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Published in IET Renewable Power Generation
Received on 11th November 2010
Revised on 11th August 2011
doi: 10.1049/iet-rpg.2010.0208
ISSN 1752-1416
State Key Laboratory of Power Systems, Department of Electrical Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing 100084,
Peoples Republic of China
2
The Earth Institute, Columbia University, New York, NY 10025, USA
E-mail: zhangzs05@mails.tsinghua.edu.cn
Abstract: The increasing penetration of wind power impacts the frequency stability of power systems. A doubly fed induction
generator (DFIG)-based wind power plant naturally does not provide frequency response because of the decoupling between the
output power and the grid frequency. DFIGs also lack power reserve margin because of the maximum power point tracking
(MPPT) operation. Therefore this study presents a novel frequency regulation by DFIG-based wind turbines to coordinate
inertial control, rotor speed control and pitch angle control, under low, medium or high wind speed mode. Inertial control
emulates the inertia of wind generators and supports frequency control during transient. The gain of inertial control is
calculated from a creative viewpoint of protecting the wind turbine from stalling. Rotor speed control and pitch angle control
enable DFIGs to reserve sufcient active power for a steady-state frequency adjustment. The numerical simulations
demonstrate that the coordinated control enhances the frequency regulation capability and damps the frequency oscillations
effectively.
Nomenclature
Pref
K
H
DPin
s0
v
s
v
vs
vsn
v
r0
r
v
r0
v
r
v
vr
vrn
fsys
f
fnom
Ek
k
DE
Pm
Pe
m
P
38
e
P
p
DP
R
P0
vref
vMPPT
PMPPT
Vw
b
Introduction
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maximum power point tracking (MPPT), so they cannot
increase their output power beyond the maximum power
level [1].
With low wind power penetration, power systems are little
impacted by wind power because thermal plants possess
abundant regulating capability. However, as wind power
penetration increases, the frequency stability will be
progressively inuenced due to the uncertainty and
stochastic behaviour of wind energy and insufcient
thermal power reserves. In some developed countries, the
wind generation ascends rapidly at night and exceeds the
electricity load valley [2]. Under these circumstances,
the wind power has to be partially curtailed because wind
farms at MPPT do not have a frequency regulation margin.
The State Electricity Regulatory Commission of China
announced Investigation Report of Wind Power
Development in China on 21 July 2009 [3]. This report
indicates that until 2008, about 27% of the wind power
(3.23 GW) was curtailed to keep the power system stable
due to the limit of transmission capacity and the lack of a
power regulation margin. Therefore wind power plants shall
have enough active power reserved to help frequency
regulation of power grids.
To maintain system stability, a common way is to cut off a
part of the wind generators from power grids. However, this
operation results in frequent starting-up and closing-down
of wind turbines and thus reduces equipment life. Thermal
power reserves and energy storage systems may help to
solve this problem but lead to costly investment and high
carbon dioxide emission. Therefore many corporations and
research institutes are studying the frequency control
methods of wind turbines. Moreover, some grid codes are
introduced governing the operation of wind power plants
for frequency regulation. For example, all wind generators
must operate with a reserve margin (down-regulation
percentage) of 1.5% in the Spanish grid code [4]. In the
UK grid code, all medium and large wind power stations
are required to be capable of adjusting the active power
output in response to any frequency change [5]. There are
also similar requirements in the grid codes of other
countries, such as Denmark and Ireland [6], to encourage
wind power plants participating in frequency control.
Although down-regulation of wind power plants affects
initial investment, conversion efciency and steady-state
penetration of wind power, system security is much more
important and thus frequency control is deemed as a
necessary auxiliary of advanced wind turbines in future.
This study proposes a meaningful and effective solution to
improve the utilisation of wind energy in China. If the 27%
curtailed wind power mentioned above is partially used as
primary or secondary reserves, there is a win win situation
for both wind farms and grid companies. From the point of
view of wind farms, more wind generators can be integrated
due to the increase of reserves. Therefore wind farms will
gain more revenues by selling the wind power reserves to
grid companies. From the viewpoint of grid companies,
parts of reserve investments are saved and no extra carbon
dioxide is produced. This objective can be achieved by
integrating more wind generators to the grid and shifting
some DFIGs from the maximum power operating point to a
sub-optimal operating point. The comparison among the
options of thermal reserves, energy storage and sub-optimal
operation is to be investigated in future considering
economic and environmental factors.
