, 324
isotherms, 300
Israel, 329, 330, 332
issues, xx, xxiii, xxvii, 2, 3, 10, 12, 19, 20, 29, 42,
45, 48, 51, 54, 62, 64, 66, 67, 91, 92, 94, 109,
110, 111, 119, 138, 143, 236, 257, 278, 279, 288,
315, 320, 324, 325, 326, 332, 337, 339, 343, 346,
347, 349
Italy, xxi, xxv, 74, 83, 84, 243, 246, 248, 254, 329
Ivory Coast, 107
J
Japan, 8, 11, 96, 246
job creation, 332, 345, 346, 348
job performance, 358
jobless, 89
Jordan, 16, 74, 124, 131, 308, 315, 330, 332
jurisdiction, 141, 325, 334, 335
K
Kazakhstan, xviii, 17, 45
Kenya, 93, 96, 99, 104, 105, 133, 339
knowledge-based economy, 13
Kuwait, 74
Kyoto Protocol, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
L
labor market, xxiii
laboratory studies, 257
labour force, 106, 321
lakes, 231
land abandonment, 114
land disposal, 142
398
Index
land use, vii, 30, 81, 84, 97, 98, 99, 107, 113, 116,
117, 118, 122, 123, 143, 256, 258, 264, 298, 328,
348
Land Use Policy, 122
landfills, 139, 140, 143, 144, 146, 147, 149, 152,
155, 158, 220, 221, 229, 230, 235, 251
landscape(s), xxvii, 28, 48, 73, 75, 76, 81, 82, 83, 84,
85, 109, 117, 118, 122, 132, 322, 327, 328, 329,
356
languages, 61
Latin America, 59, 101, 102, 103, 297, 320, 339, 341
laws, 68, 114, 355, 361
leaching, 236, 249, 260, 261, 297, 302, 306, 307,
309, 311, 315
lead, xviii, 18, 21, 54, 62, 67, 109, 117, 118, 150,
172, 174, 235, 237, 244, 278, 282, 292, 301, 308,
324, 328, 329, 330, 333, 366, 367, 376, 377, 383
leadership, 51, 94, 354
leaks, 143
learning, 20, 42, 89, 92, 122, 343
learning process, 343
Lebanon, 330, 332
legislation, 7, 18, 29, 30, 31, 50, 115, 120, 227, 254,
263, 276, 290, 293, 382
legs, 53
legume, 127, 130
leisure, 153, 212, 323, 331, 342
lending, 307
lens, 61, 232
liberalisation, 331
liberalization, 227
Liberia, 105
liberty, 12, 284
LIFE, xxiv, 118, 122, 247, 256
life cycle, xiv, 24, 54, 65, 139, 159, 251, 299
life expectancy, 359
life quality, 336
light, 150, 184, 254, 346, 363, 376
limestone, 372, 379
liquid fuels, 367
liquid phase, 170
liquidity, 59
liquids, 157, 161, 162, 200, 249
Lisbon Strategy, 8, 13
liver, 85
livestock, 99, 221, 223, 224, 225, 244, 250, 262, 301
living conditions, 3, 110
local authorities, xv, xx, 47, 256, 258, 263, 338, 340
local community, 289, 325, 338, 340
local conditions, 259, 267
local government, 150, 347
logging, 104
logistics, 59, 346, 349, 354, 365, 369
longevity, 119
Louisiana, xxvi
LPG, 362
lung cancer, 359
lying, 300
M
Maastricht Treaty, 3, 6, 10, 11
Macedonia, xxiv, 203, 222, 223, 224, 225, 226
machinery, 196, 212, 306
macroeconomics, xxiii
macronutrients, 248, 260
macropores, 308
magnesium, 254, 259, 307
magnitude, 95, 98, 167, 170, 225, 257, 331, 361
majority, 37, 47, 94, 106, 119, 183, 257, 323, 337,
338, 340
malaria, 13
malnutrition, 13, 90
mammal, 103
man, 35, 92, 239, 275, 334, 335
manganese, 100, 244, 259
manipulation, 336
manufacturing, 53, 54, 59, 71, 88, 89, 93, 98, 117,
198, 277, 349, 372, 373, 376
manure, 220, 221, 222, 237, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242,
