The Confucian Ideal of Harmony

Author(s): Chenyang Li
Source: Philosophy East and West, Vol. 56, No. 4 (Oct., 2006), pp. 583-603
Published by: University of Hawai'i Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/4488054 .
Accessed: 11/07/2014 11:53
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

University of Hawai'i Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Philosophy
East and West.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

THE CONFUCIAN IDEAL OF HARMONY

ChenyangLi

of Philosophy,
CentralWashington
Department
University

He fn (harmony,harmonization)is probablythe most cherished ideal in Chinese

culture. Unfortunately,given its significance, it is arguably also the most understudied. It is therefore high time for some serious study of this ideal. This essay
focuses on the Confuciantradition.It firstexplores the meaning of the Confucian
notion of he; then it provides a philosophical analysis and exposition; finally, on
the basis of value pluralism, this study offers a justificationfor this Confucian
approachto today's world philosophyand world-culturalpolitics.
The ConfucianEthical,Political,and MetaphysicalIdeal of He
He is usuallytranslatedinto Englishas "harmony,"although it may be more appropriatelyrenderedas "harmonization"in certaincontexts. The word predatesConfucianism. Itsearliestformcan be found in the inscriptionson bones and tortoiseshells
from the Shang dynasty (sixteenthto eleventh centuries B.C.E.)and later more frequently in inscriptionson the bronze utensils of the Zhou dynasty (1066-256
B.C.E.).1 In the earliestConfuciantexts, we can find numerousoccurrencesof he. Its
meaning in these texts mostly has to do with sounds and how sounds interactwith
one another. It was probablyused more frequentlyas a verb than a noun. The text
of the "Zhongfu"
hexagram in the Yijing%M states, "A crane sings in the
r-~ respond (he) to it"
woods and its young
-fflnZ). Zuozhuan tf(MR.r1'
22
and
female
"The
male
states,
j:iI-4-K+
phoenixes fly together
"Zhuanggong"
and their sounds respondto each other (he) vigorously"(%,YW
?#f , ~
@@). The
brothers
to
contains
the
(he)
"Zhengfeng"9)
Shijing
expression"responding
' )~~1).
with songs" (~~1
In Analects 7.31 we find "When Confuciussang
fI
with others and saw someone did well, he always made the person repeatthe song
Th2~iiWn?). Finally, in the
before he responded (he)" (f4L
jV1A
'
Zhouli JJ~ "Diguan"ittj there is the passage "to use [the musical instrument]
chun to respond (he) to drums"( LM.).
In all these instances, he evidently is
used to describe how varioussounds-of animals, of people, and of instrumentsrespondto one another.This meaning of "responding"is preservedin the modern
Chinese language when he is used as a verb (with the fourthtone), as in he shi
5U4-composing a poem in response to anotherpoem by someone else. Xu Shen
', simply defines he as
jft' (30-124 A.D.E.), in his lexicon Shuowen jiezi
"mutualresponsiveness[of sounds]"(1H@ft).As a lexical definition,Xu's is a report
of these usages of he in earlier texts, and it summarizesthe root meaning of the
word.

PhilosophyEast& West Volume56, Number4 October2006 583-603

? 2006 by Universityof Hawai'iPress

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

583

However, mere mutualresponsivenessis not yet harmony.Harmonyresultsonly

when sounds respond to one another in an appropriateway. One of the earliest
definitionsof he as harmony,several hundredyears before Xu Shen, can be found
in the Guoyu
a classic text written during the Spring and Autumn period
?,I
(770-476 B.C.E.)in close association with the Confucian tradition.In the chapter
"Zhouyu B" FRJ7, it is stated that "when sounds correspond and mutuallybao
one another it is called he" (@A$F@fl{~I1Hf).
Bao {g has a number of interrelated
such
as
"nurture"
(baohu
fgI),
meanings
"protect"
(yangyu
), "relyon" (yikao
f
and
"assure"(baozheng
fK), "stabilize"(anding 2),
).2 Understood this
way, he does not simply mean that sounds mutuallyrespond,but ratherthat various
sounds respondto one another in a mutuallypromoting,mutuallycomplementing,
and mutuallystabilizingway. Inthis sense, some of the expressionscited above can
be interpreted as harmonization. For example, the expression in Zuozhuan
"Zhuanggong"22 can be interpretedas "The male and female phoenixes fly together and their sounds harmonize with vigor." The expression in the Zhouli
"Diguan"can be read as saying "to use [the musical instrument]chun to harmonize
the [soundsof] drums."As such, expressionslike "the he of the five sounds"
(iEi, redo not mean merely the mutual
f)3 in Zuozhuan "Xigong"24 /~ -~_
sponse of sounds, but also the harmoniousinterplayof these sounds. He is used
here as a noun, standingfor a (dynamic)state of music ratherthan simplyone sound
respondingto another.Therefore,we may conclude that the originalmeaning of he
as harmonycomes fromthe rhythmicinterplayof varioussounds, either in natureor
between human beings, that is musical to the humanear, and thatthe prototypeof
he is found in music.4 Fromthe notion of he as the harmoniousinterplayof sounds,
it is not difficultto see how this can be expanded, by analogous thinking,to mean
harmonyin other things and hence harmonyin general.
Thus, we can say that, philosophically, harmonypresupposesthe existence of
differentthings and implies a certain favorable relationshipamong them. One of
the earliest expressions of he was proposed by Shi Bo Felf, a pre-Confucian
scholar-ministerwho lived toward the end of the WesternZhou period (1066-771
B.C.E.).In the Guoyu "Zhengyu" W-H,Shi Bo elaborates on he:

Harmony(he)is indeedproductiveof things.Butsamenessdoes not advancegrowth.5

Smoothingone thingwithanotheris called harmony.Forthis reasonthingscome togetherand flourish.If one uses the samethingto complementthe same thing,it is a
deadend andwill becomewasted.
This is so because,
A singlesoundis nothingto hear,a singlecolor6does notmakea pattern,a singletaste
does not satisfythe stomach,and a single item does not harmonize.

Accordingto Shi Bo, he was the philosophyof ancient sage-kingsand it enabled

their societies to prosper:

584

PhilosophyEast& West

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Thereforethe early kings mixed Earthwith Metal,Wood, Water,and Fire,and produced

varietiesof things. They balanced one's taste with the five flavors,strengthenedthe four
limbs in orderto guardthe body, harmonized(he)the six measuresof sounds to improve
the hearing,made the seven partsof the body uprightto maintainthe heart/mind,balanced the eight body partsto complete the whole person, establishedthe nine social
rules to set up pure virtues, and put togetherthe ten offices to regulatethe multitude.
Therefore,there came into existence thousandsof categories and tens of thousandsof
methods used in calculating millions of things and evaluating myriadsof properties.
They maintainedconstant incomes and managed countless items. Thereforethe kings
had land of nine provincesand had incomes to raisethe multitude.They taughtthe people adequate lessons and harmonized(he)them as one family.Thus, it was harmony(he)
at the highest level.

These sage-kings also set themselves as examples in promoting he:

The early kings marriedtheir wives from other families, sought wealth in all directions,
and chose ministerswho could remonstratewith the ruler.This way they reconciled a
multitudeof things.They were engaged in harmonization(he-tong).
For Shi Bo, a harmonious world must be a diverse world. This is so because a
healthy and prosperous world relies on its diverse things to go together. This is why
the ancient sage-kings sought diversity. As in good cooking and in good music making, a healthy family must consist of spouses from different tribes, a prosperous nation must seek wealth from various sources, and a good government must have ministers capable of holding different opinions. Harmony out of diversity produces a
lively world; sameness without adequate difference can only lead to a dead end.
Zuozhuan "Shaogong" 20
records a discussion of he by another
zBi---(?-500 B.C.E.):
scholar-minister, Yan Zi *f
Harmony(he) is like makingsoup. One needs water, fire, vinegar,sauce, salt, and plum
to cook fish and meat. One needs to cook them with firewood, combine (he) them
together in order to balance the taste. One needs to compensate for deficiencies and
reduce excessiveness. The virtuousperson (junzi)eats [such balanced food] in orderto
purifyhis heart/mind.

