Minerals Engineering 23 (2010) 11741181

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Minerals Engineering
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mineng

A new predictive model of lifter bar wear in mills

M. Rezaeizadeh a, M. Fooladi a,, M.S. Powell b, S.H. Mansouri a, N.S. Weerasekara b
a
b

Mech. Eng. Dept., Kerman University, Kerman, Iran

University of Queensland, SMI, JKMRC, 40 Isles Road, Indooroopilly 4068, Australia

a r t i c l e

i n f o

Article history:
Received 18 January 2010
Accepted 28 July 2010

Keywords:
Mineral processing
Comminution
Grinding
Particle size

a b s t r a c t
The cost of mill relining and the inuence of the liner proles on mill performance provide a strong motivation to improve liner selection. However, the capability to predict liner life and progressive prole is
poorly developed in the industry. A new model has been developed to predict the rate of liner wear based
on the main parameters affecting the wear process such as; ore type, relative velocity between the ore
and the liners, liner hardness and friction conditions. The resultant model is capable of determining
the wear as a function of mill operating and discharge conditions based on the variation of specic gravity
of mill contents, geometrical characteristics of the mill and mill velocity. The results from this model are
in good agreement with the measured data from the SAG mill at Sarcheshmeh Copper Complex, Iran.
2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Liners are used to protect the mill shells from wear and importantly, but often not fully appreciated, to transfer energy to the
grinding charge. Good liner design can enhance the grinding efciency, whilst also providing a long wear protection life to minimise liner costs. The liner prole inuences the grinding
efciency and lifter bars are commonly used to provide the prole
in SAG/AG and primary mills. They generate a fraction of cataracting load which increases the energy of impact-breakage and generates a velocity gradient within the cascading region for abrasion
and attrition. As the liners wear their dimensions change during
the course of operation, thus it is not possible to hold a single ideal
design prole. The changing geometrical dimensions of the worn
liners affect aspects of mill performance such as; trajectory of ore
and balls, power consumption, average pressure on the liners
and stress in the liners. This change in prole has been noted by
many investigators to have a signicant inuence on the overall
economic performance of the mills (Bird et al. (2001), Hart et al.
(2001), Kendrick and Marsden (2001), McIvor (1983) and Meekell
et al. (2001)). Therefore, it is of economic importance to know
the relationship between the operating condition of the mills and
the liner wear processes.
As the liner prole wears, the reduction in its dimensions will
ultimately lead to breakage of the liner. Random breakage and
replacement of liners cause unwanted interruptions or down time
to mill operation. Thus if there is uncertainty about liner life there
is a need to replace them early, which results in poor utilisation of
Corresponding author. Tel.: +98 341 2111763; fax: +98 341 2120964.
E-mail address: fooladi@mail.uk.ac.ir (M. Fooladi).
0892-6875/$ - see front matter 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.mineng.2010.07.016

the liners and increased liner cost. Predicting the rate of liner wear
helps to correctly time the replacement of worn liners and thus
facilitates the scheduling of preventative maintenance of the mill.
As liners are very costly, one of the main goals set for the manufacturers by users is to increase the life of liners.
A model that can predict the life of the liners and the evolution
of the liner proles will be most useful for reliably designing liners
for a required life and providing a prole that provides optimal
overall mill performance over the life of the liner. The lifter prole
has the prime inuence on the charge motion, so this is the focus of
this work.
Various approaches have been proposed to predict the wear of
liners and to increase liner life. Radziszewski (1997) utilises a simplied DEM code and a series of wear testing devices to model ball
wear and has proposed the same approach to model liner wear.
Teeri et al. (2006) studied impact wear in mineral crushing. Some
work has been conducted on utilising the DEM outputs of contact
force and frequency to model the wear of mill liners: Cleary (1998),
Kalala et al. (2005a,b) to inform a simplied wear model of liner
wear in dry coal grinding; Powell et al. (2006), McBride and Powell
(2006), Makokha and Moys (2006), Makokha et al. (2007). Banisi
and Hadizadeh (2006) conducted detailed liner wear measurements along the liners of a SAG mill and based on the outcomes
proposed a wear relationship.
In these works a model was usually applied for a particular condition by back-tting it to the measured data, but in this work a
new method is proposed for predicting the wear of liners in the
mill based on the important underlying parameters such as abrasion angle, coefcient of friction, liner hardness, pressure and relative velocity. In the present work it is attempted to nd the
variation of force on the liners and relative velocity between the

