Philip Jebaseelan

2 Mozart

Limitations of
Sight & Hearing

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Philip Jebaseelan
2 Mozart

Table of Contents
Introduction In SightPG.3
Introduction In Hearing..PG.4
Limitation Of Sight..PG.6
Types Of Limitations Of SightPG.7
Devices Of Sight..PG.9
ConclusionPG.17
Limitation Of HearingPG.18
Types Of Limitation Of Hearing.PG.
Devices Of Hearing..PG.
ConclusionPG.

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Philip Jebaseelan
2 Mozart

Introduction In Sight
Visual perception is the ability to interpret the surrounding environment by
processing information that is contained in visible light. The resulting perception is
also known as eyesight, sight, or vision (adjectival form: visual, optical, or ocular).
The various physiological components involved in vision are referred to
collectively as the visual system, and are the focus of much research in psychology,
cognitive science, neuroscience, and molecular biology, collectively referred to as
vision science.
The visual system in animals allows individuals to assimilate information from
their surroundings. The act of seeing starts when the lens of the eye focuses an
image of its surroundings onto a light-sensitive membrane in the back of the eye,
called the retina. The retina is actually part of the brain that is isolated to serve as a
transducer for the conversion of patterns of light into neuronal signals. The lens of
the eye focuses light on the photoreceptive cells of the retina, which detect the
photons of light and respond by producing neural impulses. These signals are
processed in a hierarchical fashion by different parts of the brain, from the retina
upstream to central ganglia in the brain.
Note that up until now much of the above paragraph could apply to octopi,
mollusks, worms, insects and things more primitive; anything with a more
concentrated nervous system and better eyes than say a jellyfish. However, the
following applies to mammals generally and birds (in modified form): The retina in
these more complex animals sends fibers (the optic nerve) to the lateral geniculate
nucleus, to the primary and secondary visual cortex of the brain. Signals from the
retina can also travel directly from the retina to the superior colliculus.
The perception of objects and the totality of the visual scene is accomplished by
the visual association cortex. The visual association cortex combines all sensory
information perceived by the striate cortex which contains thousands of modules
that are part of modular neural networks. The neurons in the striate cortex send
axons to the extrastriate cortex, a region in the visual association cortex that
surrounds the striate cortex.

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Philip Jebaseelan
2 Mozart

Introduction In Hearing
Hearing, auditory perception, or audition is the ability to perceive sound by
detecting vibrations, changes in the pressure of the surrounding medium through
time, through an organ such as the ear. Sound may be heard through solid, liquid, or
gaseous matter. It is one of the traditional five senses; partial or total inability to hear
is called hearing loss.
In humans and other vertebrates, hearing is performed primarily by the
auditory system: mechanical waves, known as vibrations are detected by the ear and
transduced into nerve impulses that are perceived by the brain (primarily in the
temporal lobe). Like touch, audition requires sensitivity to the movement of
molecules in the world outside the organism. Both hearing and touch are types of
mechanosensation.There are three main components of the human ear: the outer
ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear.

OUTER EAR : The outer ear includes the pinna, the visible part of the ear, as well
as the ear canal which terminates at the eardrum, also called the tympanic
membrane. The pinna serves to focus sound waves through the ear canal toward the
eardrum. Because of the asymmetrical character of the outer ear of most mammals,
sound is filtered differently on its way into the ear depending on what vertical location
it is coming from. This gives these animals the ability to localize sound vertically. The
eardrum is an airtight membrane, and when sound waves arrive there, they cause it
to vibrate following the waveform of the sound.