The cook needs different things to make a balanced soup. She needs ingredients that
taste and smell very different. Water and fire are usually seen as diametrically
opposed to each other, yet both are indispensable for cooking. One important aspect
of good cooking is to be able to balance one excessive flavor with another. Yan Zi
believes that enjoying this kind of harmonized food can purify a virtuous person's
heart/mind (xin). He continues:

ChenyangLi

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

585

Soundsare like flavors.Differentelementscompletewith one other:one breath,two

five sounds,six measures,sevennotes,eightwinds,
styles,threetypes,fourinstruments,
andninesongs.Different
soundscomplement
one another:
the pureandthe impure,the
and
the
the
andthejoyshort
and
fast
the
the
the
and
small,
slow,the sorrowful
big
long,
the
and
the
the
the
the
the
late
and
the
and
ful, strong
low, in andthe
tender,
quick, high
and
the
inclusive
and
of
the
to
kind
noninclusive.
this
out,
music,the heart/
Listening
mindof the virtuousperson(junzi)is purified.

For Yan Zi, good music (e.g., a symphony)requiresa varietyof sounds in various
modes. A good musician is like a good cook, capable of combining varioussounds,
some in sharpcontrast,to make a coherent and harmoniouspiece. As with a good
soup, enjoying good music can also purifypeople's heart/mind.
Based on this understandingof he, Yan Zi arguesthat he must be distinguished
fromanothernotion, tong n or sameness. In YanZi's conversationwith the duke of
Qi, the duke evidently confuses he with tong when he praiseshow harmonious(he)
it is between him and his ministerJu *. Yan Zi points out that the relationshipbetween the duke and his ministerJu is described more appropriatelyas tong, not he.
Yan Zi uses the above-mentionedexamples of cooking and makingmusic to show
that he is not to be confused with tong. YanZi says thatthe moralof his examples of
he also applies to the relationshipbetween the rulerand ministers( EIM). He
says:
Whenthe dukesays "yes,"Jualso says "yes";when the dukesays "no,"Jualso says
"no."Thisis likemixingwaterwithwater.Whocan eat sucha soup?Thisis like using
the samekindof instruments
to producemusic.Whocan enjoysuchmusic?Thisis why
it is notall rightto be tong.
#t_ ? J_1F,-12

ForYanZi, the relationshipbetween the rulerand the ministershould be a harmonious one, not one of sameness.A harmoniousrelationshippresupposesthatthey have
differentperspectivesand differentviews on various issues. One may say that tong
without adequate differences precludes harmony,and such a state is like a soup
made of only one ingredientor a symphony composed of only one kind of instrument. A soup made of only one ingredientis tasteless, a symphony composed of
only one instrumentis boring,and a governmentconsistingof only one voice is stagnant and dangerous.
NeitherShi Bo nor YanZi was a Confucianthinker.What is relevantto my thesis
here is the fact that they are quoted and appropriatedin the Confucian classics
Zuozhuan and Guoyu,j and that he later became a central ideal of Confucianism.
In the Analects Confucius adopts the ideal of he, making he a criterion for the good
person (junzi). He says that "The junzi harmonizes but does not seek sameness,
whereas the petty person seeks sameness but does not harmonize"
,
(8-I7f@ih
/JdZfijplfl) (Analects 13.23). For Confucius, a sensible person should be able to

586

PhilosophyEast& West

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

respectdifferentopinions and be able to workwith differentpeople in a harmonious

way. A majorfunction of Ii r (rites,ritualsof propriety)is precisely to harmonize
people of various kinds. The Confucian disciple You Ruo P is recorded in the
Analects as saying, "Of the functionsof li harmonizationis the [most]precious"(1
?pfl '5fUAi) (Analects1.12). There is little need to emphasize how Confuciusvalued the use of li. Confuciusand Confucianssee a direct connection between li and
he. They take li to be a central aspect of governmentand believe that throughthe
good use of li, good governmentresultsin a harmonioussociety. Accordingto the
Zhouli "Tianguan"A', anotherConfucianclassic, one of the six primaryfunctions
of the GreaterMinister
is "[to minister]state rituals(li), in orderto harmonize
(1-C)).9
the nation"(0,
k9JJff_? values he. He comments that
Mencius also
highly
among the three important
things in humanaffairs,harmonyamong people is the most important:"good timing
is not as good as being advantageouslysituated,and being advantageouslysituated
is not as good as having harmoniouspeople" (~~ lntiJaDt, ftIJIf l)Kn)n)(Mencius 3B.1). In order to achieve a major goal in social affairs,one would need all
three: good timing, being advantageouslysituated,and having harmoniouspeople.
The most preciousthing, however, is to have people who work in harmonywith one
another.Mencius praises LiuXiahuiVOT- as "the sage who is able to harmonize"
) (Mencius5B.1). Liuis well known for his familiaritywith li and for his
(V;>'ti
firmbelief in harmoniouscoexistence.10
Xunzi ;if (313?-238 B.C.E.)
also emphasizes he. He concurs with Confucius
on the importanceof li to harmony.Xunzi says that "[only] when following li is
He
one harmonious and regulated"
(Xunzi 4T "Xiushen" f).
(11FJfni)
also echoes Confucius in saying that
"To harmonize with others by goodness is
and "to harmonize with
being reasonably accommodating" ( ilAg
,JiIj) ) (ibid.). For Xunzi, harothers by wickedness is fawning" (
JMT#XDA,
a similarnote with Confucius,whose ideal
mony is not withoutprinciple.Thisstrikes
of harmony is "harmonywithout mindlessly following others" (fnii1Tt) (Zhongyong 10).
He is not just about human relations.The "Jiaotesheng" Ft4Lt' in the Confucian classic Liji i states, "When yin and yang harmonize,the myriadthings get
theirdue"(& 1X"-~)).
Xunzielaborateson the same idea in moredetail:"With
the greattransformationof yin and yang, the generous supply of wind and rain,the
myriadthings each become harmonizedso that they can live, and get their nurture
'
so that they can grow" I&BR
(
)
4ufin
L'1t NfAN
(Xunzi"Tianlun").Here Xunziconcurs with the Yijing,which develops the notion of
"grandharmony"(ifn): "Howgreatis Qian (Heaven)!Fromit the myriadthingsoriginateunderHeaven.... Withthe changes of the Qian way, the myriadthingsall keep
on theirown pathof life. Thusthey preservethe grandharmony"() 45
_ ,
S'
L,
' FC
i~fIn ) (Yijing ,
"Qian" 4, "Tuanzhuan"
75,, '";---k
-_i_@
_
Rj). "Grand Harmony" is the most important ideal in the Yijing.The world is full of
different things, yet all these things harmonize even as they constantly change. Confucians have faith in this ultimate harmony among the things in the world.