Currently, some control methods have been discussed to
improve the frequency control capability of DFIGs. The
IET Renew. Power Gener., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 1, pp. 38 47
doi: 10.1049/iet-rpg.2010.0208
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2
Control design
Inertial control
(1)
dfsys
dt
(2)
or
DPin = K fsys
then
k =
DE
K 2
(
v v
2s0 )
2 s
(3)
H v2sn 2
(
vr v
2r0 )
v2rn
(4)
e is the
m is the per-unit mechanical active power, P
where P
per-unit electromagnetic active power, vr and vr0 are the
present and initial per-unit wind turbine rotor speed with vrn
as the base value, respectively. v
r and v
r0 are the present
and initial per-unit wind turbine rotor speeds with vsn as the
base value, respectively, vsn is the rated synchronous
generator speed and vrn ( 1.2vsn in Appendix) is the rated
wind turbine rotor speed. In the following sections, the base
value of the wind turbine rotor speed will be totally set as
vsn . From (3) and (4), we obtain
K = 2H
v2sn v
2r v
2r0
v
2r v
2r0
=
1.389H
v2rn v
2s v
2s0
v
2s v
2s0
(5)
2r0 increases
Step 1 Calculation: If K is constant, v
2r v
2
2
monotonously with the increment of v
s v
s0 . In the worst
case, v
2r v
2r0 reaches the limit by setting an optimal K
whereas v
2s v
2s0 reaches its limit.
The study by Luo et al. [13] gives the standard limits of
dynamic frequency deviation in Quebec, Canada and the
frequency could be kept at +5.83% for not more than 5 s.
In this study, we assume that the dynamic system frequency
should not exceed +5% during a frequency event.
Therefore, in the worst case, the frequency suddenly drops
from 50 Hz (1 p.u.) to 47.5 Hz (0.95 p.u.) or rises to
52.5 Hz (1.05 p.u.). Thus, the lower limit of v
2s v
2s0 is
estimated as 0.952 2 1 20.0975 whereas the upper
limit is 1.052 2 1 0.1025.
IET Renew. Power Gener., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 1, pp. 38 47
doi: 10.1049/iet-rpg.2010.0208
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Assume that a wind turbine normal operating rotor speed is
within the range 0.7 1.2 p.u. The dynamic rotor speed of the
wind turbine is allowed to vary between 0.6 and 1.3 p.u.
during transient. The wind turbine protection system will be
activated if the rotor speed is outside this range. Thus, in
the worst case, the wind turbine rotor speed is initially 0.7
or 1.2 p.u., and then when the frequency incident occurs
and the inertial control is activated, the post-fault rotor
speed deviates from 0.7 to 0.6 p.u. or from 1.2 to 1.3 p.u.
The lower limit of v
2r v
2r0 is estimated as
2
2
0.6 2 0.7 20.13 whereas the upper limit is
1.32 2 1.22 0.25.
In conclusion, the upper limit of K is achieved by
Kmax 1 = 1.389H
0.13
= 1.85H
0.0975
Fig. 3 Sub-optimal operation
and
Kmax 2 = 1.389H
0.25
= 3.39H
0.1025
then
K = min (Kmax 1 , Kmax 2 ) = 1.85H
(6)
The solid part in Fig. 2 shows the frame of the wind turbine
rotor speed control based on the frequency drop
characteristic. The controller adjusts the active power output
in proportion to the frequency deviation with the ratio of
21/R [14] as follows
DP = P1 P0 =
fsys fnom
R
2.3
(7)
where fsys is the per-unit system frequency and fnom is the perunit nominal frequency, R is the speed adjustment rate, P1 is
the active power corresponding to fsys and P0 is the initial
operating power point (load reference).
Fig. 3 [7] shows the relationship among the mechanical
active power, rotor speed and wind speed for the optimal
pitch angle condition. As discussed in Section 1, the wind
turbine is assumed to operate at a sub-optimal curve to
provide power reserves. There are two 90% sub-optimal
curves based on under-speed operation (left curve) and
over-speed operation (right curve), respectively. However,
the left curve is unstable and undesirable [1, 7]. For
IET Renew. Power Gener., 2012, Vol. 6, Iss. 1, pp. 38 47
doi: 10.1049/iet-rpg.2010.0208
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vB vE PB PE
=
vB vA PB PA
operation due to the rotor speed upper limit (see Fig. 4).