1175

M. Rezaeizadeh et al. / Minerals Engineering 23 (2010) 11741181

Nomenclature
A
E
F
fcg
fweight
g
H
Ho
Jt
JB
k
l
Nm
Nc
Nr
Pave
P0av e

lifter area (m2)

fractional porosity of charge
force on liner (N)
centrifugal force (N)
gravitational force (N)
acceleration due to gravity (ms2)
height of liners (mm)
initial height of liners (mm)
fraction of mill volume occupied by ore and ball
fraction of mill volume occupied by ball
empirical factor for wear
effective length of mill (m)
mill rotation rate (rev s1)
critical mill rotation (rev s1)
rotation rate of particle at radial distance, r, from centre
of mill (rev s1)
average pressure on top of lifters (pa)
average pressure on inclination surface of lifters (pa)

ore and the mill shell based on the mill operation as key input data
to the liner wear model.
2. Model description
It is well known that the wear process entails the removal of
material from solid surfaces under mechanical action during the
operation of a system under conditions such as impact, sliding motion and chemical reaction such as corrosion. In general the wear
process is primarily related to the sliding contact conditions and
impact action. Wear in general depends upon the properties of
the material surfaces, the surface roughness, the sliding distance,
the sliding velocity, normal force or pressure, impact conditions
and angle of impingement. To describe the wear mechanism
through constitutive equations and evolution laws the aforementioned parameters need to be applied.
2.1. DEM model description
The wear is related to relative velocity between the mill shell
and particles, but measuring the relative velocity between the mill
shell and particles is difcult. It was assumed that the relative
speed is near the mill speed. In order to test this assumption a
DEM simulation was conducted on a pilot scale ball mill to predict
the velocity eld of ore in the mill.
A non-linear model, combining Hertzs theory in the normal
direction and the improvement to Mindlins no-slip model
(Mindlin, 1949) in the tangential direction was employed (EDEM
2008) in modelling the contact between particles. Hertzs theory
of elastic contacts provides compact relations for the normal direction, deriving from integration of the normal pressure distribution
over the contact area (Di Maio and Di Renzo, 2005). In the tangential direction Mindlins no-slip model is utilised and this provides
the force-displacement congurations that are dependent on both
normal and tangential loading history. The relative tangential
velocity from the relative tangential motions over the collision behaves as an incremental spring that stores energy and represents
the elastic tangential deformation of the contacting surfaces. The
dashpot dissipates energy from the tangential motion and models
the tangential plastic deformation of the contact. The total tangential force is limited by the Coulombs law of friction (Cleary, 1998;
Di Renzo and Di Maio, 2004, EDEM 2008). The contact model
provides the relative tangential velocity history between particles

r
ri
rm
S
t
U
Vr
Vs

Hs
Ht

q
qB
qs
g
u
l
b

xr

radial position (m)

radial position of charge surface (m)
effective radius of mill inside liners (m)
fractional solids content of discharge slurry
time (h)
fraction of charge voids occupied by slurry
slippage velocity on top of liners (ms1)
slippage velocity on inclination surface of liners (ms1)
angular displacement shoulder position (rad)
angular displacement toe position, (rad)
density of total charge (tm3)
density of balls (tm3)
density of ore (tm3)
fraction of critical speed
face angle () (measured from the vertical)
coefcient of friction
abrasion angle ()
angular velocity at radial distance (r), (rad/s)

and the surface they are in contact with, along with the contact
pressure. Using the EDEM code, a set of DEM simulations were performed with inputs as shown in Table 1. The information derived
from DEM is then fed into the wear model described in the following section.
2.2. Wear model description
The recent work of Radziszewski et al. (2005) reports that impact wear provides a negligible contribution to ball wear in SAG
mills. Based on this it is proposed that abrasion wear provides
the prime contribution to liner wear in primary and SAG mills.
So in this work only abrasive wear is considered and the effect of
the impact load in the normal direction only is thought to be negligible. A normal loading with a tangential sliding component
forms the basis of the wearing mechanism.
The relationship of Radziszewski et al. (2005) for the rate of
wear, as given in Eq. (1), is used as the wear model in this work.

