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References
Young,R.A.,&Friesen,J.D.(1992).Theintentionsofparentsininfluencingthecareerdevelopment
oftheirchildren.CareerDevelopmentQuarterly,40(3),198.
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THE INTENTIONS OF PARENTS IN INFLUENCING THE CAREER DEVELOPMENT OF

THEIRCHILDREN
Parents'intentionsassociatedwithcriticalincidentstheyundertakeinthecareerdevelopmentof
their children are examined from an intentional action perspective. From interviews with 207
parents,1,772criticalincidentswereidentified.Approximatelyhalfoftheincidentscontributed
totheconstructionof10categoriesreprensentingtheintentionsofparentstheremainderwas
used to substantiate the categories .The categories illustrate that parents, although not
necessarilyattempting,influenceparticularoccupationalchoice,areactiveagentininfluencing
theirchildreninabroadrangeofareasincareerdevelopment.
Thepurposeofthisarticleistodescribetheintentionsofparentswhentheyattempttoinfluence
the career development of their children. The specific nature of these parental actions has
remained largely unexamined. This deficiency exists notwithstanding the substantial evidence
thatparentsareinfluentialintheirchildren'seducationalandcareerdevelopment.
Inearlywork,Roe(1957)soughttoestablishalinkbetweenparentalattitudesandthechild's
eventualoccupationalchoice.Super(1967)postulatedthatthefamilywasanimportantfactorin
influencing the career development process. Later, variables such as social class (Blau &
Duncan, 1967), maternal employment (Smith, 1981), family configuration (Zajonc & Markus,
1975), and perceived parental influence (O'Neil, Ohelde, Tollefson, Barke, Piggott, & Watts,
1980) were found to influence such outcomes as adolescents' occupational aspiration and
attainment,andtherangeofchoicesconsidered.Recently,therehavebeencallsformoreofan
interactional perspective in the study of the role of family experience in career development
(e.g., Grotevant & Cooper, 1988 Vondracek, Lerner, & Schulenberg, 1986). Young, Friesen,
andPearson(1988)delineatedataxonomyofparentalactivitiesandinterpersonalrelationsthat
influencecareerdevelopment.
In this article, intentional action, which has lately emerged as an important paradigm for

psychology (Bruner, 1986 Chapman, 1984), is used to understand these issues. Intentional
actionreferstovoluntarybehavioremployedbyanagentasameansofattainingcertainends.
The main assumption that underlies this study is that parents engage purposefully in their
interactions with their children. Furthermore, their"actions are guided by mentally represented
intentions"(Heckhausen&Beckmann,1990,p.36).Forexample,aparentmayencouragea
childtoparticipateinateamsportsothatthechildwilldevelopacompetitiveattitudeoraparent
may bring an adolescent daughter to visit a university campus as a means of having her
consider pursuing a university education. Activities such as these, based on the subjective
intentionality of the parent, are likely to involve parentchild dialogue and have cognitive and
affectivecomponents.Incontrast,innonintentionalvariablessuchasmaternalemployment,the
subjectiveexperienceofthepersonasagentininfluencingthechild'scareerdevelopmentisnot
addressed.Inthecaseofmaternalemployment,thepurposeofthemothers'employment,how
mothersactuallymediatetheeffectsoftheiremploymentactivitieswiththeirdaughters,orthe
meaning employment has for them in relation to their daughters' development is given little
consideration.
Brandtstadter (1984) suggested that the usefulness of the construct of intentional action to
humandevelopmentisthatitimplies"thatindividuals,onthebasisofcertaindevelopmentally
relatedexpectancies,values,andcontrolbeliefs,activelyinfluenceandtrytocontroltheirown
development" (p. 115). From this perspective, parents in their interactions with their children
attempttoenhancetheirowndevelopmentasparentsbyassistingthecareerdevelopmentof
theirchildren.Theassumptionhereisthatparentsbelievethattheyhaveoptionsandcanfulfill
theirroleasparentsindifferentways.
The importance of intentions for the study of career development lies with their potential to
guideanddirectaction.Intentionsthatremaininthemindoftheindividualarechangeableand
fleeting.Oncetheyarecommunicatedthroughaction,theyareapttobecomemorestableand
longlasting.Parentsandchildrenarelikelytorememberandactonthem,andtheintentions
themselvesarelikelytopersistovertime.