ChenyangLi

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

587

Perhapsthe most concentrated articulationand elaborationof this Confucian

ideal of harmonyis found in the classic text Zhongyong )@, which states, "Centralityis the great foundation under Heaven, and harmonyis the great way under
Heaven. In achieving centralityand harmony,Heaven and Earthmaintaintheir ap'
S
propriate positions and the myriad things flourish" (4@,
T2 -4U
o
a
i
In
have
I
argued
separate
essay
,
SRTZ
{
).

_D
?AMgt
tYi,
that, in the Zhongyong, centralityis the way to achieve harmony."1Without harmony, Heaven and Earthwould be out of their properplaces, and nothing in the
world would be able to flourish. Therefore,harmony is the highest ideal in the
Zhongyong. Because the Zhongyong lays out the foundationfor Confucian metaphysics, we can say that harmonyis the highest ideal for Confucianismas a whole.
Harmony,as understood in Confucianism,can occur at various levels. It can
take place within the individual.A person can harmonizevariouspartsof his or her
body, the mind-heart,and various pursuitsin life into a well-functioning,organic
whole. Harmonycan take place between individualsat the level of the family, the
community, the nation, and the world. This may include harmonybetween societies, harmonywithin a society with differentethnic groups(orpolitical parties),harmony withinthe same ethnic groupwith differentkin, and harmonyamong the same
kin. Harmonyalso can take place between human beings and the naturaluniverse.
Confucianismdoes not exclude intrapersonalharmony,which Daoism emphasizes,
but Confucianismputs tremendousweight on interpersonalharmony,such as the
harmonybetween rulerand minister,between parentand child, between husband
and wife, between siblings, and between friends. It also places tremendousweight
on the harmonybetween human society and the naturalworld. Its ultimategoal is
to achieve a grandharmonythroughoutthe cosmos.
ForConfucians,the differencebetween harmonyand disharmonyis like thatbetween rightand wrong, good and bad, and success and failure.The WuxingT1{T
section of the GuodianChu BambooStrips,which is generallyaccepted as a Confucian text, states that "the harmonyof the Five virtuouspracticesis called Virtue;the
harmonyof the Fourpracticesis called Goodness. Goodness is the way of humanity.
Virtue is the way of Heaven" (~77
?IfI~
-'
I
~n~,
g-tL).The Fourvirtuouspracticesare Humanity,
Appropriateness,Propriety,and
N,); the Fivevirtuouspracticesinclude the Fourplus an addiWisdom (tI
tional one, Sageliness, (2). The harmoniouspracticesof these virtuesare the way of
humanityand the way of Heaven. They are the rightway. The influentialHan Confucian Dong Zhongshul{4f
(179-104 B.C.E.)declared that "the greatestvirtue is
but harmony"
and advocated using "central harmony in managing
(QM,)?kTf)
For
T)
society" (JrPfl@Hq (Chunqiu fanlu *RVR "Xuntianzhidao"
f)?2___).
most
the
to
harmonize
in
is
indeed
the
the
world
ability
precious ability.
Dong,
As far as the need for harmony is concerned, Confucians tend to see more consistency than distinction between the "private" and the "public" (as is seen in Western liberalism), between the political and the nonpolitical, and between human society and the natural world. When persons and things are engaged in a healthy,
stable interplay and each gets its due, this is deemed harmony, and the opposite as

588

PhilosophyEast& West

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

disharmony.When a plant is harmonizedwith its surroundingsit thrives;when one

is harmonizedwith one's environment,one flourishes.The ideal of an individualis
to harmonize not only with one's own person but also with other individuals.The
ideal of a society is to harmonizenot only with the society but also with other societies. The human ideal is to achieve harmonynot only among the membersof the
human communitybut with the restof the cosmos as well.
A PhilosophicalAnalysisand Expositionof He
Based on the study in the preceding section, I would like to make the following
observationsconcerningthe Confuciannotion of harmony.First,harmonyis a metaphysical as well as an ethical notion; it describes both how the world at largeoperates and how human beings ought to act. Harmonyis the Way, the Confucianway.
Second, harmonyis by its very naturerelational.It presupposesthe coexistence of
multiple parties;"a single item does not harmonize."As far as harmony is concerned, these partiespossess more or less equal significance.Therefore,harmonyis
always contextual;epistemologicallyit calls for a holistic approach.A mentalityof
harmonyis a contextualmentality.In other words, personsof harmoniousmentality
see things, and make judgmentson these things, in relation,in context, not in isolation or separation.Third,Confucianharmony,as it is sometimes understood,by no
means implies"perfectagreement."Ina harmoniouscircumstancecoexistingparties
must be in some way differentfrom one another;while harmonydoes not preclude
sameness, sameness itself is not harmony.Harmonyis differentfrom stagnantconcordance in that harmonyis sustainedby energy generatedthroughthe interaction
of differentelements in creative tension. Althoughharmonioussocial relationsmay
involve friendlinessand love, neitherfriendlinessnor love is a necessarycondition
for harmony.Even unfriendlyparties can coexist in harmony.This point, as I will
show shortly,has implicationsfor an appropriateunderstandingof the relationbetween harmonyand strife.12
Fourth,the requirementof harmonyplaces a constrainton each partyin interaction, and, in the meantime, provides a context for each party to have optimal
space to flourish.In the Confucianview, the world is there not just for one item or
one kindof thing. It is there for the "myriadthings."Nothingin the world can claim
absolute superiorityover everythingelse. Partiesin a harmoniousrelationshipare
both the condition for and the constraintagainstone another'sgrowth.A harmonious relationshipimplies mutualcomplement and mutualsupportbetween the parties.13There is mutual benefit even though harmonycannot be reduced to mutual
benefit.
Inthis section I will firstarticulatea Confucianview of the relationbetween harmony, sameness, and strife; then explore in the context of Confucian philosophy
why harmony is so important to Confucians; and finally, through a comparison of
Confucianism and Christianity, try to answer some questions about Confucian harmony by discussing issues regarding gaps or potential gaps between moral ideals
and their implementation.

ChenyangLi

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

589

It is importantthatwe not be too simplisticin our interpretationof the Confucian

attitudetoward sameness. Differenceand sameness between things exist at various
levels. Confuciansdo not advocate differencefor the sake of difference,nor do they
reject sameness altogether.Obviously, even though the sage-kingsare said to have
sought spouses fromother tribes,the couples were all human beings (i.e., this was a
kind of sameness). Even though one would need differentinstrumentsin order to
make good music, these are still musical instruments(i.e., they constitute another
kind of sameness). Indeed, some ancient Chinese texts advocate a certain kind of
sameness. For instance, in the Jingfa MA "Sidu"NJ, from the Silk Texts of the
MawangduiHan Tombs,there is the statement,"JoiningHeaven and Earth,respondthis is
ing to the people's will, establishingboth the civilian and militaryservice,
,
'
called the superior tong (sameness)"(W )tt!~X (a) TU
'2
i
I,kind, of
it is
the
Of
is
not
sameness;
course,
any
"superior
just
tong" _L1
LJR).
sameness at the optimal level. Confuciusalso advises us "not to plan togetherwith
Ti
A ) (Analects 15.39). Conpeople of different roads (pursuits)"( 6Tm
versely, we should plan togetherwith those following the same (tong)roads. Mencius praisesthe sage-kingShun *, who was "good at tong with others"
(-~XH)
(Mencius 2A.8).14 Furthermore,Zuozhuan "Chenggong"16
a+'-j- states that
listen [to
in
and
"when people live abundance, they will be together harmoniously
the ruler'scommands]"
tn).
',
(1_f_
The expression "being
together harmoniously"combines both he fn and tong
We
can
at
an
say that,
appropriatelevel, sameness is an ingredientof harmony
J.
and, as such, must be maintained and valued. Therefore,the kind of sameness
rejected by scholars both ancient and Confucian must not be understoodas sameness per se, but the "over-presenceof sameness," like that between the duke and
his ministerJu in the Yan Zi story. An over-presence of sameness can occur in
many ways. It can be caused by a lack of diversitywhen diversityis called for; for
example, a cook only has one kind of ingredientfor a soup. It can be caused by
forced sameness when sameness is sought for the sake of sameness;for example, a
powerfulpersonforces the same opinion on everyone else, or a fawningperson pretends the same view as one's superiorfor ulteriorpurposes-both undercutthe conditions necessaryfor harmony.
ForConfucians,over-presenceof sameness,whether in termsof seeking spouses
within the same tribeor makingmusic with the same type of instrument,is not conducive to harmony.Eventhough membersof a stamp-collectingclub have to have a
common interestat some level (i.e., they are fond of collecting stamps),collecting
the same stamp (e.g., the Yearof the Monkey stamp issued by the U.S. Post Office
in 2004) does not necessarily make for a good stamp-collectingclub; such a club
will probablynot last, because this kind of sameness "does not advance growth,"
as Shi Bo said. In the political arena, even though laws must be craftedthat treat
everyone equally (a kind of sameness), making laws that overly demand uniformity
is not conducive to the making of a good society. The kind of sameness that is appropriate to harmony is always a contextual matter and cannot be stated in absolute
terms. Because the harmony-oriented stance takes conflict as its primary opponent,