244, 245, 249, 250, 254, 316
map unit, 258
mapping, 64, 119, 256, 258, 259, 265, 266, 352, 358
marine fish, 26
market segment, 340
market share, 320
market structure, 63, 66
marketing, 44, 68, 82, 116, 290, 293, 337, 338, 339,
353, 358
marketing strategy, 337
marketplace, 209, 278, 292
Marx, 273
Maryland, 385
mass, 29, 41, 117, 145, 146, 173, 233, 240, 329, 332,
334, 372, 379, 380, 382
mass loss, 240
mass media, 41
material resources, 28
materials, xvii, xix, 52, 53, 54, 59, 62, 65, 73, 76, 81,
96, 99, 100, 136, 140, 141, 143, 144, 146, 147,
150, 151, 219, 227, 233, 234, 242, 245, 276, 314,
354, 371, 372, 373, 374, 375, 376, 377, 378, 379,
381, 382, 383
matrix, 232, 233, 237, 306, 377
399
Index
matter, 69, 78, 119, 139, 145, 167, 189, 210, 234,
236, 243, 247, 263, 298, 303, 305, 314, 316, 325,
357, 359, 372
Mauritania, 101, 104, 105
Mauritius, 104, 105
measurement(s), 14, 19, 49, 64, 69, 160, 173, 177,
282, 295, 296, 312, 323, 324, 376
meat, 85, 294
mechanical properties, 374, 375, 376, 378, 381, 382,
383, 385
media, 14, 28, 41, 65, 69, 210, 217, 235, 236, 276,
277, 283, 340, 352, 380
medical, 124, 209
medicine, 74, 124
Mediterranean, xvii, xviii, xxi, xxiv, xxv, 71, 75,
123, 124, 127, 128, 130, 131, 132, 203, 234, 243,
246, 256, 320, 328, 329, 330, 331, 332, 338, 341,
343, 344
Mediterranean countries, 320, 329
membership, 64
membrane permeability, 182
membranes, 168, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183
memory, 40, 56, 58
mergers, 67
Mesopotamia, 74
messages, 39, 213
meta-analysis, 66
metabolism, 107, 167, 233
metals, xvi, 100, 127, 137, 145, 147, 151, 237, 259,
260, 272, 274, 373, 374
meter, 165, 217
methodology, 22, 230, 275, 283, 285, 293
metropolitan areas, 351, 354
Mexico, 272
microbial community(s), 233, 234, 239, 272, 313
microbiota, xx
microclimate, 75, 78
microorganisms, 127, 150, 158, 232, 233, 234, 252,
309
Microsoft, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 70
microstructure(s), 376, 379
microturbines, 201
middle class, 331, 347
Middle East, 74, 75, 85, 102, 103, 330, 331
migrants, 13
migration, 211, 375
mineral resources, 100, 346
mineralization, 132, 259, 303, 307, 311, 314
mission(s), xviii, 3, 65, 287, 350, 371, 373, 375
mixing, 164, 175, 177, 250, 306, 307, 372, 385
mobile device, 351
mobile office, 52
modelling, xxvii, 369
models, xii, 6, 19, 21, 128, 180, 187, 329, 331, 333,
334, 352, 380
modern society, 41
modernisation, 331
modernization, 295
modifications, 76, 157, 172, 184, 315, 367
modules, 180
modulus, 374, 379, 381, 382
moisture, 128, 147, 150, 156, 191, 231, 233, 250,
262, 299, 303, 307
moisture content, 147, 150, 233, 250
molecules, 81, 309
monetary union, 10, 11
morality, 325
Morocco, 11, 74, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104, 105,
247, 330, 331, 332
morphology, 258
mortality, 81, 125
motivation, 18, 63, 282, 288, 292, 319
Mozambique, 93, 101, 104, 105
MSW, 155, 221, 223, 230, 231, 232, 237
multidimensional, vii, 333
municipal solid waste, 135, 137, 140, 144, 150, 153,