Ulrich and Dunne (1986) referred to family "messages of designation," such as "There's a lot
out thereif you want it go for it" (p. xii), that are transmitted between the generations often
without the parties being fully aware of them. Although messages of designation arise in
complex ways in family life, at one level they are represented in the intentional activities that
parentsengagein.
Inthisstudy,weattempttodescribequalitativelythekindsofintentionsparentsreport.Critical
incidentswereselectedtostudythisdomain.Subjectivequalityofintentionalitycanbeassessed
through the report by the parent of the actual interaction with the child. The incident is
reconstructedbytheparentandthusrepresentshisorherintention.Itdoesnotremainsolelyin
the mind of the parent, however. The intention has an action componentit "takes place" in
interactionwiththechild.
METHOD
Sample
The volunteer sample consisted of 207 parents (131 mothers and 76 fathers). They were
recruitedthroughlettersofinvitationtoalltheparentsofschoolchildrenages1018(n=2,186)

in a small school district and by approximately 850 letters to randomly selected parents of
community college students in the same municipality. Two hundred and fiftyone parents
showed initial interest by returning the application form. The sample (n = 207) comprised all
parents who applied and subsequently decided to complete the interview and questionnaire
procedure.Thesample,drawnfromasuburbanareaofalargeCanadiancity,representeda
widerangeofsocioeconomiclevelsasdeterminedbytheSocioeconomicIndexforOccupations
inCanada(Blishen&McRoberts,1976)from23.66(woodsawoperator)to75.28(academic
dean). The mean SES level was 51.57 (SD = 13.63). The mean age of the parents who
reportedtheirage(n=178)was42.58(SD=6.37).
CriticalIncidentInterview
Thecriticalincidentinterview(Flanagan,1954)wasusedtoelicitfromparentsspecificactivities
they had used in assisting or influenceing the career development of their children. At the
beginningoftheinterview,parentswereaskedtodescribeoneoftheorchildrenintermsofhis
or her career development to date, including progress in school or work, aspirations, and the
planninganddecisionmakingthechildhadengagedin.Subsequently,parentswereaskedhow
they wanted to influence their child and then to recount specific incidents that stood out as
importantinfluencesthattheyhadontheirchildintheareaofcareerdevelopment.
Following its broad definition in the literature (e.g., Sears, 1982), career development was
describedfortheparentstoincludenotonlythedevelopmentofeducationalandoccupational
goals, but also planning and decision making, developing a sense of responsibility for one's
goals, and the meaning these aspects were seen to have in the child's life. There was no
questionintheinterviewformatpertainingtotheintentionparentshadforthespecificactivities.
Rather, it was assumed that parents would disclose aspects of the activities that were
meaningfultothemandthusimplicitlyandexplicitlyaddresstheirintentions.Consistentwiththe
phenomenological method, "specific situations and action sequences in the world of the
interviewee" (Kvale, 1983, p. 176) were the focus of the interview. The interviewer served to
encouragetheparenttodescribetheactivitiesandtohelptheparentsclarifyaspectsofthem.
IdentificationofIncidents
Theaudiorecordingsoftheinterviewsweretranscribedanddividedintoincidentsbasedonthe
interviewer'snotesmadeduringandimmediatelyaftertheinterview.Flanagan's(1954)criterion
for what constitutes an incident, that is, any observable human activity that was sufficiently
complete in itself and allowed inferences and predictions to be made, was used by the
interviewers in this procedure. Subsequent to the transcription of the incidents, the interviews
were read by an independent research assistant to check the division of incidents, to identify
additional incidents, and to delete those that could not stand alone. As a result of this
procedure,atotalof1,772incidentsformedthepoolofincidentsusedinthisproject.
CategoryConstruction
Initially a set of 718 incidents, representing 86 randomly selected parents from the sample
described (n = 207), were made available to construct the categories. The authors and three
research assistants, working together, used the traditional critical incident procedure for
constructingcategories(Flanagan,1954).Thatis,incidentsweregroupedandlabelsattached
untiltherewasasufficientrangeofcategoriestoaccountforalltheincidentsinthisphaseofthe
study.Asmallgroupofincidentsinwhichtheparents'intentionswerenotclearlystatedwere

notused.
