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INTRODUCTION
Climate change is one of the most challenging and controversial topics facing the world today.
Climate models used to study this issue require full consideration of the complexity affecting the
various components of the Earth's climatic system. In order to develop and improve these models, a
better understanding of Earth's components and their interactions is crucial. One of the most important
naturally occurring influences on our climate system is volcanic eruptions. The Tambora volcano (8.25
S, 118.00 E) on the island of Sumbawa in Indonesia, erupted on April 10th, 1815, sending a massive
cloud of aerosols into the stratosphere. This was the largest eruption of the past 500 years.
The summer in New England that year also had extreme weather. There was snow every month
of the year, and the poor harvests started a mass migration from the US East Coast across the
Appalachian Mountains to the Midwest. For these reasons, 1816 has come to be known as the year
without a summer. Although the cool summer of 1816 was not universally felt around the globe, large
regions, including North America, Europe, Argentina, India, and China experienced record anomalies.
Even portions of South Africa experienced cool and wet conditions in the growing season, but
Southern Hemisphere climate would not be expected to change much in response to Tambora, due to
the overwhelming oceanic influence. The effects of the 1816 summer on agricultural productivity of
New England did not have much to do with the average temperature, which was low but not
abnormally so, but with a series of killing frosts that reduced the growing season. This, along with a
severe drought, reduced agricultural output to record low levels. In Europe, by contrast, there were
record low temperatures accompanied by above average rainfall and cloudiness, the combination of
which slowed the growth of crops and produced fungus and molds. Thus, food production was
negatively affected in both regions, but by different mechanisms, pointing out the complex relationship
between climate and human impacts.
The Tambora eruption killed more than 90 000 people in the immediate vicinity, 35% of the
people on Sumbawa (48 000 in two years; 10 000 immediately and 38 000 from hunger and disease)
and 44 000 on Lombok 160 km to the east. A more indirect effect of the Tambora eruption has also
been suggested. Because of the bad weather, a typhus epidemic broke out in Ireland, spread to England
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To study about the responses of climate to volcanic eruptions can help better understand
important radiative and dynamical processes that occur in our atmosphere and that respond to
both natural and anthropogenic forcing.
To understand several studies have summarized the known effects of many large-scale volcanic
eruptions on our atmosphere.
To Studying the In addition, by quantifying the natural fluctuations of gases and other volcanic
materials, we can separate these forcings from anthropogenic fluctuations in the climate record,
helping us to detect and properly attribute anthropogenic influences on climate.
The Tambora Project is a collaboration between disciplinary fields to produce the most
complete and comprehensive study yet undertaken of this major historical event and
communicates to the academic and general community, the full significance of similar disasters
in modern climate and human history.
Large explosive volcanoes, such as that of Mt. Tambora, inject massive amounts of mineral
material and various gases, including sulfur, into the upper atmosphere. Resulting sulfate
aerosols in the stratosphere can have an approximate lifetime of about 1-3 years.
The aerosol cloud produced from the eruption undergoes further chemical (ozone depletion)
and radiative (increased planetary albedo) interactions with the background atmosphere that
can cause noticeable changes in the climate system.
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The scattering of solar radiation to space causes a temporal cooling at the surface, increasing
the planetary albedo. Meanwhile, the absorption of both solar and Earth's radiation at the
stratosphere, heats the layer.
The most explosive known eruption in the historical record, that of Mt. Tambora, still remains
one of the least explored. There is a substantial but unscientific popular and journalistic archive
devoted to The Year Without a Summer in the North-Eastern United States.
Posts study also predates the emergence of climate change as a central scientific and cultural
issue for the global community. It is the intention of this thesis to investigate the current state of
scientific knowledge of the 1815 eruption and to develop a project in which scientific computer
simulations aid journalistic research in order to explain history.
The Tambora Project itself is divided into two main sections: (1) the historical analysis of the
time period pre- and post eruption; and (2) the scientific analysis of the Tambora eruption and
its climatic impacts.
An evaluation of all previous historic, climatic and modeling studies is performed, resulting in
an elaborate methodology of computer simulations aimed specifically to answer the remaining
questions of the eruption and its aftermath.
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research is an art of scientific investigation. In other words research is a scientific and
systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic. The logic behind taking research
methodology into consideration is that one can have knowledge regarding the method and procedure
adopted for achievements of objective of the project. With the adoption of this others can also evaluate
the results too.