154, 155, 156, 221, 223, 228, 229, 230, 239, 240,
241, 242
Muslims, 73
mussels, 25
mutuality, 48, 63
mycotoxins, 236
N
Namibia, 101, 102, 106
national curricula, 217
national policy, 354
National Research Council, 173, 201
national strategy, 119, 251
NATO, xxiv
natural disaster(s), 13, 90
natural enemies, 125, 133
natural evolution, 126
natural gas, 99, 149, 152, 157, 196, 198, 201, 219,
225, 226, 365, 367, 372
natural habitats, 111, 120
natural resource management, 117
natural resources, xxi, 9, 13, 62, 81, 87, 88, 111, 126,
171, 209, 211, 212, 230, 244, 267, 279, 299, 324,
332, 334, 335, 372, 377
Natural Resources Conservation Service, 252
nature conservation, 109, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116,
117, 118, 119, 120, 121
needy, 289
negative consequences, 88
400
Index
objectification, 41
obstacles, 276
occupational health, 278, 280, 283
ODS, 29, 30
officials, 10
OH, 247
oil, 53, 68, 82, 96, 100, 127, 148, 151, 152, 153, 154,
162, 188, 208, 246, 247, 248, 267, 288, 346, 349,
350, 362, 365, 366, 368, 381, 384
oil production, 53, 246, 247, 365
olive oil, 246, 247, 256, 267, 270, 271
open economy, 335
open spaces, 139, 248, 357
operating costs, 143, 160, 184
Index
pathogens, xx, 81, 115, 158, 176, 196, 233, 236, 237,
238, 239, 254, 255
pathologist, xxv
pathology, xxv
pathways, 295, 365, 366, 367
peace, 12, 87, 90, 92, 94, 325
peat, 96, 236, 238
peer review, xv, xix, xx, xxvi
penalties, 63, 65, 360
performance indicator, 22, 61, 64, 279, 281, 292
performance measurement, 64, 282, 295
performance related pay, 288
permeability, 184, 244, 311, 375, 376, 379
permit, 220, 243, 255, 256, 264
perseverance, 42
Persian Gulf, 74
personality, 337
Peru, 339
pest populations, 125
pesticide, 132, 308, 309, 310, 311, 318
pests, 125, 299, 310
PET, 381, 383, 384
Petroleum, xiv, xxiii, 99, 101, 135, 153
pH, 28, 125, 146, 150, 233, 234, 235, 246, 247, 248,
254, 259, 263, 268
pharmaceutical, 124
Philadelphia, 352
Philippines, 271
phosphate(s), 100, 311, 312, 377
phosphorous, 244, 247, 259, 261, 263
phosphorus, 154, 167, 173, 176, 185, 203, 244, 254,
273, 306, 307, 314, 315
photodegradation, 309
physical and mechanical properties, 373
physical characteristics, 247
physical environment, 31
physical properties, 124, 301, 311, 314, 315, 316,
376
physical structure, 304
physico-chemical changes, 233
physicochemical properties, 128, 260
Physiological, 315
phytoremediation, 127
phytosterols, 128
pigs, 224, 225
pilot study, 108
pipeline, 149, 225
pku, vii
plant diseases, 238, 241
plant growth, 78, 82, 246, 262
plastics, 150, 151
platelet aggregation, 132
platform, 16, 64
401
402
Index
Q
quality assurance, 240
quality control, 290, 293
quality improvement, 126
quality of life, 10, 36, 280, 327, 345, 347, 351, 368
quality of service, 327
quality standards, 31, 256
quantification, 331
Queensland, 138, 273
questioning, 91
quotas, 28, 217
R
race, 42, 326, 327, 350
radiation, 27, 130, 170, 198, 303
rainfall, 75, 147, 258, 261, 300, 301, 302, 308, 312