Eachofthe10categories,describedinAppendixA,pertainstothecontentoftheintentionand
specifiesthattheparentengagedintheactivityforthepurposedefinedbythecategorylabel.all
butthelastcategoryaddressparentalintentionsthatareinsomewayrealizedinthechild,that
is,theparent'sframeofreferenceforengagingintheeventsisthatthechildmaybenefitfrom
the activity in some defined way. The last category, achievement of parent goals, refers to
intentionsthatareprimarilyintheparent'sinterests.
Theincidentsrepresentedcomplexactivitiesthatoftencontainedmorethanoneintention.Asa
result,itwasdecidedthatcategoriesshouldnotbeconsideredexclusive.Intentionsrepresented
in the incidents could be categorized in one or more categories. The alternative procedure
would have resulted in the development of such broad categories so as to be much less
meaningful.
The categories were subsequently substantiated through the coding of a new group of 837
incidentsthathadnotbeenusedinthedevelopmentoftheoriginalcategories.Theseincidents
represented 97 parent interviews. Of the 837 incidents, 782 were categorized by the 10
categories. The remaining 55 incidents were not categorized because they lacked sufficient
informationregardingtheparents'intentions.Itwasthusconcludedthatthe10categorieswere
representativeofthedomainunderstudy.
A random sample of 146 incidents (18 parent interviews) were coded by two independent
coders to ascertain the reliability of the categories and the coding system. Both coders had
been trained and had had previous experience in coding incidents in this study. The average
proportion of agreement between the two coders, using Cohen's (1960) kappa, for the 10
categories was .72. The range was .60 to 1.0 for 9 of 10 categories. Cohen's kappa for one
category, enhancement of the child's character development, was .21. Kappa is always the
lowestestimateofagreementbetweenobservers(Hollenbeck,1978).
CaseExample
Thecategorysystemisbestillustratedbycitingfromoneoftheinterviewsusedinthisstudy.In
thiscase,amotherofa15yearolddaughterbeganbydescribingherintentioninthisway:"I
tryandmakeherparticipateinmoresports,togearhertimeherfreetimetosportsactivities
rather than . . ., you know, going out to McDonald's or the usual [hanging around!.... I try to
discouragethat[hangingaround]....Theonlywayyoucandiscouragethat,Ifeel,isbygiving
hersportsactivities.Youcan'tjusttellhertostayhomeanddonothing,youhavetoencourage
hertodosomething."Eventhoughthereisresistancetothemother'splanfromthedaughter's
sideandargumentsbetweenthemaboutit,themotherpersistsand,atleastfromthemother's
perception,thedaughterendsupenjoyingtheexperience.
Later in the interview the mother recounted an incident in which she and her husband
considered the appropriate school for their daughter: "[Private School X] closed . . . and we
didn'tknow,shouldwesendhertoanotherprivateschool,becausewedidn'twanthertobe
aroundboys,andalltheprivateschoolsonlyhavegirls."
Subsequently, the mother reported an incident in which she would not allow her daughter to
attenda"teenage"nightclub,because"theymightslipapillinyourdrink."

Finally,inadvisingherdaughteraboutmarriage,themotherstatedthatitisfinetodatepeople
fromotherreligions,"justaslongasinthebackofyourmind[yourealize]thatyouarebetteroff
inamarriagewithsomeoneofyourownreligion,becauseit'sveryimportant."
In each of these incidents, the parent's intention can be classified protection from unwanted
experiences. The world is seen by the parent as challenging but full of potentially dangerous
experiencesthatthechilddoesnothavethepersonalresourcestowithstand.Thisthemeruns
throughout the interview and at least partially represents a framework for the parenting this
motherengagesin.Thecategorysystemenablesthereader,andpotentiallythecounselorand
ultimatelytheparent,toseebeyondthespecificactivitiestobroaderaspectsofinfluencethat
theparentmanifests.
DISCUSSION
This study resulted in the construction of 10 categories representing the intentions these
parents had when they attempted to influence the career development of their children. The
developmentofthesecategoriesreflectsanewparadigminpsychologythatreferstotheaction
that agents voluntarily engage in as means of obtaining certain ends (e.g., Bruner, 1986
Chapman,1984).Inthiscase,parentsvoluntarilyengagedwith,orintervenedonbehalfoftheir
children in an attempt to enhance career development. The categories were developed to
describetheintentionsmorespecifically.