So keeping in view the nature of requirement of the study to collect all the relevant information
regarding the comparison of public sector banks and the private sector banks direct personal interview
method with the help of structured questionnaire was adopted for collection of primary data.
Secondary data has been collected through the various magazines and newspaper and by
surfing on internet and also by visiting the websites of Indian Banking Association.
DATA COLLECTION
Data was collected by using two main methods i.e. primary data and secondary data.
PRIMARY DATA primary data is the data which is used or collected for the first time and it is not
used by anyone in the past. There are number of sources of primary data from which the information
can be collected. We took the following resources for our research.
a) QUESTIONNAIRE This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly in case of big
enquiries. Here in our research we set 10 simple questions and requested the respondents to answer
these questions with correct information.
SECONDARY DATA Secondary data is the data which is available in readymade form and which
has already been used by other people for various purposes. The sources of secondary data are
newspaper, internet, websites of IBA, journals and other published documents.
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OVERVIEW
On April 10, 1815, for the first time in about 5000 years, Tambora erupted. A series of large
explosions began, sending a massive volcanic column into the air. This eruption was the biggest
eruption in recorded history. Tambora is a strato volcano located on the island of Sumbawa in
Indonesia, forming the Sanggar peninsula of the island. The island is part of a very active volcanic arc,
which is part of the Ring of Fire around the Pacific Ocean.
The Build-up
Before the explosion, Tambora stood over 4000 m (13000 ft) high. Starting in 1812, 3 years before the
huge eruption, the volcano started spewing steam and ash, and creating small tremors in the Earth. On
the 5th of April, 1815, after laying quiet for over 5000 years, the first eruption began, lofting a volcanic
column 25 km (15.5 miles) into the sky. This initial eruption was heard over 1000 km away.
The Eruption
On April 10, 1815, a series of eruptions began, culminating to the largest eruption in recorded history.
The eruption lasted several days. It blew a chunk off of the mountain almost a mile wide. The volcanic
column, after flying 40 km into the sky, returned to the ground, creating a huge pyroclastic flow of ash,
pumice, and debris. The pyroclastic flow alone killed more than 10,000 people in its path. The ash that
fell from Tambora travelled as far as 1300 km (800 miles) away.
When the pyroclastic flow reached the ocean, the debris created such a large displacement of water
that tsunamis as high as 5 meters emanated out from the island. These tsunamis caused flooding,
devastation, and death on many of the other Indonesian islands. After the eruption was over, and
estimated 100-150 cubic kilometers of ash and debris were said to have been ejected from the
mountain. Volcanoes are measured by a Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI), on a scale of 1-8. Tambora
had a VEI of 7. Only 4 other volcanoes in the last 10,000 years have had a VEI that high, and Tambora
is the only volcano in recorded history with a VEI of 7.
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The Aftermath
The giant crater left at the top of the volcano 4 miles wide and 3,640 ft. deep, a hole that is still quite
obvious today. The ash that fell from the eruption at Tambora was devastating, killing all the crops and
vegetation, causing more than 80,000 more deaths from famine and disease. This death count is the
largest from any volcano eruption in recorded history. In addition, the amount of sulfur dioxide that
was released into the stratosphere made 1816 the year without a summer.
The Year without a Summer
What?
In 1816, the overall temperature on Earth, specifically in the Northern Hemisphere, lowered so
drastically that it became known as the year without a summer. Weather was disturbed all over, with
problems in Western Europe and the United States, as well as Asia. Monsoon season was affected,
which is thought to also be tied to a cholera epidemic that year. In places like New England and
Canada, frost was recorded in every month of the year, and snow fell in June. This phenomenon is
known as global cooling.
The summer temperatures in 1816 averaged just a few degrees below normal, but as mentioned, it
frosted throughout the summer. The highs were still close to 100 degreed Fahrenheit on some days.
However, the cold spells, especially at night, cause massive crop failure, and, as a result, even more
famine.
Why?
200 million tons of sulfur dioxide was shot up into the stratosphere. The sulfur dioxide prevented much
sunlight from reaching the Earths surface, lowering the overall temperature, and killing crops and
many creatures as a result. This crop failure caused mass famine, which was what caused the death toll
to be so high.