x_ q

tanbF
lF x_
pHr

where q is the metal density; b is the abrasion angle. As illustrated

in Fig. 1, F is the loading force; Hr is the metal hardness; l is the friction angle; and x_ is the sliding velocity.
The coefcient of friction and abrasion angle are considered to
be constant when the force and relative velocity are above the critical limit, as reported by Radziszewski et al. (2005). It is also assumed that the variation of hardness of liners during the mill

Table 1
Mill parameters for DEM model.
Mill diameter, mm
Mill length, mm
Mill velocity, rad/s
Mill lling, %
Height of liner, mm
Face angle,
Number of rows of lifters
Density of media, kg/m3
Youngs modulus of balls, GPa
Poissons ratio of balls
Coefcient of restitution
Coefcient of static friction
Coefcient of rolling friction

1000
100
3.3 (75% cv)
26
14
14.5
60, 30, 15
7800
200
0.3
0.5
0.5
0.01

Ball diameter, mm
6
8
10
15
25

Number
3000
3900
4000
1350
900

1176

M. Rezaeizadeh et al. / Minerals Engineering 23 (2010) 11741181

Fig. 1. Abrasive grain model of abrasive wear.

operation is negligible. Thus it is necessary to derive the force and

the relative velocity on the wearing surface in order to model the
wear. This will be the central focus of this paper.
A theoretical model is used in this work in order to analyze the
forces in the mill charge region. Fig. 2 shows the simplied sketch
of the charge region in a mill for analyzing the charge forces, after
Morrell (1996a,b).
Considering a small element of charge (Fig. 2), the forces near
the toe region in the absence of impact forces depends only on
the centrifugal and gravity forces, as given by Eq. (2). This is a simplication of the dynamic charge condition that must also include
spikes of force from the descending media. However, this is difcult to account for, and is partially accommodated in a smoothed
out manner by the lumping of the charge into the thick annulus given by the simplied Morrell charge shape.

df dfcg dfweight

2
r

dfcg rx  dm

dfweight gdm

dm qdV qlr  dr  dh

dh is the subtended angle, dr is the radial width and l is the length of

the element.
When Eq. (2) is integrated across the width of the lifter the force
on the top of the lifter is obtained:

ri

J tqs 1  E EUS J B qB  qs 1  E J t EU1  S

J t 1 EU  1

U>1
8

J tqs 1  E EUS J B qB  qs 1  E J t EU1  S

Jt

U61
9


ri rm 1 

2pJ t
2p hs  ht

0:5
10

Using Eqs. (2)(10), the normal force on the liner is represented

as following equation:

2p2 qNm 2 r2m r m  r i lDh qgr 2m  r 2i lDh

3
2

11

where Dh is:

h2
2

lqr 2pNr lqgrdr  dh

h1

Nm r m r  r i
rr m  ri

q and ri are derived from the following equations (Morrell, 1992):

and gravitational force is given by the following equation:

rm

Nr

where centrifugal force on the small element is given by the following equation:

ri is the inner radius of load. According to Eq. (5) the force on the top
of lifter is derived by integration on the top of lifter from h1 to h2 in
the toe region. In accordance with the stated hypothesis that the
maximum forcevelocity combination is responsible for almost all
the wear, only the maximum condition is considered, and this is
at the vertical position at the base of the mill.
Where Nr is the rotational velocity of a particle at radial distance
r from the centre of the mill (Morrell, 1992), as calculated from the
following equation:

Dh h2  h1

Fig. 2. Simplied shape of mill charge.