The critical incident procedure is particularly suitable to the study of intentional action. First,
parents were engaged in describing specific activities and events rather than broadly stated
attitudes about career development. The event was then reconstituted and the intention was
revealed. The categories were then framed from an intentional perspective, as was made
evidentinthecategorysubstantiationphaseofthestudyinwhichtheparents'intentionswere
readily identified in 782 of the 837 incidents. Second, the incidents were recounted with the
parentsasagentswhereactionswerevoluntarilychosentoattainidentifiedends.Becausethe
incidents that were chosen by the parents were considered critical by them, the activity was
seenasimportanttoachievingthegoal.
Theparents'intentionsdescribedinthecategoriesarequitebroad.Neithertheparentsnorthe
researchersconceivedofcareerdevelopmentinanarrowsenseofoccupationalaspirationor
choice. The intentions involved many aspects of child rearing. It should be noted that in the
interview procedure, several parents began by disclaiming any intention to influence their
children'scareerchoices.Yettheincidentstheydescribedrepresentedanumberofintentions
closelylinkedtocareerdevelopment.Thecontentoftheintentionsalsorevealedthatparents
attemptedtoinfluencethedevelopmentofawiderangeofskillsandattitudesintheirchildren.
Theyconsideredsuchawiderangeimportantasameansofenhancingtheirchildren'sabilityto
choose appropriate career aspirations and make decisions consistent with those aspirations.
Otherparents'intentionsrepresentedtheviewthatifthechildishappyandwelladjustedand
can engage in satisfactory relationships, then the child's specific career development will be
basedonimportantpersonalcharacteristicsandwillensueappropriately.
Thecategoriessuggestthatinthelargemajorityofincidents,theparentsframedtheirintentions
in relationship to the child (categories 19). For example, the action was engaged in by the
parenttodecreasethechild'ssexrolestereotyping.Onlyonecategory,andarelativelysmall

numberofincidents,wereconstruedtofulfillparents'goalsexclusively.Butinpresentingtheir
intentionsastheydid,theparentsimplicitlysuggestedandactuallyimplementedgoalsoftheir
ownasparents.Thisconjunctionofthechild'sgoalsandtheparents'goalsinintentionalaction
representstheintersubjectivecharacterofintentionality(Meacham,1984).AsMeachamnoted,
and as is illustrated in this study, what appears first is at the social level, that is, the parent's
intentionismanifestedinanactivitybetweentheparentandchild.Later,thechildwillmakethis
intentionpersonalinsomeform,ifonlybyreactingagainstit.
Parentswanttheirchildrentofeelgoodaboutthemselves,haveapositiveselfimage,andhave
selfconfidence. The parents in this study substantiated the research findings in the literature
that focuses on selfconcept as an important dimension of career development (e.g., Crook,
Healy,&O'Shay,1984Kidd,1984).Parentsalsofeelthattheycanhaveacriticalimpacton
theirchild'sdevelopment.
Thelinkbetweenparents'intentionsandtheactionstheyundertakewiththeirchildrenisnota
direct, causal connection. The intentions cannot be said to have caused the actions.
Nonetheless, they are important in understanding the interaction between parent and child.
Initially,theyareinterpretativeconstructsthatdelineatehowparentshaveconstruedtheactions
in which they have been engaged. Moreover, intentions can be seen to be part of a broad
understanding of what "caused" the action. The categories of intentions contribute to our
appreciationofparentsasagentsoftheirowndevelopmentaswellasthatoftheirchildren.
Intentionsandactionsarecentraltothecounselor'swork.Theyrepresentonewaythatparents
communicate messages to young people. Counselors who work with young people need to
recognizetherangeofintentionsthatparentsusetoframetheiractionswiththeirchildren.By
helpingparentsandadolescentsmakeintentionsmoreexplicit,counselorscanbegintounpack
thepositiveandnegativebaggagethatindividualscarrytotheircareerlives.Thecategoriescan
beuseddirectlywithparentsandyoungpeopleincounselingorcareerdevelopmentprograms
tounderstandthenatureofparentalinfluencetobroadentherangeofintentions,toconsider
alternatives,ortoreframemaladaptiveactions.