MIDDLE EAR: The middle ear consists of a small air-filled chamber that is located
medial to the eardrum. Within this chamber are the three smallest bones in the body,
known collectively as the ossicles which include the malleus, incus and stapes
(sometimes referred to coloquially as the hammer, anvil and stirrup respectively).
They aid in the transmission of the vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear.
While the middle ear may seem unnecessarily complex, the purpose of its unique
construction is to overcome the impedance mismatch between air and water, by
providing impedance matching.
Also located in the middle ear are the stapedius and tensor tympani muscles which
protect the hearing mechanism through a stiffening reflex. The stapes transmits
sound waves to the inner ear through the oval window, a flexible membrane
separating the air-filled middle ear from the fluid-filled inner ear. The round window,
another flexible membrane, allows for the smooth displacement of the inner ear fluid
caused by the entering sound waves.
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IINNER EAR: The inner ear consists of the cochlea, which is a spiral-shaped, fluidfilled tube. It is divided lengthwise by the organ of Corti, which is the main organ of
mechanical to neural transduction. Inside the organ of Corti is the basilar membrane,
a structure that vibrates when waves from the middle ear propagate through the
cochlear fluid endolymph. The basilar membrane is tonotopic, so that each
frequency has a characteristic place of resonance along it. Characteristic
frequencies are high at the basal entrance to the cochlea, and low at the apex.
Basilar membrane motion causes depolarization of the hair cells, specialized
auditory receptors located within the organ of Corti. While the hair cells do not
produce action potentials themselves, they release neurotransmitter at synapses
with the fibers of the auditory nerve, which does produce action potentials. In this
way, the patterns of oscillations on the basilar membrane are converted to
spatiotemporal patterns of firings which transmit information about the sound to the
brainstem.

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Philip Jebaseelan
2 Mozart

Limitation Of Sight
There are some limitations to the senses of sight and sense of hearing. For
example, our eyes cannot see very small objects such as germs while our ears
could not hear very small or very strong. However, with the advent of modern
technology, obstacles and limitations to the senses as this can also be overcome.

To overcome the limitations of sight, the telescope, microscope and magnifier are
used. The telescope let the space scientists to be able to look very distant objects
like the moon, so that we know more about space. The function of the microscope
is to view very small objects such as microorganisms. It is very useful to the
microbiologists. Besides that, the magnifier also can overcome the limitations of
sight because it can magnify the small objects.

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Philip Jebaseelan
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Types Of Limitations Of Sight

There are several types of limitation towards sight such as:

Optical illusion
The Blind spot
There are also several types of defects of limitation of sight which are:

Astigmatisme

colour blindness

Optical Illusion
An optical illusion (also called a visual illusion) is characterized by visually
perceived images that differ from objective reality. The information gathered by
the eye is processed in the brain to give a perception that does not tally with a
physical measurement of the stimulus source. There are three main types: literal
optical illusions that create images that are different from the objects that make
them, physiological illusions that are the effects of excessive stimulation of a
specific type (brightness, colour, size, position, tilt, movement), and cognitive
illusions, the result of unconscious inferences. Pathological visual illusions arise
from a pathological exaggeration in physiological visual perception mechanisms
causing the aforementioned types of illusions.
Optical illusions are often classified into categories including the physical and
the cognitive or perceptual, and contrasted with optical hallucinations.

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Philip Jebaseelan
2 Mozart

Blind Spot
A blind spot, scotoma, is an obscuration of the visual field. A particular blind spot
known as the physiological blind spot, "blind point", or punctum caecum in
medical literature, is the place in the visual field that corresponds to the lack of
light-detecting photoreceptor cells on the optic disc of the retina where the optic
nerve passes through the optic disc.Since there are no cells to detect light on the
optic disc, a part of the field of vision is not perceived. The brain interpolates the
blind spot based on surrounding detail and information from the other eye, so the
blind spot is not normally perceived.
Although all vertebrates have this blind spot, cephalopod eyes, which are
only superficially similar, do not. In them, the optic nerve approaches the receptors
from behind, so it does not create a break in the retina.
The first documented observation of the phenomenon was in the 1660s by
Edme Mariotte in France. At the time it was generally thought that the point at
which the optic nerve entered the eye should actually be the most sensitive
portion of the retina; however, Mariotte's discovery disproved this theory.
The blind spot is located about 1215 nasal and 1.5 below the horizontal
and is roughly 7.5 high and 5.5 wide.