rationality, 44
raw materials, 17, 53, 79, 97, 136, 237, 290, 371,
373
REA, xv
reaction rate, 152, 234
reactions, 150, 234, 359, 379, 380
reactivity, 385
reagents, 183
real estate, 58
real time, 52, 213
realism, 40
reality, 18, 41, 49, 62, 107, 275, 360
reasoning, 37, 158, 335
recall, 278
reception, 120, 150
receptors, 256, 257
recession, 81
403
Index
reciprocating engine, 196
recognition, vii, 3, 8, 95, 116, 280, 292, 339, 355
recommendations, 15, 273, 280, 283, 308, 373
recovery, 27, 135, 140, 141, 145, 151, 154, 155, 157,
158, 168, 175, 188, 189, 191, 192, 194, 202, 221,
230, 231, 238, 243, 251, 313
recreation, 113, 114, 117, 121, 355
recreational, 158, 322, 356
recycling, xx, 26, 37, 38, 52, 140, 141, 142, 146,
151, 154, 155, 156, 166, 181, 221, 229, 230, 234,
237, 243, 246, 251, 267, 270, 323, 338, 371, 373,
374, 377, 382, 384
Red List, 130
redevelopment, 354
redistribution, 360
reformers, 197
reforms, 93, 114, 331
regenerate, 334
regeneration, 298, 334
regional integration, 90, 331
regions of the world, 101, 347
regression, 212
regulations, 30, 49, 63, 71, 113, 260, 290
regulatory framework, 15
regulatory requirements, 152
reinforcement, 80, 372, 381, 383
rejection, 8
relative prices, 321
relatives, 125, 130, 131
relevance, 21, 263
reliability, 172, 199, 213, 263, 351, 355
relief, 92
religion, 74, 107, 327
remediation, vii, xvi, xix, 253, 257, 258, 267
remote sensing, xxiv, 19, 122
renewable energy, xvi, xxiii, xxv, 13, 14, 15, 51, 53,
59, 95, 171, 198, 199, 227, 350
rent, 88
repair, 186
replacement ratios, 374, 375
representativeness, 21
reprocessing, 143
reproduction, 336
Republic of the Congo, 101, 104
reputation, 60, 63, 66, 277, 278, 282, 292
RES, 199, 227
researchers, 1, 180, 183, 233, 282, 284, 298, 310,
320, 342, 352, 373, 374, 378
reserves, 100, 101, 161, 187, 236, 342, 365
residuals, 188, 237, 246, 367
residues, xvii, xxv, 82, 83, 132, 145, 221, 222, 231,
233, 242, 243, 244, 246, 247, 248, 254, 270, 298,
299, 303, 304, 306, 307, 308, 309, 378
S
safe haven, 35
safety, xii, xx, xxiii, 13, 51, 66, 67, 92, 278, 279,
280, 281, 282, 284, 285, 287, 288, 290, 291, 292,
348, 349, 356, 363, 365
Safety Management System, xxvi
saline water, 78
salinity, 74, 76, 78, 84, 85, 247, 268
Salmonella, 250
salt concentration, 76
salt tolerance, 74
404
Index
sewage, 28, 144, 150, 157, 158, 162, 165, 168, 171,
175, 187, 190, 194, 198, 200, 223, 241, 242, 251,
255, 260, 271, 272
Seychelles, 96, 99, 101, 103, 105, 106
shade, 79
shape, 40, 42, 48, 49, 62, 211, 309, 356, 372, 373,
376
shareholder value, 62
shareholders, 47, 62, 65
shear, 181, 182, 183
sheep, 221
shelter, 299
shock, 176
shortage, 78, 349, 372
showing, 182, 208, 262, 280
shrubs, 132, 299
side effects, 211
Sierra Leone, 106
signalling, 322
signals, 27, 170, 233, 355
signs, 2, 88, 119, 285, 340
silica, 374, 379, 383
silicon, 198, 380
simulations, xii, 19
Single European Act, 3
single market, 346, 348
skills training, 326
slag, 376, 378, 380, 382, 385
slavery, 281, 290
