A NEW ELECTRONIC CONTROLLED SUSPENSION USING PIEZO-ELECTRIC CERAMICS

Hidemori Tsuka
Jiro Nakano
Yuji Yokoya
Dept. No. 6 , Electrical & Electronics Engineering Div.
TOYOTA MOTOR CORPORATION
1 , Toyota-cho, 'I'oyota, Aichi 471, Japan
Phone : 0565-28-2121
FAX: 0565-23-5792
Telex:: 4528371 TOYOTA J
Akira Fukami
Yoshio Hirano
NIPPONDENSO CO,. LTD.
1 - 1 Showa-cho, Kariya, Aichi 448, Japan
Abstruct: A new electronic controlled suspension
system called Piezo TEMS (Toyota Electronic Modulated
Suspension) was developed by using piezo electric ceramics for a sensor, and an actuator. As a result, a
good drivability and a vehicle stability can be obtained with an improved riding comfort.

Speed sensor i
Piezo TEMS indicator
(Road surface

INTRODUCTION
In 1983 TOYOTA adopted the TEMS (TOYOTA
electronic modulated suspension) for mass market
models, and during the following six years has
further employed the TEMS in a wide range of models
[ l , 21. Subsequently, the development of electronic
modulated suspension has progressed both in Japan and
abroad, and this system been incorporated in mass
produced models by a number of manufacturers [ 3 , 4 ,
5, 6, 7, 81.
Electronic modulated suspension utilizes
electronic control technology. It ensures stability,
controllability and riding comfort by means of a
system designed for optimization of the damping force
characteristics of shock absorbers in accordance with
the vehicle speed and the operational behavior of the
driver. The basic concept of conventional TEMS
systems consists of constantly applying a "soft"
damping force to ensure riding comfort in the first
instance, and applying a "firm" damping force only
when the driver causes the vehicle to lurch.
On the other hand, the "Piezo TEMS" system
developed by the present research consists of
constantly applying a firm damping force to first
ensure stability and then instantaneously switching
to a soft damping force in adaptation to the state of
the road. That is, if the basic damping force is
firm, then operating characteristics are improved,
but since sudden road elevations or bumps detract
from riding comfort, the system detects such road
elevations and switches to a soft damping force for
only an instant in order to prevent shocks to the
vehicle frame. If road irregularities continue and
the soft damping force causes rocking or wobbling of
the vehicle, the control system again changes to the
firm damping force in order to absorb the rocking
motion [9, 10, 11, 121.
In order to realize this concept, a sensor employing piezoceramic materials and capable of detecting road level irregularities at high speeds, as well
as an actuator, likewise employing piezoceramics and
effecting high-speed changeover of the damping force,
were developed.
The parts arrangement of the system is shown in
Figure 1.

Fig. 1 PARTS ARRANGEMENT DRAWING

SHOCK ABSORBER
Figure 2 shows a cross-section of the principal
portion of the shock absorber. A main piston generating a firm damping force is fitted to the tip of
the piston rod as in conventional shock absorbers.
The hollow interior of the piston rod contains a
"road surface sensor" employing a piezoelectric element which detects vertical irregularities in the
road surface. In addition, the piston rod incorporates a piezoelectric actuator, a displacement amplifier and a switching valve for a subsidiary flow
channel.

Piston rod
Road surface sensor

Piezoelectric actuator

Subsidiary flow
channel

Magnification chamber

Switching valve

Fig. 2. CROSS-SECTION OF THE PRINCIPAL PORTION

OF THE SHOCK ABSORBER

50

insulation from the piston rod (at zero potential)

fastened inside the piston rod with a screw, so configured that the force f applied to the piezoelectric
elements constitutes a prescribed fraction of the
damping force F.
The output of this road surface
sensor is given by the following formulae.

when compared to that found when a vehicle passes

over bumps, it is known that measuring the second derivative of displacement will give good results for
detecting bumps on the road.
Figure 4 shows an operational model of the absorber. The unsprung is subjected to a force F according to the state of the road surface, whereupon
the shock absorber undergoes displacement. The presence of the main piston results in a difference in
oil pressure between the upper and lower chambers and
a damping force F is generated. This damping force F
is transmitted to the sprung via the piston rod.
Table I shows a comparison of methods for measuring the second derivative ?. One sensor should be
sufficient when the relative displacement x is measured, but two differentiations are necessary.
A
measured value is differentiated twice, then the SIN
ratio decreases and the precision drops.