Thus, the regulation of pitch angle needs to be activated for
assistance. Fig. 4 shows an example control route (A, E, B)
for this mode. The initial operating point is at A rather than
D because of the speed limitation.
A pitch angle control scheme with variable vref is shown in
Fig. 6 for the medium wind speed. The control route in Fig. 4
is the dashed straight line of AB instead of the solid curve of
AFB. When there is an increase of DP, the new stable
operating point is at point E, namely vref is changed from
1.2 p.u. to vE , which can be estimated by the triangle
theorem [10]
When the wind speed is below 9.6 m/s in this study, overspeed is able to achieve the 90% sub-optimal operation as
shown in Fig. 4 and the pitch angle control does not need
to be activated to down-regulate the wind turbine. Therefore
the pitch angle is xed at zero by locking vref as a constant
of 1.2 p.u. as shown in Fig. 6. The control principle is the
same as the rotor speed control (discussed in Section 2.2).
When the frequency drops, the rotor speed control will
increase active power to force the wind turbine to decelerate.
3.2 Mode 2: medium wind speed mode
(9.6 11.8 m/s)
When the wind speed is between 9.6 and 11.8 m/s in this
study, over-speed cannot solely afford the 90% sub-optimal
(8)
vref = vE = 1.2 +
DP
(v
1.2)
0.1PMPPT MPPT
(9)
Finally, the rotor speed and pitch angle are regulated together
to the operating point of E to participate in the active
power control.
3.3
When the wind speed is over 11.8 m/s in this study (see
Fig. 4), over-speed is impossible because the MPPT speed
has been over 1.2 p.u. and the pitch angle control is the
only way to down-regulate the wind turbine. Therefore the
rotor speed is xed at 1.2 p.u. and the active power is
initially set at 0.9 p.u. by the pitch angle controller. When
the frequency drops, an active power increment is produced
by the reduction of pitch angle.
3.4
Fig. 6 Selection of the rotor speed reference for the pitch angle control
42
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[4]. For each kind of wind turbines with known power/speed
curves, a look-up table in which every reserve margin is
corresponding to selected wind speed regions is built up.
Therefore as long as we know the reserve margin, the
classication of wind speed regions can be looked up from
the look-up table.
Simulations
4.1
Test system
System frequency
Output active power
Pitch angle
Rotor speed
43
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of coal plant AGC is not so apparent and the case study without
AGC is acceptable for the research objective.
4.2
Test results
System frequency
Output active power
Pitch angle
Rotor speed
44
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System frequency
Output active power
Pitch angle
Rotor speed
the pitch angle is kept at zero and the power is changed by the
adjustment of rotor speed. In case 2, the pitch angle and rotor
speed are both controlled to regulate the active power. In
case 3, the rotor speed is constrained at the maximum value
whereas the power generation is changed by pitch angle
control.
Discussion
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angle implies the necessity of a non-linear control. The study
by Hansen et al. [22] gives a solution of gain scheduling for
the pitch angle control and the control gain is linear with
respect to the sensitivity of aerodynamic power to pitch
angle. This study focuses on the inertial control and
coordinated control scheme design. To simplify the
simulation and modelling, this study utilises the constant PI
gain strategy. The simplication and the control effect are
acceptable for the research although there are some
oscillations. However, gain scheduling of pitch angle
control should be adopted for practical engineering.
Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
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9
9.1
Appendix
DFIG parameters
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vsn 1000 rpm, nominal rotor speed vrn 1200 rpm
(1.2 p.u.), gearbox ratio n 100, speed adjustment rate
R 10%, blade radius r 60 m, generator inertia moment
Jgen 100 kg m2, and turbine inertia moment Jtur
6 100 000 kg m2.
Pitch angle controller: servo time constant Tservo 1.5 s,
pitch angle change rate limit +88/s, maximum pitch
angle bmax 708, and minimum pitch angle bmin 08.
Approximation formulae of aerodynamic efciency Cp are
Cp = 0.22(116z 0.4b 5)e
z=
12.5z
1
0.035
l + 0.08b 1 + b3
(10)
(11)
estimated by
1
Pm = rpr2 Cp Vw3
2
(12)
47