590

PhilosophyEast& West

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

there is a tendency to overlook the dangerof the other side of the coin, namely the
over-presenceof sameness. Ancient scholarsemphasize the differencebetween harmony and sameness because people often confuse them, taking mere sameness as
harmony. Strictlyspeaking, the over-presence of sameness is a lack of harmony,
and is thereforea kind of disharmony.
While emphasizingthe harmoniousinterplayof differentthings,Chinese philosophers appear not to have given much attentionto strife;otherwisethey might have
left the impressionthat strifeis to be avoided for the sake of harmony.I contend that
a certaintype of strifeis inherentin harmony.This point is implied in the emphasis
by the ancient scholarson the differencebetween harmonyand sameness (tong).
Harmonypresupposesdifferencesand has to be achieved throughdifferences.
Difference entails strife, at least potentially.15We may say that there can be two
kinds of strifebetween things. The first kind I call tension and cooperative opposition. Differentthings in a relationshiphave a tension between them in thatthey compete, at a minimum,for space and time. Forinstance, people at a busy trainstation
heading in differentdirections may experience tension and potential conflict; they
may step in one another'sway. Tension and opposition like this are obviously not
harmony;they can jeopardize harmony.This happens, for instance, when the tension and opposition between busy people erupt into a stampede. Opposing parties,
however, can also be brought into harmony without harming one another-for
example, when people at a busy trainstationtake turns,make roomfor one another,
and move forwardin an orderlyway, even though in differentdirections.The transition from mere tension and oppositionto harmonyrequirescoordinationor cooperation among the involved parties,eitherconsciously or unconsciously.A panoramic
view of a busy station causes one to marvel how a harmoniousscene is being
created by people heading in different, even opposite, directions. This kind of
difference-as-tensionand opposition is a preconditionfor harmony;without it there
is mere sameness ratherthan harmony.
The second type of strifeis more severe. It is the kind in which one force aims at
destroyingor eliminatingthe otheror others. Forexample, a murdererkills innocent
people, and wolves eat sheep. Let us call this second type antagonisticopposition.
This type of strifeis either disharmonyby itself or a key element of disharmony.In
this case, harmonyis achieved throughovercoming strife.This overcoming process
may take one of two forms. First,it can be accomplishedthroughthe eliminationof
strife. We remove a serial murdererand the community is restoredto harmony.
However, for Confucians,elimination is not the prototypicalpath to harmony.For
the most part,harmonycan be achieved througha second form, namely by putting
strifeundercontrol withoutelimination,by turningthe second type of strifeinto the
firsttype. Whereas a large populationof sheep tends to increase the populationof
wolves, the population of wolves has to be lowered when they over-eat sheep to
the extent that they cause a shortage in the food supply. Eventually, the wolves and
the sheep have to strike a balance through some kind of natural "negotiation."'6
When harmony is achieved, the sheep provide food for the wolves while the wolves
weed out the unhealthy and keep the sheep population in check.

ChenyangLi

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

591

Of course, sometimes violent disharmonyis inevitable.On the individuallevel,

the strifebetween a wolf and a sheep may end in elimination.When the population
of wolves and the populationof sheep strikea balance, some sheep and/or wolves
have alreadybeen lost in the process. In cases like this, Confucianswould say that
strifebetween the two individualsserves as an instrumentalstep toward harmonyin
the long run and, on a large scale, for the world. Dong Zhongshuwrites that "the
systemof Heaven and Earthintegratesharmonyand disharmony,centralityand noncentrality;these are employed in a timely way to be most effective"(?RfJtJt? - *
Wfnfif~7l, rffl

-fmf"Z

(Chunqiu fanlu "Xuntianzhidao"). Since

,t
,Y@J,-2)
;_ more
harmonyis not only a state but,
importantly,a process, disharmonyis necesthe
of
harmonization.
sarilypresentduring process
In this sense, humanbeings can exist harmoniouslywith natureeven though we
have to consume naturalresources.Inorderto survive,we have to eat, and therefore
to eliminate lives in nature.Butwe can do this in a balanced way and achieve harmony with nature.Unlikethe naturalworld, humanbeings have the capacityto play
an active role in the promotion of harmony in the world. This capacity enables
humanbeings to avoid unnecessarydamage and harmin the attemptto achieve harmony. Forinstance, imposingtoo largea human populationburdenon naturemay
eventually lead to the destructionof human habitat,and consequently cause the reduction of the humanpopulationto a level sustainableby nature.Buthuman beings
have the power to restraintheir behaviorand to maintaina balance with naturebefore such a majorcatastrophehas to take place.
Confucian harmony is not pure submissivenessor absolute avoidance of conflict. In section 10 of the Zhongyong, Confucius' disciple Zilu TM asks about
strength.Confuciusidentifiestwo types: one is the strengthof the northerners,who
will fight unto death for the rightcause. The southerners,on the other hand, have a
differentkind:they are tolerantand flexible, and they do not seek revenge against
the unjust.Confuciusapproves of both types of strength,including the strengthof
"centralstandingwithout leaning to one side" ( ~fth
). This passage suggests
that Confuciusendorses the integrationof both kinds of strengthinto a harmonious
interplay,ratherthan simply taking a mean between the two. The strengthof the
northernersmay appear extreme (a "fightunto death"),but at times this course is
necessary to achieve and maintain harmony in human affairsin a largercontext.
Therefore,it should not be ruled out. This is why Confucius tells Zilu that "the
). To follow
jun zi harmonizeswithout mindlessly following others"
(-fftT:lft
the
flow
of
other
as
is
what
Xunzi
calls
blindly
people
"fawning," opposed to "reasonably accommodating"(Xunzi"Xiushen");this leads to an over-presenceof sameness ratherthan long-termharmony.A harmonythat deterioratesinto over-presence
of sameness loses internalenergy; it cannot maintainitselfas harmonyand will ultimately require revitalization.
With this understanding, Confucian harmony is not mere agreement without difference; it is not meant to preserve peace at any cost. Harmony is harmonization;
real harmony is a dynamic process. It does not rule out strife, but uses strife in order
to achieve greater harmony. Harmony comes from, and is maintained through, har-