I = n X d33 x k x F
V = n x d33 X k X b X Ri

Here, n denotes the number of piezoelectric elements

used in the device, d33 is the piezoelectric constant
of .these elements, and k is the distribution ratio ( k
f/F), which is determined by the dimensions and
Young's modulus of the various parts of the sensor
and rod. Ri denotes the input impedance of the ECU
As is clear from these
(Electronic Control Unit).
formulae, in order to obtain a sufficiently large
output, all of these coefficients should be as large
TABLE I .
as possible. Thus, regarding n, use of the largest
METHODS FOR MEASUREING THE SECOND DERIVATIVE
number of elements permitted by the available space
is most desirable. Due to restrictions on the thick1
Relative
ness of the piezoelectric elements imposed by the
Damping
cceleration
displacement
manufacturing process, the value of n in the present
force F
G
X
road surface sensor is 5. The piezoelectric constant
d33 is determined by the crystal system and material
composition, however, for use in a road surface sensor, not only a large value of d33 but also comparatively small changes in sensitivity due to aging are
necessary. Accordingly, a material with a large valX
ue of d33 was selected from among the category of teConversion
tragonal crystals, which are characterized by comto x'
paratively small temporal changes. The ratio k was
given the largest value (k = 0.1) consistent with the
restrictions imposed by the required mechanical
One order
Direct
Two orders
strength of the piston.
differential
differential

Number of
sensors

In the
Sprung GI
Unsprung G2) (piston rod

'

output

X, proportional to the vertical acceleration G,

can be measured directly. However, since both sprung
and unsprung measurements are necessary, two sensors
are required.
The damping force F is proposional to i , therefore one differentiation is sufficient to determine
x.
Moreover only one sensor is required, because F
is generated by the relative velocity of sprung and
unsprung. Therefore, a desirable method for a road
surface sensor is direct detection of the rate of
change of the damping force F.
A piezoelectric transducer (PZT) provides the
most suitable means for direct detection of the damping force F. In general, the application of a force
"f" to piezoelectric ceramics generates a charge Q
proportional to the force. Therefore, the rate of
change of the charge Q, that is, the current I , is
proportional to the rate of change f of the force.
Hence, if the current I encounters an electrical resistance Ri, then the output voltage V is given by
the following formula. Thus, the rate of change of
the damping force can be detected directly and linearly.

Electrode disk
Piezoelectric e1ements
Electrode disk
Insulating disk

nL3

Piston rod
Damping force F

Fig. 5. THE STRUCTURE OF A ROAD SURFACE SENSOR

Figure 6 shows the output characteristics of the
sensor. The abscissa of this graph represents the
rate of change of the damping force and the ordinate
represents sensor output. The sensor output is proportional to the rate of change of the damping force
and displays good linearity for both compression and
tension.
Installation of this road surface sensor in a
shock absorber demonstrated that the sensor possesses
sufficiently rapid response characteristics, the required detection threshold level being attained in a
response time of 2ms. Also, trials confirmed that
this sensor can detect the profile of the road surface with high sensitivity when installed in a vehicle.

I = f
V - I X R i a k
Figure 5 is a schematic illustration of the
structure of a road surface sensor employing piezoelectric elements. The device is composed of several
piezoelectric elements, two electrode disks to extract the output signal and two insulating disks for

51

--lo

the displacement-force product.