Slovakia, 114, 121
sludge, 150, 152, 160, 161, 162, 163, 166, 167, 168,
169, 171, 173, 174, 175, 176, 178, 184, 185, 186,
188, 191, 192, 193, 194, 195, 196, 200, 201, 221,
223, 241, 242, 251, 254, 255, 260, 261, 271, 272
small firms, 349
smart com, 69
smog, 372
SO42-, 257, 263, 269
social acceptance, 70
social activities, 289
social behaviour, 289
social benefits, 116, 121, 326
social capital, 212
social change, 43
social conflicts, 113
social context, 40
social costs, 350
social development, 4, 91, 92, 209, 333
social environment, 38
social exchange, 41
social exclusion, 13
social goals, vii
social identity, 43
Index
social indicator, 285, 291
social inequalities, 91
social justice, 118
social learning, 119
social network, 212
social organization, 211
social problems, 111, 289, 290
social programs, 326
social relations, 333
social resources, 3
social responsibility, 63, 67, 68, 69, 70, 277, 280,
287, 290, 294, 295, 340
social rules, 39, 63, 212
social services, 87, 90, 326
social structure, 327, 328
social welfare, 90
society, 12, 21, 41, 45, 48, 65, 67, 70, 78, 80, 81, 82,
91, 92, 94, 110, 118, 135, 207, 210, 211, 212,
218, 280, 291, 295, 298, 329, 331, 332, 333, 337,
345, 349, 355, 364, 368
sodium, 259, 380
sodium hydroxide, 380
software, 52, 53, 58, 174, 265
soil erosion, 128, 298, 299, 301, 304, 308, 310, 328,
329
soil particles, 308
soil pollution, xix, 127, 249, 297
soil type, 254, 263, 267
solar cells, 198
solid phase, 232, 309
solid waste, xii, xiii, xiv, xxii, xxvii, 135, 136, 137,
138, 139, 140, 141, 145, 146, 150, 154, 155, 156,
219, 220, 223, 230, 242, 247, 248, 250, 328, 371
solidarity, 10, 12, 289, 333
solubility, 237
solution, 39, 51, 84, 136, 152, 186, 221, 238, 258,
269, 274, 309, 313, 347, 378, 380
Somalia, 103, 104, 106
sorption, 309, 379
South Africa, 8, 93, 95, 96, 99, 100, 101, 102, 104,
106, 248, 339
South America, 104, 217
Southern African Development Community, 93
Soviet Union, 380
sowing, 133, 302, 307, 310, 316
soybeans, 296, 301
Spain, xvii, xxi, 73, 74, 81, 84, 85, 130, 132, 228,
243, 246, 247, 248, 254, 315, 320, 329, 343
specialists, 67, 284
specialization, xxiii
species, vii, xvii, xxvii, 2, 3, 26, 28, 29, 74, 84, 97,
103, 111, 113, 114, 115, 116, 123, 124, 125, 126,
127, 128, 129, 233, 244, 245, 299
405
406
Index
supervisor, xxiv
supplementation, 272
supplier(s), 51, 63, 65, 100, 181, 213, 276, 277, 278,
280, 281, 285, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293
supply chain, 50, 53, 59, 66, 71, 275, 276, 277, 278,
279, 280, 282, 283, 284, 289, 290, 291, 293, 294,
295, 296, 340
suppression, 130, 182
surface area, 147, 178, 266
surface layer, 303, 309
surging, 347
survival, 35, 36, 42, 97
susceptibility, 304, 310
sustainable economic growth, 13, 90
sustainable energy, 53, 199, 207, 213, 365
sustainable growth, 10, 62, 207, 338
Sweden, xxv, 339, 356
Switzerland, 130
symbiosis, 127
synergistic effect, 379
synthetic fuels, 152
Syria, 247, 330, 332
T
Taiwan, 320, 342
talent, 51, 66