This study addressed the parent's side of the parentchild interaction sequence that is
particularly appropriate to the study of parental influence in the career development of their
children.Itwastheparentwhointeractedwiththechildorintervenedonthechild'sbehalfand
whose action had intention. Future studies need to address the child's intentionality and the
child'sresponsetotheparent'sintentionality.Aswell,furtherworkonthereliabilityandvalidity
ofthecategoriesthemselvesisrequired.
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AppendixA
DescriptionofCategoriesofParentalIntentions
1.SkillAcquisition
Theparent'spurposeintheincidentistohavethechildacquirespecificskills,e.g.,(a)amother
monitoredthestudyhabitsofherteenagesonasameansforhimtodevelopstudyskills,(b)a
father teaches his daughter some of the intricacies of photography after she expressed an
interestinphotographyasanoccupationalchoice.
2.AcquisitionofSpecificValuesorBeliefs
Parents engaged in a variety of activities intended to foster specific values or beliefs in their
childrenincludingvaluesrelatedtomakingacontributioninlife,avoidingviolenceandracism,
andmaintainingthetraditionalworkethic.
3.ProtectionfromUnwantedExperience
Parentssawpartoftheirrolesasprotectingtheirchildrenfromundesired experiences and to
intervenewiththechildorwithotherstopreventsuchexperiences,e.g.,(a)afatherobjectedto
hisdaughtertakingpainkillerstopermitcompetitiveathleticperformance,(b)amothertoldher
sonthathewasadoptedtopreventhimfromhearingitfromothers.
4.IncreaseIndependentThinkingorAction
Parents provided a number of experiences to foster greater independent thinking or action in
their children, e.g., (a) a father allows his teenage children to observe the effects of alcohol
abuse first hand as a means of inhibiting peer influence regarding the use of alcohol, (b) to
encourage his daughter to adopt an independent attitude, a father tries to teach his daughter
thatitisnotenoughtobuildone'slifesolelyaroundmarriage.
5.DecreaseSexRoleStereotyping
Some activities were intended to decrease sex role stereotyping among both boys and girls,
e.g.,(a)amothercitedtheexampleoftheirownfemalephysicianindiscussingcareeroptions
for her daughter, (b) another parent intervened on her son's behalf because the home
economicsclassathishighschoolhadbeenrestrictedtoyoungwomen.
6.ModerationofParentChildRelationships
Parents wanted to foster good relationships between themselves and their children. To
accomplish this, parents engaged in such activities as finding opportunities to discuss the

relationshipwiththeirchildren,andchangingtherulesbetweentheparentandchildasthechild
matures.
[7.]FacilitationofHumanRelationships
Amongthegoalsthatparentshadfortheirchildrenisgettingalongwithothers.Toaccomplish
this,parentsexplainedthedifferencesandcommonalitiesamongpeopleinvariousracesand
religions,andencouragedhelpfulrelationsamongsiblings.
[8.]EnhancementofCharacterDevelopment
Parents wanted to enhance the child's feelings about self, including selfimage and self
confidence, e.g., parents (a) encouraged children to broaden their interests, (b) participated
withtheminactivities,and(c)fosteredpositivefeelingsaboutthemselvesthroughattentionto
theirappearance.
9.DevelopmentofPersonalResponsibility
Parentswantedchildrentotakepersonalresponsibilityfortheiractions.Theyfosteredthisgoal
through such activities as allowing older adolescents to (a) make their own decisions, (b)
assumeresponsibilityforothers,and(c)beresponsibleinthefaceofadversecircumstancesor
events.
10.AchievementofParent'sPersonalGoals
Someparentswantedtofostertheirowngoalsorneeds,e.g.,oneparentdiscouragedherson
fromchoosingacelibatereligiouslifebecauseofherdesiretohavegrandchildren.
~~~~~~~~
RichardA.Young
JohnD.Friesen
Richard A. Young is an associate professor and John D. Friesen is a professor, both in the
Department of Counselling Psychology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.
This study was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research
Council of Canada, Strategic Grants ProgramFamily and Socialization of Children. The
authors gratefully acknowledge the comments of Paul Salomone and three anonymous
reviewers on an earlier draft of this article. Send correspondence to Richard A. Young,
Department of Counselling Psychology, University of British Columbia, 5780 Toronto Road,
Vancouve'B.C.,V6T1L2,Canada.

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