In the following,
the development of materials ensuring the high performance characteristics of the piezoelectric actuator will be described.
The raw materials in the piezoelectric elements
were compounded by varying the proportions of the
main constituents, i. e., lead oxide, zirconium dioxide, titanium dioxide, etc.
After pressing and
sintering, these elements were assembled to form the
required piezoelectric actuator with the structure
described above. The performance of these piezoelectric actuators was evaluated on the basis of the
above-mentioned maximum work Wmax.
The piezoelectric materials considered for use
in the piezoelectric actuator were solid solutions
with three components including the compound perovskite and having different crystal system demarcated
by a morphotropic phase boundary (MPB). If the content of PbZr03 is large, then the crystals assume a
rhombohedral form, while if the PbTi03 content is
large, the form becomes tetragonal. Since the displacement is known to be generally greatest on the
MPB, the composition which provides the largest displacement on the MPB is ordinarily used in PZT materials.
Thus, as the first step in the development of
the piezoelectric materials, the constituents which
would provide the greatest value of Wmax on the MPB
were considered. The position of the MPB is determined by the quantity of lead substituted by strontium and the quantities of additives.
Figure 8c
shows the values of Wmax on the MPB plotted against
the quantity of substituted strontium as abscissa and
the quantity of additive (compound perovskite) as parameter. Point A represents the composition providing the greatest displacement (data not shown).
While point B represents the composition associated
with the greatest value of Wmax. As seen from Figure
8c, the performance of a piezoelectric actuator using
the constituents represented by point B is about 15%
higher than that of an actuator using the composition
indicated by point A.
The second step in material development consisted of studies to determine whether or not some composition existed which would provide even a greater
value of Wmax. The value of Wmax for a piezoelectric
actuator is given by the formula
WmaxmKx Ec x Psx 7

Defferential of
the damping force
(xi05 NISI

- -20
- -30

Fig. 6. THE OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS

OF THE ROAD SURFACE SENSOR
PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR
Figure 7 shows the structure of the actuator.
Thin discoid piezoelectric elements with electrodes
formed on both faces are alternately laminated with
electrode disks and the stack is integrated by welding the projecting leads on the electrode disks.
Metal and insulating dummies are provided on the two
ends of the laminated stack and the circumference of
which is enveloped by an insulating tube.
Electrode plate
tion

wire

/I

II

K: constant
Ec: coercive field

Fig. 7. THE STRUCTURE OF THE ACTUATOR

Ps: spontaneous polarization

Being electrically connected in parallel, the
piezoelectric elements can be driven by comparatively
low voltage.
Also, this piezoelectric actuator
structure permits the stacking of large diameter piezoelectric elements and therefore facilitates the
construction of a piezoelectric actuator providing
the large output required for use in Piezo TEMS.
Since the piezoelectric actuator operates the
switching valve, the actuator must gznerate the required product of displacement and force, i. e.,
work. Figure- 8a shows the displacement versus generated force characteristic of the piezoelectric actuator. This relation is expressed by a straight line
and the actuator can operate at any point on this
line. Figure 8b shows the displacement-work relation. The work performed by the actuator attains a
maximum (Wmax) at a displacement of about 30pm.
Therefore, the highest efficiency is obtained when
the switching valve is operated at the point corresponding to this value Wmax. That is, the development of suitable materials for a piezoelectric actuator requires not only large values of the displacement and force bu't also a large maximum value Wmax of

7: effective domain rotation.

Analyzing the above formula, the coercive Ec and effective domain rotation 7 were found to be functions
of the molar ratio of PbZr03. The results of experimental studies conducted to determine the precise relation between Wmax and the molar ratio of PbZr03 are
shown in Figure 8d. The broken line bisecting the
figure represents the MPB, the domain of the righthand side of the MPB corresponds to rhombohedral system and that on the left-hand side to tetragonal system. As seen in this figure, the greatest value of
Wmax is attained at a point on the rhombohedral side
of the MPB. That is, the greatest value of Wmax for
the piezoelectric actuator is attained at point C,one
mole percent on the rhombohedral side of the MPB,
where Wmax is approximately 10% greater than the value corresponding to the MPB composition. On the basis of the above considerations, a material for piezoelectric actuators with a composition which provided a value of Wmax approximately 25% greater than
that of the composition corresponding to maximum displacement was successfully developed.

52

o%o

20
40
60 Displacement (pm)
Fig.8-a. THE DISPLACEMENT VERSUS
GENERATED FORCE CHARACTERISTIC

1;

1'1

1;

14

1'5

Quantity of strontium (mol%)

Fig. 8-c. THE VALUE OF Wmax ON THE MPB

W max
45

Tetragonal

-2

E 4c

z=
E

3!

20

40

60 Displacement (pm)

/.S.