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Philip Jebaseelan
2 Mozart

Devices On Sight
There are different types of devices to overcome the limitations of sight such
as:

Microscope
Telescope
Binoculars
Magnifying glass
UltraSound Machine
Periscope
X-ray Machine

Microscope
A microscope is an instrument used to see
objects that are too small for the naked eye. The
science of investigating small objects using such
an instrument is called microscopy. Microscopic
means invisible to the eye unless aided by a
microscope.
There are many types of microscopes. The most
common (and the first to be invented) is the optical
microscope, which uses light to image the sample. Other major types of

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microscopes are the electron microscope (both the transmission electron

microscope and the scanning electron microscope), the ultramicroscope, and the
various types of scanning probe microscope.
On October 8, 2014, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Eric Betzig,
William Moerner and Stefan Hell for "the development of super-resolved
fluorescence microscopy," which brings "optical microscopy into the
nanodimension

History
The first microscope to be developed was the optical microscope, although

the original inventor is not easy to identify. Evidence points to the first compound
microscope appearing in the Netherlands in the late 1590s, probably an invention
of eyeglass makers there: Hans Lippershey (who developed an early telescope)
and Zacharias Janssen (also claimed as the inventor of the telescope). There are
other claims that the microscope and the telescope were invented by Roger Bacon
in the 1200s, but this is not substantiated. Giovanni Faber coined the name
microscope for Galileo Galilei's compound microscope in 1625

Telescope
A telescope is an instrument that aids in
the observation of remote objects by collecting
electromagnetic radiation (such as visible light). The
first known practical telescopes were invented in the
Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century,
using glass lenses. They found use in terrestrial
applications and astronomy.
Within a few decades, the reflecting telescope was
invented, which used mirrors. In the 20th century
many new types of telescopes were invented,
including radio telescopes in the 1930s and infrared

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telescopes in the 1960s. The word telescope now refers to a wide range of
instruments detecting different regions of the electromagnetic spectrum, and in
some cases other types of detectors.
The word "telescope" was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni

Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the

Accademia dei Lincei.In the Starry Messenger, Galileo had used the term
perspicillum".

History
The earliest recorded working telescopes were the refracting telescopes
that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608. Their development is credited to three
individuals: Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in
Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar. Galileo heard about the Dutch
telescope in June 1609, built his own within a month, and improved upon the
design in the following year.
The idea that the objective, or light-gathering element, could be a mirror instead
of a lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting
telescope. The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrorsreduction of
spherical aberration and no chromatic aberrationled to many proposed designs
and several attempts to build reflecting telescopes.In 1668, Isaac Newton built the
first practical reflecting telescope, of a design which now bears his name, the
Newtonian reflector.
The invention of the achromatic lens in 1733 partially corrected color aberrations
present in the simple lens and enabled the construction of shorter, more functional
refracting telescopes. Reflecting telescopes, though not limited by the color
problems seen in refractors, were hampered by the use of fast tarnishing
speculum metal mirrors employed during the 18th and early 19th centurya
problem alleviated by the introduction of silver coated glass mirrors in 1857,and
aluminized mirrors in 1932. The maximum physical size limit for refracting
telescopes is about 1 meter (40inches), dictating that the vast majority of large
optical researching telescopes built since the turn of the 20th century have been
reflectors. The largest reflecting telescopes currently have objectives larger than
10m (33feet), and work is underway on several 30-40m designs.

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The 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide
range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays. The first purpose built radio
telescope went into operation in 1937. Since then, a tremendous variety of
complex astronomical instruments have been developed.

Binoculars
Binoculars, field glasses
or binocular telescopes are a
pair of identical or mirrorsymmetrical telescopes
mounted side-by-side and
aligned to point accurately in the
same direction, allowing the
viewer to use both eyes
(binocular vision) when viewing
distant objects. Most are sized to
be held using both hands,
although sizes vary widely from opera glasses to large pedestal mounted military
models.
Unlike a (monocular) telescope, binoculars give users a three-dimensional
image: for nearer objects the two views, presented to each of the viewer's eyes
from slightly different viewpoints, produce a merged view with an impression of
depth.