12

M. Rezaeizadeh et al. / Minerals Engineering 23 (2010) 11741181

The surface of the top of the liner can be dened by the following equation:

A lr m  HDh

13

The average pressure on the liners will be derived by dividing

the normal force on the surface of top of liners:

P av e

2p2 qNm 2 r 2m r m  r i qgr 2m  r2i

2r m  H
3r m  H

14

As shown in Eq. (14) the average pressure on the top of liner is a

function of density, mill velocity, charge position and height of liners. The average pressure on the face of liner in the toe region will
vary based on the face angle that is given by:

"

#
2p2 qNm 2 r2m r m  r i qg r 2m  r 2i
P0av e

sin u
2r m  H2
2r m  H2

15

In this model the friction value is based on the mill speed and
force on the liners (Radziszewski et al., 2005).
The DEM model is used to predict the velocity prole of the
balls in the mill. The magnitudes of these are shown in Fig. 3. In
the contact region between the mill shell and particles below the
bulk of the charge and along the rising edge, the velocity of the particles is near to the mill velocity of 1.65 ms1 and so the relative
velocity is almost zero. Whereas the particle velocity in the toe
charge region is in the opposite direction to the liner motion or below 0.05 ms1 and so the relative velocity between the ore and the
shell will be near to the mill velocity.
Fig. 4 shows the variation of ball velocity per a revolution. The
letters correspond to the locations illustrated in Fig. 3.
As shown in Fig. 4 when the ball is in full contact with the shell
in the upward moving region, its velocity is close to the mill velocity and so the relative velocity vanishes (point A). As it reaches the
shoulder the velocity drops off then at point B the ball is projected
into ight or cascading. At point C the ball impacts at high speed in
the toe region and its velocity rapidly approaches the mill velocity
as it is drawn once again into the locked-in region of the charge. In
regions B and D the ball velocity is lower than the mill velocity. In
this case the mill charge is 26% and the number of lifters is 60.

1177

Fig. 5 shows the ball velocity for a mill with 30 and 15 lifters. These
show similar velocity proles as for the 60 rows of lifters. Fig. 6
shows the consistent repetition of the particle velocity over several
revolutions.
Only in the toe region does the ball velocity vary considerably
from the shell velocity. Therefore, it can be concluded that the
majority of wear occurs in the toe region. As the incoming velocity
of the particles is approximately perpendicular to the mill shell, the
relative velocity in this region is approximated to be the mill shell
speed.
Based on this the relative velocities between the ore and the top
of lifters is given by the tangential velocity of the lifter tip, as given
by Eq. (16):

V r r m  Hx

16

The relative velocity on the face of the lifter is particularly difcult to calculate theoretically. However, it should be approximately equal to that along the top of the lifters, as the outer
band of material moves over and across the lifters in a continuous
stream. The DEM simulations support this, as shown in Fig. 7 by
the relative velocities on the top and the face of the lifter closely
tracking each other as the lifter moves through the charge (h
changing).
So the same value, Vr is used for the velocity along the face of
the lifter, Vs.

Vs Vr

17

The Radziszewski relationship of Eq. (1) is modied to accommodate the format adopted in this work; the velocities given by
Eqs. (16) and (17); and the pressure given by Eq. (15); to give
the rate of wear on the top and the face of liner according to Eqs.
(18) and (19):
Vertical rate of wear of lifter:

DH
P av e
Vr
K
Dt
HB

18

Rate of perpendicular thickness loss from lifter face:

DH
P0
K av e V s
Dt
HB

Fig. 3. Velocity magnitudes of particles in the mill as predicted by DEM simulations (shell velocity is 1.65 m s1).

19

1178

M. Rezaeizadeh et al. / Minerals Engineering 23 (2010) 11741181

B
C
A

Fig. 4. Variation of ball velocity on the mill shell (60 rows of lifters).

Fig. 5. Variation of ball velocity on the mill shell for 30 and 15 rows of lifters.

2.5

Relative velocity, m/sec

top of liner

face of liner

1.5

0.5

Fig. 6. Variation of ball velocity on the mill shell (60 rows of lifters).

The density factor is removed to convert the relationship to volume loss. The Force given in the Radziszewski Equation is changed
to pressure, as this is the real driver of wear rate, with force being
relevant for a given contact surface area. This change also allows
the wear to be expressed as height loss rather than volume loss.where k is:

tanbl

20

where b is the abrasion angle, Fig. 1, and HB is the Brinnel hardness.