Fig. 8-b. THE DISPLACEMENT VERSUS

WORK LOAD CHARACTERISTIC
Fig. 8-d. CRYSTAL SYSTEM AND Wmax

The results of this development project made

possible the manufacture of a piezoelectric actuator
generating the required amount of work and sufficiently miniaturized as to permit installation in the
limited space within the piston rod. Figure 9 shows
a time chart representing the changeover from "firm"
to "soft" when the piezoelectric actuator was incorporated into a shock absorber. As seen from this
figure, the response time can be arbitrarily varied
by adjusting the magnitude of the output resistance
Ro.
In fact, a minimum response time of 5ms was
achieved.

ECU
-

The configuration of the ECU is shown in Figure

IO. The CPU is an 8-bit one-chip microprocessor especially developed for use in vehicles, and permits
high-speed processing with a minimum arithmetic proHigh voltage
cessing time of 500nsec.
After current/voltage conversion by an analog
mfn
Piezoelectric active filter, the road surface sensor signals are
fed to the CPU via an A/D converter.
actuator
Soft
The circuitry for the high-voltage system employed for driving the piezoelectric actuators is
Firm
composed of a booster circuit generating a high voltage, driving circuits supplying the high voltage generated by the booster circuit to the piezoelectric
actuators, and a failsafe circuit monitoring the high
voltage
( ~ < ~Ro2)
1
The failsafe function prohibits generation of
high voltage upon detecting open or short of the circuits, o r malfunctions of the booster circuit.
Soft
The ECU processes the minute current (a few ,A)
output by the road surface sensor as well as the high
0
5
10
voltage used for driving the piezoelectric actuators.
Time (ms)
Since the road surface sensor signals of just a few
pA are extremely small even as regards the magnitude
of signals ordinarily processed by vehiclar ECU,
Fig. 9. RESPONSE OF DAMPING FORCE

c)

Moreover, this actuator was activated more than

ten million times without any change in performance
characteristics, thus confirming the high durability
of the device.

0
T

53

Indicator

Piezoelectric
Actuator

Fig. IO. ECU Block Diagram

elimination of interference by noise generated inside
and outside the vehicle is necessary. Moreover, when
high voltage is handled within the ECU, switching
noise from the high-voltage power source as well as
actuator drive noise must be diminished. The processing circuit for the road surface sensor signals
and the piezoelectric actuator driving circuit w i l l
be described in further detail below.
AMPLIFIER FOR ROAD SURFACE SENSOR
Figure lla shows a diagram of the road surface
sensor processing circuit.
As was mentioned above, ratio of change of the
damping force can be detected by a mechanism which
amplifies the current generated by the expansion o r
contraction of the road surface sensors. The input
impedance of the road surface sensor amplifier constitutes an important parameter in determining the
S/N ratio of the sensor signal. Figure Ilb shows the
equivalent circuit for the case where noise is convoluted with the signal. The piezoelectric elements
are charge-generating elements and represented as a
current source. The noise source is represented by a
constant-voltage source with a certain output impedance Zn; this noise is convoluted with the sensor
signal through the coupling impedance Zm. Thus, the
S/N ratio of the amplifier output is given by the
following formula.
S/NK =

The above formula implies that the S/N ratio can

be improved by increasing the input impedance Ri of
the amplifier and the coupling impedance Zm. In order to increase the coupling impedance Zm, sealed
wire was used in the wire harness of the vehicle.
That is, sealed wire was used with a view to reducing
the induced noise. On the other hand, when deciding
upon the input impedance Ri, leakage resulting from
moisture condensation or other causes must be considered, as indicated in Figure llc. Since the sensor
signal I(s) is divided between the input impedance Ri
and the leakage resistance R1, greater impedance Ri
is associated with larger leakage current and hence
with decrease of the S/N ratio. Therefore, the appropriate input impedance was determined by vehicle
tests and fixed at 16.5kR.

As shown in Figure . lla, the sensor amplifier

acts as a band pass filter by reducing the noise in
the low and high frequency bands. Noting the frequency characteristics of the signal representing the
rate of change of the damping force, the results of
vehicle tests indicated that the components of this
signal were in the range below 100Hz, and accordingly
the cutoff frequency of the low-pass filter was set
at 200Hz to reduce high-frequency noise. On the other hand, in order to allow the passage of the 1-2Hz
frequency components corresponding to the resonant
frequency of the sprung, the cutoff frequency of the
high-pass filter was set at 0.5Hz.
The signal representing the rate of change of
the damping force for the four wheels, fed to the ECU
in this manner, is cyclically read into the CPU via
an A/D converter, and all the arithmetic operations
from the reception of the rate of change of the damping force through the output processing required an
average of only 2 ms.