tanks, 162, 173, 175, 177, 178, 179, 185, 188, 193
Tanzania, 50, 70, 104, 106
tar, 148, 151
target, 25, 29, 31, 61, 63, 111, 174, 256, 257, 263,
269, 288, 310, 323, 350, 359, 361, 364, 365, 366,
379
Task Force, 368
taxa, 128
taxes, 211, 290
taxis, 362
teachers, 9
teams, 54, 56, 66
technician, xviii
techniques, xxiv, 75, 122, 125, 128, 147, 179, 246,
257, 267, 283, 299, 314, 354, 356, 372
technological advances, 36
technological change, 302
technological progress, 14, 334
telecommunications, 212
teleconferencing, 52
telephone, 61, 285
telephone numbers, 61
temperature, 14, 15, 26, 27, 75, 146, 150, 156, 176,
179, 193, 194, 195, 196, 201, 227, 231, 233, 241,
254, 261, 299, 300, 303, 380
tenants, 353
407
Index
transparency, 51, 67, 109, 113, 118, 276, 282, 283,
288
transpiration, 74, 78
transport, 13, 24, 26, 27, 30, 52, 62, 64, 75, 80, 140,
160, 170, 178, 196, 208, 213, 256, 309, 310, 323,
327, 331, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 350, 351, 354,
355, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 364, 365,
366, 368, 369, 372, 373
transportation, vii, 53, 59, 114, 150, 225, 227, 345,
346, 347, 348, 351, 352, 354, 355, 356, 358
treaties, 3, 5, 6, 7, 14, 29, 290, 348
treatment methods, 135
Treaty of Amsterdam, 8, 11, 16
Treaty of Rome, 11
Treaty on European Union, 14, 16
trial, 316
trickle-down effects, 91
trimmings, 245
trustworthiness, 285
tuberculosis, 13
turbulence, 182
Turkey, 200, 247, 329
turnover, 46, 240, 283, 291
U
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 245
U.S. Geological Survey, 101
Ukraine, 384
ultrasound, 193
UNESCO, 73, 75, 217, 343
uniform, 11, 31, 126, 145, 146
unions, 278
United Kingdom (UK), xvi, xviii, xix, xxi, xxii, xxvi,
43, 44, 51, 52, 107, 129, 155, 241, 272, 273, 329,
339, 340, 341, 342, 354, 356, 368, 369
United Nations (UN), 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 16, 22,
33, 36, 37, 59, 61, 64, 83, 84, 87, 88, 89, 90, 93,
94, 104, 107, 108, 133, 229, 242, 276, 289, 290,
325, 326, 330, 339, 343, 361
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate
Change (UNFCCC), 11, 14
United Nations Industrial Development
Organization, 88
United States, xxvi, 49, 56, 68, 136, 203, 245, 248,
252, 278
Universal Declaration of Human Rights, 279, 290
universities, xxi, 47, 289
urban, 26, 28, 35, 73, 75, 77, 82, 88, 117, 140, 143,
152, 155, 188, 196, 202, 204, 210, 211, 239, 242,
247, 250, 252, 325, 327, 328, 345, 346, 347, 349,
350, 351, 353, 354, 356, 357, 358, 359, 360, 361,
362, 367, 368, 369
urban areas, 26, 28, 140, 152, 188, 202, 357, 360,
367
urban life, 351
urban policy, 347
urban population, 88, 359
urbanisation, 61
urbanization, 88, 107, 372
urine, 245
Uruguay, 130
USA, xviii, xxi, xxiv, xxvi, 44, 49, 126, 156, 204,
231, 236, 239, 242, 246, 248, 249, 310, 313, 314,
315, 318, 341, 342, 383
USDA, 245, 250, 272, 300
UV, 27, 169, 170, 173, 183, 184, 186, 187, 200
UV irradiation, 173
UV radiation, 170, 184
V
vacuum, 148, 165
Valencia, xxi, 74, 83, 84
valorization, xix
valuation, 84, 92, 272