592

PhilosophyEast& West

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

monization; it requiresaction. Having faith in God does not mean that Christians
will not fight for their cause. Similarly,Confuciansdo not just sit there waiting for
harmonyto presentitself.To the contrary,Confucianshave a mission in life: to harmonize the world througha process in which a triad is formed between Heaven,
Earth,and Humanity.What makes Confucianisma philosophy of harmony rather
than a philosophyof strifeis that it takes harmonyas the ultimategoal and measures
the success or failureof an action by whetherit contributesto greaterharmonyin the
world.
Next, why is harmonyso centralto Confucianism?Admittedly,Confucianismis
not the only traditionthat values harmony.Afterall, who would not think harmony
to be a good thing?My point is that, in comparisonwith other majorworld traditions, Confucianismgives harmonyan importancethat is not matched by most of
them.17Here I would like to show that the absence of a predeterminedfixed order
in the Confuciancosmos and the Confucianbelief in the goodness of human nature
are among the main reasonswhy harmonyis so centralto Confucianism.
David Hall and RogerAmes have insightfullypointed out that Confucian harmony, or he, marksthe difference between Western "Truth-seekers"on the one
hand and Chinese "Way-seekers"on the other.18 For Hall and Ames, "Truthseeking" is the prototypicalmode of doing philosophy in the West, while "Wayseeking" is its counterpartin China. To seek "Truth"with a capital "T" is to look
for somethingabsolute, eternal,and ultimatelytrue-for example, Plato'sForms.In
contrast,the Chinese Way is not preset and needs to be generatedthroughhuman
activity.In Hall and Ames' terminology,whereas Westernerstypicallyfollow a logical order in their interpretationof the world, the Chinese typically follow an aesthetic order. Logicalorder is achieved by the applicationof an antecedent pattern
of relatednessto a given situation. Aesthetic order is achieved by the creation of
novel patterns.19Aesthetic order requiresopenness, disclosure, and flexibility. In
the Chinese aesthetic order,variousthings have to be synthesized in orderto generate a harmoniouswhole, such as yin and yang and the five processes (wuxingEIi).
In supportof Hall and Ames' interpretation,I would point out that ancient Chinese cosmology holds the belief that the world has evolved fromchaos, thatthere is
a process from no orderto the generationof order,as articulatedin such texts as the
Huainanzi"A-?j "Tianwenxun"
and laterin Zhou Dunyi's
Explanai~~l1
tion of the Diagramof the Great Ultimate()!i~
belief, the Chi). Based on thisM.JE@-!
nese order is fluid and open-ended; the orderof yin and yang, and of the five processes, at most provides a general direction ratherthan a detailed road map for
human action.
ThisConfucianunderstandingof an orderlyworld differssignificantlyfromsome
other major world traditions.In Christianity,for example, God created the world
with a purpose for each and every part of the creation. The will of God is carved in
nature as natural law. God has set up order in the world and boundaries between all
parts of the creation. Accordingly, the right way in this world is to follow God's rules
and to obey the order given by God. Unlike most major world traditions, Confucianism typically does not believe in an anthropomorphic God as creator. Consequently,

ChenyangLi

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

593

in the Confucianworld there is no order or naturallaw from God. Without a preset fixed order,the world has to generate an orderof its own. Althoughsometimes
the ConfucianHeaven (T) appearsto play a role that resemblesthe ChristianGod
in some way, it is not a transcendentpower, as the ChristianGod is.20 The Confucian Heaven is a memberof the Triadof Heaven, Earth,and Humanity(~tih),
and it does not have the power to impose a predeterminedorder on the world
from without. Rather,as merely one member of the Triadthe Confucian Heaven
needs to achieve order through coordination with the other two members, Earth
and Humanity.
ForConfucians,therefore,orderin the world has to be achieved throughharmonization.Takeagain the example of the populationsof sheep and wolves. According
to the Confucianthinking,there is no fixed orderfrom God about their populations.
Naturekeeps a balance between the two. Ancient Confuciansbelieved that the will
of Heaven is revealed throughthe people. When the ruler loses the mandate of
Heaven, it is time for the people to replace him. Perhapsthe fact of the matteris
that there is no such thing as the mandateof Heaven. Ratherit may be that when
the ruler is so oppressive and causes so much social disharmonythat the people
can no longer put up with him, it is time to replace him with another ruler,one
who can harmonize with the people. Confucians see a harmony (not necessarily
friendliness)coming out of this continuous interplayof opposing forces. Through
such interplayvarious partsof the world "negotiate"with one another in order to
strikea balance, not froma predestinedprinciplebut throughsome kindof compromise, some kind of give-and-take.It is like rocks and water in the river:both can
have theirway, yet both have to yield in some way. In such a world, any orderthat
exists has to be an outcome of harmonization.
ElsewhereI have argued that the Chinese understandingof truth,which differs
from the Western understanding,plays an importantrole in Chinese social practice.21 The Chinese typically do not see truthas correspondencewith an objective
fact in the world;ratherthey understandtruthmore as a way of being, namely being
a good person, a good father,or a good son. Forthem there is no objective truth
carved in stone, and consequentlythere is not an ultimatefixed order in the world
accordingto which things must operate. The ConfucianDao consists of the process
of generatingan actual orderin the world ratherthan an alreadyfixed order.Without
a predeterminedtruth,human beings have to set boundariesfor themselves and for
other things as they move forwardin the world.
Havingto choose between being too principledand being too flexible, Christian
theology is more likely than Confuciantheology to riskthe former,and Confucian
theology is more likely than Christiantheology to riskthe latter.22Acting in accordance with principlesfromGod (e.g., the Ten Commandments),the Christianstands
firm,but she may misunderstandGod's missionfor her (as duringthe Crusades).But
being principled leaves her little room for flexibility: God is always right and so are
God's commands. Acting on the ideal of harmony, Confucians have few specifics to
go by before they themselves create the specifics, and being created by human
beings the specifics should never be taken as absolute. Thus, Confucians tend to be

594

PhilosophyEast& West

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

less rigid, but at the same time riskbeing too flexible in the pursuitof harmony.It
would be naive, however, to thinkthat a happy union of the Christianand the Confucian would solve all problems;such a union carriesthe weakness of not being
principledenough when needing to be principledand of not being flexible enough
when in need of flexibility.I will elaborateon this matterin the next section.
In additionto having no predeterminedfixed order in the world, anotherreason
for Confuciansto maintaintheirbelief in harmonyis thatthey generallyhave faith in
the goodness of humannature.23Earlyon in history,Menciusarticulatedand argued
forcefullythat human natureis good. His doctrine has had a long-lastinginfluence
on the Confuciantradition.This notion orientsConfucianstoward lookingfor ways
to resolve conflicts in society withouteliminatingone side in the conflict. Thisorientation is fundamentallydifferentfromthat of looking to identifyand eliminate "evildoers" in the world. The primaryapproachto rootingout evil-doerswould be to attack and destroythe enemy as effectively as possible; negotiationis merely a waste
of time and opportunity.On the other hand, in order to work out differencesbetween people where both sides are basicallygood, the primaryapproachshould be
to look for ways to negotiatewith the other side; even though confrontationcannot
always be ruled out, it should be minimized. Based on the Confucianbelief in the
goodness of humannature,it is readilyconceivable thatthe world at largeis not fundamentallyantagonisticto humanexistence, because the nonhumanworld, which is
incapable of consciously harmingothers, is either benign or neutraltoward humanity. Therefore,harmonization,ratherthan elimination,should be the primaryconsideration in dealing with problemsin the world.
In practice,the ideal of harmonytranslatesinto a kindof pragmaticattitude.It is
this attitudethat makes the whole world of difference between the philosophy of
harmonyand the philosophyof conflict. The attitudeof harmonyhas a strategicsignificance. It makes us more willing to engage in negotiation,more willing to compromise, and less willing to resortto confrontationand conquest. It enables us to
take into considerationthe whole picture when considering an issue and to give
each party its due. It is thus more conducive to peaceful solutions to the world's
problems.
Now I would like to discuss issues related to the Confucian ideal of harmony
and its implementation.First,havingfaith in harmonydoes not imply that things always harmonize.As a cherished ideal, harmonyprovidesthe guidelines as well as
an account of certainculturalpatternsin Confuciansociety. Havingfaith in harmony
is to have faith in a world that gives everythingits due and lets the myriadthings
flourish. However, things may not always harmonize. In Christianity,God's will is
not always followed by human beings; naturallaw is often violated, and not all
Christianslove their neighbors as they should. Similarly,in the Confucian world,
harmonyis not always achieved and maintained;disruptionstake place and disharmony ensues, and not all Confucianscherish harmonyas much as they should. A
Confucianwho has faith in the harmonyof the world is somewhat like a Christian
who has faith in God, even though God and harmonyare by no means parallel.
Sometimes things go terriblywrong, and yet a Christianwould keep her faith that