OUT
= (Ri+Zm+Zn) x
V OUT (N)
V(N)

V OUT (S);the signal component of the

amplifier output

V OUT (N);the noise component of the

Ri
Zm
Zn

I(S)
V(N)

amplifier output
-- RlXRZ
;the input impedance
of the sensor amplifier
Rl+W
;the coupling impedance
;the output impedance of the
noise source
;the output current of the
road surface sensor
;the voltage of the noise
source

DRIVE CIRCUIT OF PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR

Figure 12 shows the driving circuit of the piezoelectric actuator, while Figure 13 shows the voltage Pattern applied to the piezoelectric actuator.
The booster circuit, composed of a PWM type
switching power source, generates the 500V and -lOOV
tensions applied when the actuator is extended and
compressed, respectively.
The switching noise which occurs concomitantly

54

Road surface
sensor

of containment of the switching noise within the

high-voltage system. First, in the design of the
printed circuit, the pattern of the battery power lines was completely separated into high-voltage and
arithmetic processing systems.
Moreover, a filter
composed of a choke coil and a capacitor was inserted
into the battery power line of the high-voltage system. To prevent the switching noise generated by the
high-voltage source from entering the arithmetic processing system, CR filters composed of capacitors and
resistors were inserted into the signal interfaces
between them.
On the other hand, the mode of driving the piezoelectric actuators consists of setting the output
terminal of a piezoelectric actuator to OV and then
applying up to 500V when the damping force is changed
over to soft, and conversely, when the damping force
is to be restored to firm, first applying -lOOV and
then effecting a discharge which restores the potential to OV. This procedure is adopted in order to
avoid applying a constant high voltage upon the wire
harness of the vehicle and to mitigate electrocorrosion of the connections, etc.
Furthermore, by combining this driving mode and
the strategy of changing the damping force over to
firm upon stopping the vehicle, the output terminal
is maintained at OV while the vehicle is stopped,
thereby ensuring safety with respect to high voltages.
The output impedance of the driving circuit is
an extremely important design parameter. The output
impedance must be set at a low value in order to abruptly inject charge into the piezoelectric actuator
and effect rapid changeover of the damping force.
However, abrupt charging results in undesirable phenomena such as adverse effects of driving noise upon
other systems and operating noise in the damping
force switching valve.
Therefore, the output impedance of the driving
circuit must be set to a level sufficiently small as
to render these undesirable effects negligible; accordingly, on the basis of experimental results, the
output impedance was so chosen that the maximum actuator driving current would be 0.3A and the time constant would be approximately 3 ms.

a. ROAD SURFACE SENSOR AMPLIFIER

R2

b. THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR THE CASE

WHERE NOISE I(S) CONVOLUTED WITH
THE SIGNAL

R2

Road surface
sensor
Leakage
c. THE EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT FOR THE CASE
WHERE I(S) IS DIVIDED BETWEEN THE
INPUT INPEDANCE Ri AND THE LEAKAGE
RESISTANCE R1
Fig. 11. DIAGRAM OF THE ROAD SURFACE SENSOR
PROCESSING CIRCUIT

CONTROL STRATEGY

with the generation of high voltage has adverse effects upon the internal functioning of the ECU as
well as radio reception, etc., and must therefore be
suppressed to a low level or prevented from leaking
into the circuitry of the arithmetic processing system or to the exterior of the ECU. Snubber circuits
composed of resistors and capacitors are ordinarily
used for the suppression of switching noise, but this
adversely affects the efficiency of the switching
power source. Hence, the measures adopted consisted
500

The control strategy adopted for the Piezo TEMS

is as follows.
The basic concept of the Piezo TEMS consists of
ordinarily maintaining the damping force at a firm
level, and changing the damping force to soft for a
specified time when the rate of change of the damping
force caused by road profile irregularities exceeds a
threshold level computed within the ECU.
Detection of the road profile is performed independently at all four wheels, but changeover of damping force is executed simultaneously on the right and
left side.
In the Piezo TEMS, the above-described basic
strategy is augmented by the following two characteristic strategies.
The first is a road surface study strategy, consisting of varying the threshold level on the basis
of which the road surface changes are assessed, in
accordance with road and driving conditions. This
method operates by programming the system to study
the degree of irregularity of the road surface according to the frequency with which the rate of
change of the damping force exceeds the threshold
level. The damping force is changed over to soft at
a relatively high threshold level when the road is
comparatively irregular, and at a relatively low
threshold level when the road is comparatively flat.