variables, 19, 24, 97, 236, 238, 261, 262, 283, 323
variations, 76, 176, 375, 383
varieties, 124, 126, 130
vegetables, 125
vegetation, 115, 121, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128,
129, 133, 247, 273, 313
vegetative cover, 125
vehicles, 13, 28, 61, 150, 154, 213, 349, 350, 352,
354, 355, 356, 358, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 365,
366, 367, 368
velocity, 259, 308, 376
ventilation, 157, 172, 177, 187
venture capital, 47
versatility, 145
vertical integration, 323
vessels, 104
vibration, 181, 182, 201
Vietnam, 245
vinasse, 248
vinyl chloride, 152
violent behaviour, 335
virtualization, 54, 55, 56, 58
viruses, 250
vision(s), 3, 6, 9, 42, 53, 62, 214, 276, 287, 293, 337,
351, 364
vitamins, 128
vocational training, 10, 363
volatile organic compounds, 236, 359
volunteerism, 51
voting, 47, 48
408
Index
W
Wales, 138, 357
walking, 52, 362
war, 94
Washington, 44, 59, 107, 108, 295
waste disposal, 65, 135, 139, 146, 151, 226, 255,
258, 265, 266, 267, 273
waste disposal sites, 273
waste heat, 175, 188, 192, 196
waste incineration, xiii, 139, 145, 155
waste management, xvii, xx, 136, 140, 141, 146,
151, 154, 229, 230, 232, 234, 235, 238, 243, 251,
267
waste treatment, 135, 145, 146, 147, 148, 154, 226,
230, 232, 236, 239, 240, 254
waste water, 58, 162, 163, 201, 202
water absorption, 374, 375, 379
water ecosystems, 328
water evaporation, 307
water permeability, 256
water policy, 32
water quality, xxi, 20, 22, 24, 26, 244, 308, 313, 314,
318, 328
water resources, 28, 29, 127, 308, 329, 332
water shortages, 28
water supplies, vii, 76
waterways, 158, 254
wealth, 212, 213, 347, 348, 350
wear, 360, 379
weather patterns, 262
web, 54, 354
websites, 283, 284, 285
weight reduction, 365
welfare, 25, 33, 65, 87, 91, 348
welfare loss, 348
well-being, 4, 12, 33, 45, 94, 106, 111, 117, 120,
210, 212, 213, 275, 280, 281, 327, 358
West Africa, 93, 98, 155
Western Australia, 138, 155
wetlands, 78, 328
wetting, 146, 147, 152
White Paper, 348, 350, 364, 365
wilderness, 117
wildlife, 115, 117, 125, 327
wind farm, 52, 115
wind power, 199
wind turbines, 52, 53
windows, 58
Wisconsin, 273, 312
withdrawal, 105, 114, 162
wood, 53, 79, 97, 144, 227, 372
wood products, 97, 144
workers, 51, 277, 278, 281, 287, 288, 326, 354
workforce, 61, 212, 280, 282
working conditions, 277, 280, 291, 349, 363, 368
working groups, xxvi, 288
working hours, 278, 279, 281, 283, 291, 369
workplace, 187, 279, 280, 281, 282, 288, 289, 290,
291
World Bank, 60, 69, 107, 108, 320
World Health Organization, 358
World Water Council, 343
worldwide, 13, 37, 38, 39, 45, 91, 109, 113, 119,
176, 194, 217, 243, 246, 249, 259, 260, 277, 312,
320, 329, 330, 339, 371, 372, 373, 378
WTO, 322, 324, 325, 326, 336, 339, 343, 344
WWW, 340
X
xenophobia, 13
Y
Yale University, 44
yield, 78, 82, 83, 85, 91, 126, 128, 244, 245, 246,
297, 298, 301, 302, 306, 307, 308, 309, 311, 312,
314, 315, 316, 318
young people, 89, 289, 349
Z
zeolites, xvi
Zimbabwe, 101, 104, 105, 106, 317
zinc, 259