History

The first binoculars were built in December 1608 for the Assembly of the
States General of the Netherlands by Hans Lippershey. He was a spectacle maker
from Middleburg in Zeeland and had discovered that a convex lens and a concave
lens could be combined to produce a magnified image of a distant object - a
simple telescope. Lippershey offered his telescope to the States General on 2nd
October 1608, and they requested a version to be used by both eyes, for military
purposes. Three sets of binoculars (meaning roughly 'two eyes') were duly
delivered but do not seem to have been a huge success with the military, perhaps
because they would have had low magnification and poor image quality.
Lippershey requested a patent on his invention but it was refused on the grounds
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that it was not sufficiently novel. Indeed there is some doubt as to whether
Lippershey really was the first to combine two lenses into a telescope. Certainly by
early 1609 small 'spyglasses', which we would call telescopes, were widely on sale
in Paris. Binoculars however were seldom made because they required much more
than twice as much work as a telescope, to manufacture two precisely matched
pairs of lenses and fix them in accurate alignment.
Considering that lenses had been available for several centuries, it is somewhat
surprising that no-one had discovered the telescope before 1608. Possibly the
reason is that to obtain useful magnification the eyepiece lens needs to have a
short focal length and thus a large amount of curvature, and lens-grinding
technology was not capable of producing such lenses of sufficient quality to yield
a clear image.

Magnifying Glass
A magnifying glass (called a hand lens in laboratory
contexts) is a convex lens that is used to produce a
magnified image of an object. The lens is usually mounted in
a frame with a handle (see image).
A sheet magnifier consists of many very narrow concentric
ring-shaped lenses, such that the combination acts as a
single lens but is much thinner. This arrangement is known as
a Fresnel lens.
The magnifying glass is an icon of detective fiction, particularly that of Sherlock
Holmes.

History
The earliest evidence of a magnifying device was a joke in Aristophanes's The
Clouds from 424 BC, where magnifying lenses to start kindling were sold in a
pharmacy, and Pliny the Elder's "lens", a glass globe filled with water, used to

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cauterize wounds. (Seneca wrote that it could be used to read letters "no matter
how small or dim"). Roger Bacon described the properties of a magnifying glass in
13th-century England. Eyeglasses were developed in 13th-century Italy.

UltraSound Machine
Diagnostic sonography (ultrasonography) is an ultrasound-based
diagnostic imaging technique used for visualizing internal body
structures including tendons, muscles, joints, vessels and internal organs
for possible pathology or lesions. The practice of examining pregnant
women using ultrasound is called obstetric sonography, and is widely
used.
In physics, 'ultrasound' refers to sound waves with a frequency too high for
humans to hear. Ultrasound images (sonograms) are made by sending a pulse of
ultrasound into tissue using an ultrasound transducer (probe). The sound reflects
(echoes) from parts of the tissue; these echoes are recorded and displayed as an
image to the operator.
Many different types of images can be formed using ultrasound. The most wellknown type is a B-mode image, which displays the acoustic impedance of a twodimensional cross-section of tissue. Other types of image can display blood flow,
motion of tissue over time, the location of blood, the presence of specific
molecules, the stiffness of tissue, or the anatomy of a three-dimensional region.
Compared to other prominent methods of medical imaging,
ultrasonography has several advantages. It provides images in real-time (rather
than after an acquisition or processing delay), it is portable and can be brought to
a sick patient's bedside, it is substantially lower in cost, and it does not use harmful
ionizing radiation. Drawbacks of ultrasonography include various limits on its field
of view including difficulty imaging structures behind bone and air, and its relative
dependence on a skilled operator.

History

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Ultrasonic energy was first applied to the human body for medical purposes by

DrGeorge Ludwig at the Naval Medical Research Institute, Bethesda, Maryland in

the late 1940s.English-born physicist John Wild (19142009) first used ultrasound
to assess the thickness of bowel tissue as early as 1949; he has been described as
the "father of medical ultrasound". Subsequent advances in the field took place
concurrently in several countries.