Radziszewski et al. (2005) showed experimentally that the coef-

10

20

30

40

(degree)
Fig. 7. Comparison of the relative velocity along the top and face of the lifter.

cient of friction and the abrasion angle are constant when the forces
on the surface are more than a critical value of around 300 N. In a
real mill the forces are usually more than 600 N, so this simplication should be valid. For a given ore-metal combination K is approximately a constant which is derived by experiment. For the present

M. Rezaeizadeh et al. / Minerals Engineering 23 (2010) 11741181

case it is considered that K = 1.5e5 (for b = 0.01, l = 0.27) as derived by Radziszewski for a typical milling application.
3. Validation of the model
The model has been validated against experimental results that
were obtained from an industrial SAG mill. The SAG mill is lined in
two rings each consisting of 60 rows of rail type liners. The liners
are cast chrome-molybdenum steel with an average Brinnell hardness of 350. The mill operating conditions and geometric specications are given in Table 2.
Banisi and Hadizadeh (2006) used a mechanical prole gauge
for measuring the wear of the liners at six points along each liner
block that was monitored. Based on the detailed data that was collected, the authors proposed a relation for the rate of mass loss of
the liners and showed that the wear along the mill length is nonuniform. In this work the results from the theoretical model applied to the mill operating in the same conditions is compared with
this excellent set of experimental results obtained from the Sarcheshmeh SAG mill on the different sections along the liners. In
Fig. 8 the theoretical result is compared with the ve sections
and their overall average wear.
Si shows the six different equally spaced sections of lifters along
the mill length. The results from the theoretical predictions are in
good agreement with the average experimental data. The model
predicted the ongoing wear as the liners wore down, so is capable
of predicting the rate of wear of the liners over a wide range of lifter heights.

Table 2
Characteristics of Sarcheshmeh SAG mill.
Speed, rpm
Critical speed, rpm
Speed, % of critical, V C
Maximum charge lling, %total mill volume, Jt
Ball lling, % total mill volume, JB
Maximum ball diameter, mm
Mill length, m
Mill diameter, m
Aspect ratio
Number of shell liners
Liner material
Liner height, H mm
Liner hardness
Specic gravity of ore, qs
Specic gravity of ball, qB
Fractional charge voidage, E
Fractional of voids occupied by slurry, U
Fractional solids content of mill discharge, S

10.52
13.72
77%
3035%
1012.5%
100
4.878
9.754
2
2  60
CrMo steel
146
Hb = 350
2.8
7.8
0.47
1.0
0.40.6

1179

4. Investigation of the model predictions of the inuence of

parameters on wear
The inuence of mill load, mill speed, friction condition and
material hardness on the wear process is illustrated by using the
new predictive model. Some parameters such as the mill load
and speed vary widely with mill operating conditions, but the variation of coefcient of friction and hardness is negligible. The liner
hardness is established at the time of manufacture. In order to control the wear, it is necessary to know how much each factor affects
the wear process. Fig. 9 shows the effect of mill charge on the average reduction of liner height (due to wear). The results compare
favourably with the experimental data from the Sarcheshmeh
SAG mill obtained from data made available by their technical
department. The simulation indicates that an increase in the mill
charge will increase the wear of liners.
Fig. 10 shows the effect of the mill charge lling on the wear of
the face of the liner in the normal direction on the face of liners. As
the mill lling increases the wear increases. The theoretical results
that are obtained from the model are in good agreement with the
measured results. The predicted values have a 0.2 mm offset from
the experimental data when using the same model parameters as
for the wear on the top of the lifter. This indicates that the form
of the model may require some ne tuning in the future.
The wear of the liner prole is not uniform, because the average
pressure on the surfaces of liners, relative velocity and friction condition will change based on the variation of the liner prole in the
course of operation. Fig. 11 shows the variation of average pressure
on the top and the face of liners with operation time.
Measuring the average pressure on the liner in the real mill is
difcult. Therefore in this work in order to validate the correlation,

Fig. 9. Modelled and experimental reduction of liner height as a function of mill

lling (%J) for the Sarcheshmeh SAG mill (x = 1.1rad/sec, Hb = 350, operating
time = 1000 h).

120
100

H (mm)

80

S1
S2

60

S3
S4

40

S5

20

average
theoretical

0
0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

t (hour)
Fig. 8. Comparison of the model predictions with experimental data for the lifter
wear of the Sarcheshmeh SAG mill.

Fig. 10. Modelled and experimental reduction of liner width as a function of mill
lling (%J) for the Sarcheshmeh SAG mill (x = 1.1rad/sec, Hb = 350, operating
time = 1000 h).