V
output
register RO

Sealed wire

Piezoelectric
actuator

regulator

Fig. 12. PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR DRIVING CIRCUIT

55

This permits the further enhancement of rjding comfort on good roads and improved road holding on uneven road surfaces.

comparison to this, with the Piezo TEMS, vertical acceleration of the vehicle frame when passing over a
bump is restricted at the same level as in the soft
fixed mode although the basic damping force of the
Piezo TEMS is firm. This is an example of improvements in riding comfort.
Figure 15 illustrates effects of the Piezo TEMS
achieved when a vehicle is traveling over relatively
rough roads. Pitch rate of the Piezo TEMS is the
same as that of the firm fixed mode, showing that operation stability is at the same level as in the firm
fixed mode, Furthermore, riding comfort is known to
have been improved because vertical acceleration is
at the same level as in the soft fixed mode. From
this by using the Piezo TEMS, both riding comfort and
operation stability ar6 improved when a vehicle is
traveling on a relatively rough road.

LV

Piezoelectric actuator
driving voltage

500

-100

Fig. 13. PIEZOELECTRIC ACTUATOR DRIVING VOLTAGE

Moreover, the ECU receives information concerning vehicular speed, braking, and steering to correct
the threshold level so that changing the damping
force over to soft will not occur easily during high
speed traveling, braking and turning corners, thereby
improving operational stability and riding comfort.
The second supplementary strategy consists of
implementing control measures to suppress rocking of
the vehicle.
According to the basic control procedure, if a
rough road profile should continue, then the damping
force will frequently be soft and the vehicle will be
prone to occur. Therefore, when rocking is detected,
a firm damping force is temporarily maintained to
suppress the rocking, Detection of rocking is performed by extracting the sprung resonant frequency
component, obtained by integrating the road surface
sensor signal of the rear wheels.

[Auto]
Soft

um

Damping force
switching signal

Firm

I 0.98

m/s2

Vertical acceleration

Pitch rate
RESULT

[Firm-fixed]

Figure 14 shows an example of the performance

characteristics exhibited by the Piezo TEMS incorporating road surface sensors, ECU, and piezoelectric
actuators described above.

Firm

Vertical
acceleration

1' I I

Road surface
(Hight 5 mm,
Width 15 mm)
Damping force
switching signal

'
F
1

0.98 m/s2

1 'I

'

[Soft-fixed]
Vertical
acceleration

Auto

-Firm-fixed

---- Soft-fixed

Vertical acceleration
Fig. 15. EFFECT 2

SUMMARY

A high-speed road surface detection sensor capable of directly detecting the rate of change of the
damping force was developed by installing piezoelectric elements within the piston rod.
Moreover, piezoelectric elements were used to
develop actuators with greater durability and superio r response characteristics as compared with conventional actuators employing DC motors and-solenoids.
Using these piezoelectric sensors and actuators,
a new electronically controlled semi-active suspension system was developed. This system, called the
Piezo TEMS, mainLains a firm basic damping force and
changes over to a soft damping force when the road
input is particularly large, thereby avoiding the application of shocks to the vehicle frame,

Fig. 14. EFFECT 1

This example represents the process of riding
over a hum!> of 5 mm high and 15 mm wide at a vehicular speed of 30 km/h. The solid line shows the performance curve obtained in the automatic control mode
(Piezo TEMS). The performance when the damping force
is fixed to soft is indicated by dotted lines and
that when the damping force is fixed to firm is indicated by phantom lines.
If the damping force is
fixed to firm, vertical acceleration of the vehicle
frame is high when a vehicle passes over a bump. In

56

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Y. Yokoya, K. Asami, T. Hamajima, N. Nakashima:
Toyota Electronic Modulated Suspension (TEMS)
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1984
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57