ChenyangLi

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

595

things eventually will turn around because all is in the hands of God. Similarly,a
Confucianin tryingtimes would believe that disharmonyis temporaryand that harmony will prevail. It is harmony as the ultimate ideal that makes the Confucian
world a meaningfulworld, and it is harmonizationthat gives Confuciansa sense of
sacred mission in the world.
Second, embracingan ideal does not imply a consensus on its application. Following the same ideal, people may seek differentways to implement it. Christians
may not agree with one anotheron how they should put God's words into practice,
even though they share a common belief in God and a common belief that one
should obey God's will. Similarly,althoughConfucianstake harmonyas their highest ideal and all strivefor its achievement,they may not always agree with one another on how harmonyis identifiedand how it is best achieved. It is possible that
what is called "harmony"by one person may be disguised oppression to another.
Indeed, there have been times when oppression has persistedin the name of "harmony,"just as oppressionin the name of God has existed in the historyof Christianity. Obviously it is not the case that once we embrace the concept of harmonyall
problemswill disappear.My aim in this essay is to elucidate the Confucianconcept
and ideal of harmony,not to providea precise conception of harmonyon a particular issue. Justas Christiansneed to figureout among themselves what God's words
mean to them, Confucianshave to translatethe ideal of harmonyinto specific words
and actions. Nevertheless,for Confuciansit is still importantto promotethe ideal of
harmonyratherthan disharmony,and to prioritizethe goal of harmony,just as it is
still importantto promote justice ratherthan injustice, even though we may not
agree on exactly what justice is in a specific case.
A PluralistJustificationfor the ConfucianHarmoniousWorld
If my account of the Confucianideal of he is correct,then Confucianharmonyis by
no means an expedienttactic, or somethingthatConfucianshave to do because they
do not know better,or a consequence of resignationto powerfulforces in a problematic world. Harmonycalls for action-and action that is proactive.The significance
of this ideal of harmonyis that it providesus with a fundamentalattitudetowardthe
world problemsfacing us, an attitudeof determinationthatwe mustresolve conflicts
by harmonizationratherthan conquest. This is particularlyapplicable to the problems of culturaland internationalconflicts in our world today. How, then, can we
justifyphilosophicallythis Confucian-harmonyapproachto such conflicts?
I argue that this approach is justifiedon the groundof value pluralism,which I
define in terms of four interrelatedclaims: (1) There are many good values worth
pursuingin life. (2) Good values may involve tension or even conflict with one another. (3) An individual as well as a culture has to configure these values into a value
system (a pattern of values) in the best way possible. (4) There is no absolute right
way to determine which configuration is the best for all peoples and all cultures;
each value configuration of a culture that has endured the test of time is justified on
its own ground. Based on these beliefs, we can draw the conclusion that the most

596

PhilosophyEast& West

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

reasonableway to deal with conflict between differentcultures is to reconcile them

into harmoniouscoexistence.
I take the firstclaim to be relativelynoncontroversial.Obviously, we value not
only libertybut also equality,love, beauty,et cetera. AfterJohnStuartMill,even utilitarians,who hold that ultimatelyhuman beings pursue only pleasure and happiness, today do not deny that there is pleasureand happinessof differentqualities.A
utilitarian-valuepluralistmay hold that differentindividualsand culturesmay value
pleasure and happiness of different kinds, or at least they may assign different
degrees of value to differenttypes of pleasure and happiness. Second, good values
may have tension or even conflict with one anotherbecause they point in different,
sometimes even opposite, directions, as Isaiah Berlin maintains.24For example,
there can be a conflict between loyalty and individual liberty:in order to remain
loyal, one often needs to restrainone's liberty. Good values can involve conflict
also because it costs us to pursuethem, in termsof eithertime, energy, or resources;
there are tensions and conflicts between differentways of allocating time, energy,
and resourcesfor differentvalues. We may call this kind of cost the "opportunity
cost" of value pursuit.It is a kind of "loss" in pursuitof other values as we go after
our chosen values.25The pursuitof economic efficiency often comes into conflict
with social equalityor with the pursuitof beauty, naturalor human-made.In pursuing any value, one needs to engage in certainactivitiesaccordingly,or the pursuitof
value becomes empty. Obviously, one does not have unlimitedtime, energy, and
resources.How one allocates these things in pursuingvariousvalues reflectsthe importanceof these values to the individual.
Third,because there are tensions and conflicts involved in these pursuits,both
individualsand cultures need to configure various values into a value system by
locatingeach value vis-a-visother values on a kindof "value map." In BernardWilliams' terminology,a value concept has its "contour,"that is, its basic schema of
concern and a given historicalelaborationor applicationof it.26 The process whereby a culturepieces the "contours"of variousvalue concepts togetherinto a cultural
patternI here call "value configuration."A culturaltraditioncontains, among other
things, a value system, which is a particularconfigurationof variousvalues. Value
configurationsby individualsin a culture are usually influenced by and reflect the
value configurationof the culture.The configurationof a particularvalue system is
usually a resultof a long historicalprocess, including both conscious and unconscious effort.Such a process involves numerousfactors,includinga particularphysical environment,general assumptions concerning the operation of the universe,
specific existing social arrangements,the influence of charismaticleaders, and special historicalevents.27
As a form of communitarianism,Confucianismdoes not believe that a stable,
healthy society is possible without a societal configuration of values, even though
there may be more than one such configuration in the same society (e.g., Confucianism and Daoism). Such a configuration includes balancing values that are in tension
with one another. For example, there is some tension between being principled and
being flexible. Usually a value system incorporates both values. However, one value