Periscope
A periscope is an instrument for observation over, around or through an
object, obstacle or condition that prevents direct line-of-sight observation from an
observer's current position.
In its simplest form, it consists of an outer case with
mirrors at each end set parallel to each other at a 45-degree
angle. This form of periscope, with the addition of two simple
lenses, served for observation purposes in the trenches during
World War I. Military personnel also use periscopes in some
gun turrets and in armoured vehicles.
More complex periscopes, using prisms and/or advanced fiber optics
instead of mirrors, and providing magnification, operate on submarines and in
various fields of science. The overall design of the classical submarine periscope is
very simple: two telescopes pointed into each other. If the two telescopes have
different individual magnification, the difference between them causes an overall
magnification or reduction.

History
Johannes Gutenberg, known for his contribution to printing technology,
marketed a kind of periscope in the 1430s to enable pilgrims to see over the
heads of the crowd at the vigintennial religious festival at Aachen. Johannes
Hevelius described an early periscope with lenses in 1647 in his work
Selenographia, sive Lunae descriptio [Selenography, or an account of the Moon].
Hevelius saw military applications for his invention.
In 1854 Hippolyte Mari-Davy invented the first naval periscope, consisting of a
vertical tube with two small mirrors fixed at each end at 45. Simon Lake used
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periscopes in his submarines in 1902. Sir Howard Grubb perfected the device in
World War I. Morgan Robertson (18611915) claimed to have tried to patent the
periscope: he described a submarine using a periscope in his fictional works.
Periscopes, in some cases fixed to rifles, served in World War I (1914-1918) to
enable soldiers to see over the tops of trenches, thus avoiding exposure to enemy
fire (especially from snipers).
During World War II (1939-1945), artillery observers and
officers used specifically-manufactured periscope binoculars
with different mountings. Some of them also allowed
estimating the distance to a target, as they were designed as
stereoscopic rangefinders.

X-ray Machine
An X-ray generator is a device used to generate Xrays. It is commonly used by radiographers to acquire an x-ray image of the inside
of an object (as in medicine or non-destructive testing) but they are also used in
sterilization or fluorescence.

History
The discovery of X-rays came from experimenting with Crookes tubes, an
early experimental electrical discharge tube invented by English physicist William
Crookes around 1869-1875. In 1895, Wilhelm Rntgen discovered X-rays
emanating from Crookes tubes and the many uses for X-rays were immediately
apparent. One of the first X-ray photographs was made of the hand of Rntgen's
wife. The image displayed both her wedding ring and bones. On January 18, 1896
an X-ray machine was formally displayed by H.L. Smith.
In the 1940s and 1950s, X-ray machines were used in stores to help sell
footwear. These were known as fluoroscopes. However, as the harmful effects of Xray radiation were properly considered, they finally fell out of use. Shoe-fitting use
of the device was first banned by the state of Pennsylvania in 1957. (They were
more a clever marketing tool to attract customers, rather than a fitting aid.)
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Conclusion
Sight is very important for human being to ensure their survival. With sight,
human being and animals can differentiate danger from other animals and
enemies from human beings facial expression or even by physically actions
presented.

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Philip Jebaseelan
2 Mozart

Limitation Of Hearing
Every living being on earth has hearing ability. The definition Limitation Of
Hearing is the range of sound that each individual such as human beings can
hear.Human beings can hear up to 20-20000Hertz. Limitation of hearing varies
with each human being.
The range of hearing in each individual lies on ones age, given an example,
children have better hearing than adults. This is because childrens eardrums are
much more elastic which leads to better hearing. As People slowly age, their
hearing deteriorates and also their eardrum becomes less elastic. Therefore, the
range frequencies that they can detect decreases. Sum up to that, the hearing of
high pitched voice also decreases. A person who is exposed to very loud noises is
prone to experience a loss of hearing range of hearing is smaller than normal
people.

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Types Of Limitation Of Hearing

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