The global changes in temperature did not occur until a year later. This delay was due to the fact that
the stratospheric winds take that long to distribute the sulfur dioxide and volcanic ash all around the
world. Composite volcanoes are made out of numerous layers of rock and lava that have accumulated
after multiple eruptions. The magma usually found in this type of volcano is very viscous and when it
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Effects
Mount Tambora's historic eruption in 1815 had global effects. Not only were the earthquakes ignited
by the explosion felt up to 300 miles away, but the ash and magma, or volcanic rock, produced covered
more than 30 cubic miles. The ash ejected by Mount Tambora's eruption reduced the amount of
sunlight that reached Earth's surface and is credited with causing the global cooling effect that led to
the "year without a summer" in 1816.
Miscellaneous
The caldera produced by the 1815 Mount Tambora eruption measures more than 3 miles wide and
more than 3,600 feet deep. In 2004, archaeologists discovered the preserved bodies of two adults
buried in nearly 10 feet of ash in the remnants of a small village on the volcano. The discovery is
similar to one made in the wake of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in Italy in the year 79 that
destroyed the city of Pompeii, prompting Mount Tambora's nickname as "the Pompeii of the East."
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Death
Heavy eruptions of the Tambora volcano in Indonesia are letting up by this day in 1815. The
volcano, which began rumbling on April 5, killed almost 100,000 people directly and indirectly. The
eruption was the largest ever recorded and its effects were noted throughout the world. Tambora is
located on Sumbawa Island, on the eastern end of the Indonesian archipelago. There had been no signs
of volcanic activity there for thousands of years prior to the 1815 eruption.
On April 10, the first of a series of eruptions that month sent ash 20 miles into the atmosphere,
covering the island with ash to a height of 1.5 meters.Five days later, Tambora erupted violently once
again. This time, so much ash was expelled that the sun was not seen for several days. Flaming hot
debris thrown into the surrounding ocean caused explosions of steam. The debris also caused a
moderate-sized tsunami. In all, so much rock and ash was thrown out of Tambora that the height of the
volcano was reduced from 14,000 to 9,000 feet.The worst explosions were heard hundreds of miles
away. The eruptions of Tambora also affected the climate worldwide. Enough ash had been thrown into
the atmosphere that global temperatures were reduced over the next year; it also caused spectacularly
colored sunsets throughout the world. The eruption was blamed for snow and frost in New England
during June and July that summer.
Ten thousand people were killed by the eruptions, most on Sumbawa Island. In subsequent
months, more than 80,000 people died in the surrounding area from starvation due to the resulting crop
failures and disease.
Climate effects of volcanic eruptions
The ozone, greenhouse, and haze effects
There is considerable debate on the role that humans play in changing global climate through both the
burning of fossil fuels and the release of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) gases. Some argue that human
interaction poses less of a threat to our atmosphere than do natural processes, like volcanic eruptions.
This places a great deal of importance on understanding the role of volcanic eruptions in affecting
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of fossil fuels.
The influence of volcanic eruptions on the ozone, greenhouse, and haze effects
Volcanic eruptions can enhance all three of these climate effects to variable degrees. They contribute to
ozone depletion, as well as to both cooling and warming of the earth's atmosphere. The role of volcanic
eruptions on each climate effect is described below.
Influence on the ozone effect:
The halide acid HCl has been shown to be effective in destroying ozone; however, the latest studies
show that most volcanic HCl is confined to the troposphere (below the stratosphere), where it is
washed out by rain. Thus, it never has the opportunity to react with ozone. On the other hand, satellite
data after the 1991 eruptions of Mt.Pinatubo (the Philippines) and Mt. Hudson (Chile) showed a 1520% ozone loss at high latitudes, and a greater than 50% loss over the Antarctic. Thus, it appears that
volcanic eruptions can play a significant role in reducing ozone levels. However, it is an indirect role,
which cannot be directly attributed to volcanic HCl. Eruption-generated particles, or aerosols, appear
to provide surfaces upon which chemical reactions take place. The particles themselves do not
contribute to ozone destruction, but they interact with chlorine- and bromine-bearing compounds from
human-made CFCs. Fortunately, volcanic particles will settle out of the stratosphere in two or three
years, so that the effects of volcanic eruptions on ozone depletion are short lived. Although volcanic
aerosols provide a catalyst for ozone depletion, the real culprits in destroying ozone are humangenerated CFCs. Scientists expect the ozone layer to recover due to restrictions on CFCs and other
ozone-depleting chemicals by the United Nations Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the
Ozone Layer. However, future volcanic eruptions will cause fluctuations in the recovery process.