ChenyangLi

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

597

system may not give each the same weight as anothervalue system does. I believe
that Christiansand Confucians,althoughboth endorse similarvalues, give different
weight to them. The Christiantends to be more principledthan the Confucian,and
the Confucian tends to be more flexible than the Christian.If we look at various
value systemsthroughoutthe world, most of them share similarvalues in generic, if
not specific, terms, such as respect and respect for parents, and love and loving
one's neighbors.28
The difference between these value systems lies in their respective configurations of these values. Take again the example of Confucianismand Christianity.It is
not thatChristiansdo not value respectfor parents.29They certainlydo. Butthey also
believe that revering God is far more importantthan respecting and caring for
parents.30It is not that Confuciansdo not value the authorityof Heaven. They do.
It is just that they feel, more than Christiansdo, that parentsare deservingof respect.
It is not that Christiansdo not value harmonyand flexibility.They do. It is ratherthat
they believe, more than Confuciansdo, that one should be principled.It is not that
Confuciansdo not value being principled.They do. Itis ratherthatConfuciansvalue
flexibility and harmony more than Christiansdo. Besides making use of different
symbolismsto manifestsimilarvalues, a Confucian lives by a value system that is
configureddifferentlyfromthe Christianvalue system, and vice versa. This is not to
say that all Confucians(or Christians)live by exactly the same value configuration.
Withineach value systemthere are always "conservatives"and "liberals."Butthese
are relativeterms, and these people are "conservatives"and "liberals"within the
same value system. A "conservative"in one value system may be seen as "liberal"
in anothervalue system, and vice versa.
Fourth,although people generally agree that there should be a good balance
between various competing values, they may disagree on what such a good balance is. This kind of disagreementis reflected in differentconfigurationsin various value systems. It is my belief that, among all the world traditions,there is no
single absolutely correct configurationof values.31 In theory, there can be extremely unbalanced value configurations.For example, we can imagine that a
certain value system wants only individual libertyand leaves no room for equality. However, such a value system is not likely to last, because it is unlikely
to have long-termfollowers. Therefore,through a sort of "naturalselection," all
viable value systems maintain a certain kind of balance between competing
values. In contrast to possible extreme cases, all viable value systems are more
or less located toward the middle of a wide spectrum of possible value configurations.This is one reason why Charles Taylor is right when he maintains
that we should approach the study of any other culture with the presumption
that "all human cultures that have animated whole societies over some considerable stretchof time have something importantto say to all human beings."32
In this sense, one can say that all value configurations in these human cultures
are more or less harmonies of values. My concern in this section, however, is
not so much with harmony within a value configuration as with harmony between different value configurations. My concern is to provide a justification for

598

PhilosophyEast& West

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

why cultureswith differentvalue configurationscan and should harmonizewith one

another.
My position can be labeled as "moralrelativitywithout relativism."That is to
say, while moral values are not groundless-that is, not "everythinggoes"-there
is no single standardto determinewhat kind of balance of values is the best. One
reason for this is that value configurationstake place in specific historiccontexts. A
culturein an environmentwith an abundantfood supply but underconstantthreatof
externalinvasion is likely to configureits value system differentlyfromone in an environmentof food scarcitywith no externalthreat.There is no single value configurationthat suits all historicalcontexts.
Anotherreasonwhy there is no "best"balance of variousvalues is that specific
situationsalways vary,and our value-baseddecisions in responseto particularsituations are often like guesswork.Thereis no single configurationof values that leads us
consistentlyto the rightcourse of action. Letus look at a case in which a wife finds
her husbandstartingto be alcoholic and abusive. One option for the woman is to
stay in the marriageand tryto salvage it by helping her husbandchange for the better;anotheroption is a quick divorce. She is likelyto hear differentvoices in herself.
One voice comes from such moral values as commitment,relationship,family responsibilityto their children, and love. Anothervoice may come from values such
as independence, autonomy, liberty,and safety.These voices tend to pull her in opposite directions.Ifshe listensto the firstvoice, she will stay in the marriage,at least
for a while. It may turnout that she successfully helps her husbandreformhimself,
and, consequently,the couple may live togetherhappilyever after.Or it may be just
a waste of the woman's time; she may end up sufferinga lot more and missingmajor
opportunitiesfor a betterlife. Listeningto the second voice, she may get away from
her abusive husbandand starta new and betterlife. Or she may lose the chance to
save an otherwise perfectlysalvageable marriageand may cause tremendoushardship and pain for her children. In reality,most people would need to make a decision somewhere between being too early and too late. So, then, to which voice
should one listen more closely?
Because differentvalue systems may configurethese values differently,two persons of the same situationin differentculturesmay be influencedby differentvalue
configurations.One value system may give the firstvoice a largervolume, while another system the second. I maintainthat, because of uncertaintiesin life and uncontrollablevariablesin moraldecisions, there is no perfectformulaor configurationof
values for the woman to follow. Suppose she is at the midpointbetween being too
early and being too late. Differentvalue systems may call for differentactions.
Which of the competingvoices should she listen to? While a "liberal"value configurationwould likelysay that she should listento the second voice and get out of the
marriage, a "conservative" value configuration would say that she should listen to
the first voice and give the marriage another chance. Which voice is right? Unfortunately, the matter cannot be resolved by any specific ethical formula, Plato's techne,
or some utilitarian calculus. I would say that the outcome is often determined more
by luck than by the legitimacy or superiority of a particular value configuration. Let

ChenyangLi

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

599

me say that the matterhere is not only one of a more desirableoutcome; it is also
one of gettingthings right.Inotherwords, one does not have to depend on a utilitarian presuppositionof the moralgood in orderto deliberateon whetherthe woman
should or should not seek a divorce fromher abusive husband.Incases like this one,
a good solution is sometimesa value systemthat heavily prioritizesindividualliberty
and sometimes one that heavily prioritizesfamily commitment, as Confucianism
does. Both types of value configurationhave their own strengthsand weaknesses.
Eachcarriesits own legitimacy.
Based on this version of value pluralism,the Confucianmaintainsthat the harmony model should be used in solving conflicts between culturesin today's world.
In the harmonymodel, when culturesconflict, the best way to handle conflict is not
to protectone's own groundand tryto eliminatethe opponent; it is to find a way to
work out an arrangementthat allows oneself as well as one's opponent to adjust,
ratherthan simplyto eliminateone's opponent. Throughmutualadjustmentand mutual accommodationwe reshapethe situationinto a harmoniousone.33
Needless to say, this harmonymodel is in sharpcontrastto Samuel Huntington's
"clash of civilizations"model. I thinkthat Huntingtonis rightin seeing conflicts between civilizations.As a matterof fact, I believe there is conflict of variousdegrees
between all value systems.The question is whether "clashing"is the solution or inevitable outcome of this kindof conflict.34To be sure,there have been and will continue to be "clashes"between differentvalue systems, and, furthermore,"clashes"
sometimes "solve" the problem by eliminatingthe opponents. However, when the
wolves "clash"with the sheep, the wolves lose their supply of food; when water in
a river"clashes"with the rocks by pushingthem away, it also loses its bed and its
path. Moreover,usually aftera successful clash with an opponent, a new opponent
emerges, and the same problempersists.The Confucianharmonymodel providesa
solutionwith more stabilityand less cost to humanity.Itaims not at clashingwith the
opponent but at harmoniouscoexistence throughmutualchange and mutualadjustment, like water and rocks in the river.
It may be asked how you are supposed to promote harmonywhen your enemy
is attackingyou. Isn'tthe Confucianideal of harmonyin this instance mere na'fvet6?
The Confucianwould respond as follows: when your enemy is attackingyou, you
need to protectyourself;if he slaps your rightcheek, you should not give him your
left. Harmonizationrequiresaction and resolve to overcome disharmoniouselements in the world. However, you must understandthat in the long run, the best
life is one that is lived in harmonyand peace. Therefore,you should avoid doing
extreme things that create or perpetuateyour enemy, and even when you engage
in fightingwith your enemy, you should try to turn conflict into harmony.In other
words, one should maintaina harmonymentalityratherthan the combatantmentalstates that "harmony results in peace" (WLJ).
ity. The Zhouli "Dongguan"
Peace cannot be obtained and maintained without harmony. Temporary peace
through oppression and suppression is not real peace, and it does not last. In order
to achieve real peace and to maintain peace throughout the world, we would do
well to learn from the Confucian ideal of harmony.
?-