1180

M. Rezaeizadeh et al. / Minerals Engineering 23 (2010) 11741181

top

face

Fig. 11. Model and DEM predictions of the variation of average pressure on the liners versus operation time.

Fig. 12. Model and DEM predictions of the variation of average pressure as the height and face angle change with lifter wear.

a DEM simulation based on the same conditions is used. As shown

during the operation, the pressure on the liners will increase. This
can be attributed to the displacement of load position with the inner radius decreasing and this leads to the gravitational loading
and centrifugal forces simultaneously increasing.
The pressure on the top of the lifter is higher than the face of
lifter, so the rate of wear on the face of liners is lower than the wear
on the top of liners during the course of operation. This can be ascribed to the relative velocity and displacement of load position
with respect to the liner surface. The average pressure on the face
increases far more than for the top of the lifter, by 40 as opposed to
20 kPa. This is a function of the combined change in face angle and
height resulting in a considerable increase in the direct pressure on
the face of the lifter.
Fig. 12 shows the effects of lifter face angle (measured from the
vertical) and lifter height on the average pressure. It can be seen
that the effect of lifter angle on the average pressure is more than
the liner height. Based on Eqs. (14) and (15) the pressure on the liners is a function of charge condition, liner prole, density and mill
characteristics, so the model is capable of showing the inuence of
these factors. Also Eqs. (18)(20), show that the wear is related to
the pressure, mill velocity, coefcient of friction and abrasion angle. Therefore it is possible to investigate the effect of all the inuencing parameters on the lifter wear by using the new model.

5. Summary and conclusions

In this paper, a new predictive model for the wear of lifters in
mills has been proposed. This model is capable of showing the ef-

fect of inuencing parameters on the wear during the mill operation. The new model can be used in a computer program to
rapidly predict the wear based on the mill operating conditions.
The conclusions can be summarized as follows:
 The model that has been proposed for the wear is in good agreement with the industrial results for the Sarcheshmeh SAG mill
and it is proposed to test it on other accurately measured industrial cases.
 The inuences of the controlling parameters such mill charge
lling, height and face angle of lifters on the wear are investigated and the results are in agreement with the industrial data.
 The results show that when the height of the liners decreases,
the pressure on the liners and wear rate increases.
 When the face angle increases, the pressure on the liners and
wear rate increases.
 All components of the wear model have been programmed in
Delphi and can be used to predict the wear on-line. The program can also be used to indicate the wear life potential of different designs of lifters, for the same liner material and ore as
for the calibration base case.
 Currently the model has to be calibrated against production
data. The next step in development is to link it to a mechanistic
wear test, such as that of Radziszewski.
 The model has been developed for application to lifter bars with
simplied at faces. Dividing the face up into smaller segments
allows the potential to model the rounding out of lifters with
wear.
 The next stage is to extend the DEM studies to calibrate the
model for the liner plates.

M. Rezaeizadeh et al. / Minerals Engineering 23 (2010) 11741181

Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank from the National Iranian Copper
Industries Company (N.I.C.Co.) for supporting this research. Special
appreciation is also extended to the maintenance, metallurgy and
R&D personnel for their continuous help. The help received from
H. Mahmoudabadi, S. Zaidabadi are gratefully acknowledged. The
academic version of the DEM solutions software, EDEM, was used
for the simulations. The authors are grateful to Julius Kruttschnitt
Mineral Research Centre for supporting this research.
References
Banisi, S., Hadizadeh, M., 2006. 3-D liner wear prole measurement and analysis in
industrial SAG mills. Minerals Engineering 20 (2), 132139.
Bird, S., Lamb, A.E., Lamb, W., Partridge, D.W., 2001. Evolution of sag mill shell liner
design at Kennecott Utah copper concentrator, SAG 2001. In: International
Autogenous and Semiautogenous Grinding Technology. University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, September 30October 3, vol. 3, pp. 256269.
Cleary, P.W., 1998. Predicting charge motion, power draw, segregation and wear in
ball mills using discrete element methods. Minerals Engineering 11 (11), 1061
1080.
Di Maio, F.P., Di Renzo, A., 2005. Modelling particle contacts in distinct element
simulations: linear and non-linear approach. Chemical Engineering Research
and Design 83 (11), 12871297.
Di Renzo, A., Di Maio, F.P., 2004. Comparison of contact-force models for the
simulation of collisions in DEM-based granular ow codes. Chemical
Engineering Science 59, 525541.
EDEM User Manual, 2008. Copyright 20022008 DEM Solutions.
Hart, S., Valery, W., Clements, B., Reed, M., Ming Song, Dunne, R., 2001. Optimisation
of the Cadia hill SAG mill circuit. In: Barratt, et al. (Eds.), Proceedings
International autogenous and Semiautogenous Grinding Technology 2001,
September 30October 3, vol. I. Published CIM, pp. 1130.
Kalala, J.T., Bwalya, M.M., Moys, M.H., 2005a. Discrete element method (DEM)
modelling of evolving mill liner proles due to wear. Part I. DEM validation.
Minerals Engineering 18, 13861391.
Kalala, J.T., Bwalya, M.M., Moys, M.H., 2005b. Discrete element method (DEM)
modelling of evolving mill liner proles due to wear. Part II. Industrial case
study. Minerals Engineering 18, 13921397.