Influence on the greenhouse effect:
Volcanic eruptions can enhance global warming by adding CO2 to the atmosphere. However, a far
greater amount of CO2 is contributed to the atmosphere by human activities each year than by volcanic
eruptions. T.M.Gerlach (1991, American Geophysical Union) notes that human-made CO2 exceeds the
estimated global release of CO2 from volcanoes by at least 150 times. The small amount of global
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Prior to 1815
Before the 1815 eruption, there are three recorded eruptions dated using the radiocarbon method. All of
three of these eruptions have a relatively unknown magnitude. The three dates of these eruptions were
3910BC, 3050BC, and 740AD. All of them consisted of a central vent eruption, and explosive
eruption, while the first two also had pyroclastic flow. Given these dates of eruption, the three major
dormancy periods prior to 1815 were approximately 860 years, 3790 years, and 1075 years.
Post 1815
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LOCATION
DATE
VEI
Tambora
Indonesia
1815
Pinatubo
Philippines
1991
Azul
Chile
1932
Novarupta
United state
1912
Santa Maria
Gautemala
1902
Krakatau
Indonesia
1883
Unknown
Unknown
1809
Laki
Iceland
1783
Long Is
New Guinea
1700
Cerro Hudson
Chile
1991
El Chichon
Maxico
1982
St. Helens
United state
1980
Bezymianny
Rusia
1956
Kharimkotan
Kuril Islands
1933
Cerro Azul
Chile
1932
colima
Maxico
1913
Ksudach
Russia
1907
Tarawera
New zealand
1886
Askja
Iceland
1875
sheveluch
Russia
1854
cosiguina
Nicaragua
1835
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Galunggung
Indonesia
1822
Katla
Iceland
1755
Tarumai
Japan
1739
Tarumai
Japan
1667
Usu
Japan
1663
St. Helens
United States
1480
1. Volcanic eruptions with volcanic explosive index (VEI) of 5 and higher since 1480. Sources:
Global Volcanism Program, (Robock, 2000) and (Bradley and Jones, 1992).
Volcanogenic Tsunamis
Date of
Volcano Location
Tsunami
1638 BC
79 AD
Santorini, Greece
Vesuvius, Italy
1631
Vesuvius, Italy
1640
1715
1741
1749
1792
Komagatake, Japan
Taal, Philippines
Oshima-Oshima, Japan
Taal, Philippines
Unzen, Japan
1815
Tambora, Indonesia
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Ruang, Indonesia
Yasur, Vanuata
Okmok, Alaska, USA
Augustine, Alaska, USA
Krakatau, Indonesia
Ritter, Papua new Guinea
1902
1913
1928
Pelee, Carribean
Ambrym, Vanuatu
Paluweh, Indonesia
1930
1933
1956
1969
1972, 1974
1979
Stromboli, Italy
Severgin, Kurile Islands
Bezymianny, Russia
Didicas, Philippines
Ritter, Papua New Guinea
Illiwerung, Indonesia
1980
St Helens, Washington,
1983
USA
Illiwerung, Indonesia
1986
Nyos, Cameroon
Vulcano, Italy
Volcanic landslide
5.5m waves
Pyroclastic flow-induced
Karymsky, Russia
1.2m waves
Phreatomagmatic eruption
30m waves
Volcanic debris slide
Stromboli, Italy
Ritter, Papua New Guinea
3m waves
Landslide-induced tsunami
Eruption-induced landslide
Many homes destroyed
Figure:
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Figure 1. Image shows the Sanggar Peninsula as taken by the Landsat 7SLC-on on September 13, 2000.
Tambora and its caldera can be observed, located in the center of the image. Source: USG
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CONCLUSION
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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www.climpast.discuss.net
ppg.sagepub.com
climate.cnvsci.rutgers.edu
www.google.co.in
history1800.about.com
www.scientificamerican.com
www.history.com
www.geology.sdsu.edu
www.ideals.illinois.edu
legacy.earlham.eduvalcano.oregonstate.edu
hilo.hawaii.edu
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