600

PhilosophyEast& West

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Notes
This essay was originallywrittenin 2002 and presentedas a paper, firstat the 13th
InternationalConference on Chinese Philosophy in Visteras, Sweden, August 1619, 2003, and laterat the BeijingForum,Beijing,August23-25, 2004. I would like
to thank the audience on both occasions, and in particularRobin Wang, Qingjie
Wang, and Thomas Nagel for their comments. For comments and suggestions on
earlierdrafts,my thanksgo to PhilipJ. Ivanhoe,JuliaTao, RuipingFan,two anonymous refereesfor this journal, and especially my dear colleague RaeburneHeimbeck, who twice read earlier draftsand provided invaluable comments, critiques,
and suggestions.A portionof this essay was completed while I was a visitingsenior
researchfellow at the Governance in Asia ResearchCentreof the City Universityof
Hong Kongduring2005-2006. I gratefullyacknowledge the generous financialand
administrativesupport, intellectual inspiration,and friendshipthat I received from
the Centre.
1 - See Guo Qi %V ' FrpKf

-j

nliff

(The formation of the

philosophical category he in Chinese history), Bulletin of the Institute of

Chinese Literatureand Philosophy 16 (Taipei:Academia Sinica, 2000): 451466.

2 - See

(Sourcesof terms)(Beijing:CommercialPress,1995), p. 11 7.
i,
3 - Chinese in ancient times used a five-tone musical scale.
4 - Anothersource of the early meaning of he is 2, which means the mixing of
wine with water.
5 - I here translateji I as "advancegrowth."See Analects6.3: "Thesuperiorperson helps those in an emergency but does not advance the cause of the rich"
6 - Literallyit reads "a single thing"or "a single item." In his commentaryon the
Zhouli "Chunguan"IM9, "Baozhangshi"fg'
, Zheng Xuan writes, "Wu
means color" (Wu se ye
tt ).
,
7 - jiang ~ literallymeans "makingpeace" or "negotiatingpeace." See the Zhan"Xizhouce"i~ M: "Qin did not make peace with Wei" ( -
guoce
_Mlg,
8 - Unlikethe Zuozhuan,the Guoyu is not one of the ConfucianThirteenClassics.
But it has been attributedto the same authoras the Zuozhuanand has a similar
philosophicalorientation.
9 - Besides li @, he is also closely relatedto other key Confucianconcepts such as
Ii ren I-, and yi -. Space does not allow the inclusion of these concepts in
-_M, to he in the present essay.
relation

10 - When the state of Qi attacked Liu Xiahui's native state of Lu in 634 B.C.E.,Liu
sent people off to persuade the ruler of Qi "not to harm one another."

ChenyangLi

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

601

11 - ChenyangLi, "Zhongyongas GrandHarmony:An AlternativeReadingto Ames

and Hall's Focusingthe Familiar,"Dao: A Journalof ComparativePhilosophy3
(2) (2004), 173-188.
12 - On this subject, see, for example, Shu-hsien Liuand RobertE. Allinson, Harmony and Strife:ContemporaryPerspectives,Eastand West (Hong Kong:Chinese UniversityPress,1988).
13 - See Chung-yingCheng, New Dimensions of Confucian and Neo-Confucian
Philosophy(Albany:State Universityof New YorkPress,1991), p. 187.
14 - For similar uses of "tong"A and "not tong" TF by Mencius, see Mencius
2A:2 and 4B:29, 31, 32.
15 - Hegel writes,"Differenceas such is alreadyimplicitlycontradiction;for it is the
unityof sides which are, only in so far as they are not one-and it is the separationof sides which are, only as separated in the same relation"(Science of
Logic, ?934). Stephen Houlgate, ed., The Hegel Reader (Malden: Blackwell
PublishersInc., 1998), p. 235.
16 - Obviously, since human beings can affect the quality of the balance between
the two populations,so can other species.
17 - Perhapswith the exception of Daoism.
18 - David Hall and RogerAmes, Thinkingfrom the Han (Albany:State University
of New York Press, 1998), p. 180. Obviously, not all Westernersare "Truthseekers" and not all Chinese are "Way-seekers."But to the extent that these
two patternsare the predominanttendencies, respectively,I believe that Hall
and Ames are right.
19 - Ibid.,p. 16.
20 - Some people may thinkotherwise. Here I follow Hall and Ames' interpretation
(ibid.). Perhapswe should distinguishbetween popular Chinese beliefs and
Confucian theology here. The average person may believe that Heaven is a
fixed entity and that Heaven has set a predeterminedorder in the world. Confucian theology, as delineated in such texts as the Zhongyongand the Yijing,
clearly offersa differentview.
21 - See Chenyang Li, The Tao Encountersthe West:Explorationsin Comparative
Philosophy(Albany:State Universityof New YorkPress,1999), chap. 2.
22 - This is not to say that a Confucian may not be as stubbornas a Christianon
one's commitmentto a particularmoral ideal. But the typical Confucian has
less faith in an objective Platonic moral order set in the universe than the typical Christian, and therefore the Confucian's fundamental moral principles are
less clearly cut. In this regard, the Confucian probably stands at the midpoint
between the "water-like" Daoist and the "righteous" Christian.

602

East&West
Philosophy

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

23 - Strictlyspeaking,the belief in harmonypredatesthe formationof the theoryof

the goodness of human nature.Thus, the theory did not cause Confuciansto
believe in harmony,but reinforcedsuch a belief.
24- Isaiah Berlin, The Crooked Timberof Humanity:Chaptersin the History of
Ideas,ed. HenryHardy(New York:AlfredA. Knopf,1991), p. 12. See also Berlin's TheRootsof Romanticism,ed. HenryHardy(Princeton:PrincetonUniversity Press,1999).
25 - See BernardWilliams, "Liberalismand Loss," in The Legacy of Isaiah Berlin,
ed. MarkLilla,RonaldDworkin,and RobertSilvers(New York:The New York
Review of Books,2001), pp. 91-103.
26- Ibid.
27 - Obviously, the terroristattackson the United States on September11, 2001,
have had an impact on how people in the United States balance their values
of individuallibertyand public security.
28 - This is supported by empirical data generated through such studies as the
World Value Surveyat the Universityof Michigan.This phenomenon may be
due to the fact that we humanbeings have gone througha similarevolutionary
process for our basic needs (e.g., MarthaNussbaum'sbasic capacityargument).
A furtherexplorationof this kind of value universalismis beyond the scope of
this essay.
29 - The fifth of the Ten Commandmentssays, "Honor your father and your
mother."
30 - Jesussaid, "No one is worthyof me who cares morefor [their]fatheror mother
than for me" (Matthew10: 37).
31 - Consequently,we are not approachingthe "end of history,"the point when all
societies embrace the same configurationof value.
32

Amy Gutmann, ed., Multiculturalism:Examiningthe Politics of Recognition

(Princeton:PrincetonUniversityPress,1994), p. 66.

33 - One of the best examples of harmonybetween value configurationsis that between Confucianismand Daoism. See Li, The TaoEncountersthe West,chap.
6.
34

Samuel P. Huntington,"The Clash of Civilizations,"Foreign Affairs 72 (3)

(Summer1993): 22-49. Huntingtondoes not promote "clashes," but he sees
them as inevitable.

ChenyangLi

This content downloaded from 146.113.128.100 on Fri, 11 Jul 2014 11:53:39 AM

All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

603