1181

Kendrick, M.J., Marsden, J.O., 2001. Candelaria post expansion evolution of SAG mill
liner design and milling performance, 19982001, SAG 2001. In: International
Autogenous and Semiautogenous Grinding Technology. University of British
Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada, September 30October 3, vol. 3, pp. 270
287.
Makokha, A.B., Moys, M.H., 2006. Towards optimising ball-milling capacity: effect of
lifter design. Minerals Engineering 19, 14391445.
Makokha, A.B., Moys, M.H., Bwalya, M., Kiangi, K., 2007. A new approach to
optimizing the life and performance of worn liners in ball mills: experimental
study and DEM simulation. International Journal of Minerals Processing 84,
221227.
McBride, A.T., Powell, M.S., 2006. A structured approach to modelling SAG mill liner
wear numerical modelling of liner evolution. In: Mular, et al. (Eds.),
Proceedings International Autogenous and Semiautogenous Grinding
Technology 2006, September 2427, vol. III. Published CIM, pp. 120132.
McIvor, R.E., 1983. Effects of speed and liner conguration on ball mill performance.
Mining Engineering (June), 617622.
Meekell, W., Adams, A., Hanna, K., 2001. Mill liner development at Highland Valley
Copper. In: Barratt, et al. (Eds.), Proceedings International Autogenous and
Semiautogenous Grinding Technology 2001, September 30October 3, vol. III.
Published CIM, pp. 224239.
Mindlin, R.D., 1949. Compliance of elastic bodies in contact. Journal of Applied
Mechanics 16, 259268.
Morrell, S., 1992. Predication of grinding mill power. Transactions of Institution of
Mining and Metallurgy (Sect. C: Miner. Proc. Extr. Metal.) 101 (January).
Morrell, S., 1996a. Power draw of wet tumbling mills and its relationship to charge
dynamic, Part1: a continuum approach to mathematical modeling of mill power
draw. Transactions of Institution of Mining and Metallurgy Section C 105.
Morrell, S., 1996b. Power draw of wet tumbling mills and its relationship to charge
dynamic. Part 2: an empirical approach to modeling of mill power draw.
Transactions of Institution of Mining and Metallurgy.
Powell, M.S., Smit, I., Radziszewski, P., Cleary, P., Rattray, B., Eriksson, K., Schaeffer,
L., 2006. The selection and design of mill liners. In: Kawatra, S.K. (Ed.), Advances
in Comminution. Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., Colorado,
USA., pp. 331376 (ISBN-13: 978-0-87335-246-8).
Radziszewski, P., 1997. Ball Charge Dynamics and Liner wear simulation, Canadian
Mineral Processors Conference, Ottawa, January.
Radziszewski, P., Varadi, R., Chenje, T., Santella, L., Sciannamblo, A., 2005. Tumbling
mill steel media abrasion wear test development. Minerals Engineering 18,
333341.
Teeri, T., Kuokkala, V.T., Siitonen, P., Reponen, P.K., Liimatainen, J., 2006. Impact
wear in mineral crushing. Science and Engineering 12 (4), 408418.