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I n i t i a l considerations t o be applied t o a
d i s t r i b u t i o n system protection a n a l y s i s before
proceeding with a c t u a l coordination o f the protective
devices are:
A) The coordination for phase f a u l t s is carried
o u t for a three-phase bolted type o f f a u l t .
This
gives the maximum a v a i l a b l e f a u l t current a t a point
i n the d i s t r i b u t i o n system. The flow o f this current
can widely change when the p l a n t is operated a t
minimum generation or outage o f a source. In some
r a r e cases, the f a u l t c u r r e n t magnitude may sink
below t h e load c u r r e n t presenting s p e c i a l relaying
and coordination considerations.
Majority
of
electrical circuit
faults
o r i g i n a t e as a phase t o ground f a u l t . The flow o f
ground f a u l t c u r r e n t is dependent upon system
grounding and can vary over l a r g e values.
Future system expansion o f motor loads w i l l
contribute t o the short-circuit
currents.
An
increase i n the f a u l t a v a i l a b i l i t y can occur from a
u t i l i t y t i e source. The short-circuit d u t i e s o f the
high voltage switchgear a t primary d i s t r i b u t i o n w i l l
TABLE 1
Coordinatina Time I n t e r v a l
Relayed
Medium
Voltage
Breakers
c'ir )
Solid-state relays:
0.3 sec. 5 cycle breakers
0.35 sec. 8 cycle breaker
(Relay over-travel is eliminated)
Relayed
Weaker and
)ownstream
Fuses
Solid-state relays:
0.1 sec.
Relay over-travel and breaker opening
time is eliminated. It is possible
t o coordinate w i t h a s low a s 0.1 sec.
C T I f o r opening times below 1 sec.
.ow Voltage
Circuit
Breakers
rith Soliditate Trip
Devices
t- uses
I
I
I
I
I
S e t t i n g s must recognize p o s s i b i l i t y o f
asymmtricity on f a u l t , a s these relays
operate equally well on ac and dc
currents. Coordination without an
intervening impedance should not be
I attempted.
hstantaneous
Relays
I
(Electro- I
magnetic I
I
Type)
F i r s t cycle
devices operate i n 2 t o 3 cycles.
s h o r t - c i r c u i t c u r r e n t s should be considered f o r
operation o f these devices, though there may be some
decrement due t o ac and dc decay o f s h o r t - c i r c u i t
current components [131.
The time current coordination o f instantaneous
devices below 0.1 second when these may see t h e same
magnitude o f asymmetrical current is generally not
attempted. Reference [14] shows time-current p l o t s
of
protective devices extended down t o lr4
second.
For such a coordination t h e maximun
let-through current excursion o f a downstream device
under a l l conditions should be below the '*no operate"
boundary o f the upstream protective device.
1862
six
can
by
the
the
Fig.
1. S i n g l e l i n e d i a g r a m o f t h e a r b i t r a r y d i s t r i b u t i o n s y s t e m
s t u d i e d f o r p r o t e c t i v e d e v i c e coordination
functions i s excluded.
The modifications t o the
r e l a y i n g required on coordination attempts are a l s o
not shown i n Figure 1. These modifications appear on
the time-current coordination p l o t s i n Figures 2
through 10.
The system normally operates with bus t i e
breaker B between 13.8 kV buses A and B and the
The reactor t i e
reactor t i e breaker C closed.
normally c a r r i e s a load o f 6 MVA; however, i t can
suddenly increase t o 25 MVA, which the system can
support
without
excessive
voltage
drops.
The
e s s e n t i a l service load i s connected t o p l a n t
generation bus B.
The d i s t r i b u t i o n connected t o
breaker H i s studied for coordination o f p r o t e c t i v e
devices.
This load i s an essential service load and
should remain i n service when l o a d shedding has
i s o l a t e d the u t i l i t y t i e and dropped other loads
connected t o bus B.
The magnitude o f s h o r t - c i r c u i t
currents are not shown i n Figure 1, but i n the
individual
time-current
coordination
plots
in
Figures 1 through 10.
1863
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1864
1865
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FIGURE 5
D i f f e r e n t i a l relaying for 13.8 kV
feeders and transformers
provided on 480 v o l t feeder breakers and the fuses i n
the motor s t a r t e r c i r c u i t s a t each o f the 480 v o l t
motor
control
centers
can
also
create
single-phasing.
The 480 v o l t power c i r c u i t breakers
can open a l l t h e poles on operation o f a l i m i t e r .
This f a c i l i t y w i l l not be available for the motor
c i r c u i t fuses.
Three-pole thermal relays required by
Reference [11 may a f f o r d only a p a r t i a l p r o t e c t i o n on
single
phasing.
The
motor
negative
sequence
impedance i s much lower as compared t o i t s p o s i t i v e
sequence impedance; and for a motor drawing 6 times
the f u l l load s t a r t i n g current, a mere 5% voltage
unbalance can give r i s e t o 3OW: negative sequence
current. 118, 191 Recent a v a i l a b i l i t y o f molded case
c i r c u i t breakers and motor c i r c u i t protectors without
fuses i n i n t e r r u p t i n g r a t i n g s up t o 100 k A (current
l i m i t i n g type) can obviate the necessity o f fuses i n
480 v o l t motor c o n t r o l centers.
C) Referring t o Figure 2, the solid-state
p r o t e c t i v e devices of the 4000 ampere main secondary
breaker do not coordinate with transformer primary
A l a tolerance on the fuse minimum melting
fuses.
time c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and a f u r t h e r 16% s h i f t due t o
secondary
phaseto-phase
faults
should
be
considered. The improvements are shown i n Figure 3.
i) A transformer primary c u r r e n t - l i m i t i n g
fuse of 200 amperes i s selected i n Figure 3, instead
o f 150 amperes shown i n Figure 2.
This p u l l s the
fuse c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s away from the 4000 amperes
c i r c u i t breaker solid-state t r i p device short-time
operating delay band.
ii)A f u r t h e r advantage o f the divergent
fuse c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s i s taken by lowering the
short-time delay band o f 4OOO amperes c i r c u i t breaker
solid-state t r i p device.
This, however, requires
t h a t short-time delay band o f 800 ampere feeder
breaker t r i p device should also be lowered.
This
device must be equipped with a 12t f u n c t i o n t o
c l e a r the 200 hp motor s t a r t e r fuse.
Figure 3 shows t h a t the f a u l t clearance times
are reduced and the p r o t e c t i v e device coordination i s
improved.
D) Coordination o f p r o t e c t i v e devices i n s o l i d l y
grounded system requires due considerations.
The
phase f a u l t as w e l l as t h e ground f a u l t devices w i l l
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be operative, a s t h e ground-fault
current can
approach or even exceed three-phase short-circuit
current. Coordination is thus required not only w i t h
respect.t.0 ground-fault devices, but a l s o w i t h t h e
phase-fault devices. The phase-fault o r ground-fault
devices on the main secondary breaker should not
operate f a s t e r than similar protective devices on t h e
feeder breaker t o prevent a shutdown o f t h e t o t a l
load served from the main 480 v o l t distribution.
The arc f a u l t damage t h a t can occur on a ground
f a u l t i n 480 volt d i s t r i b u t i o n has been investigated
and limits o f the acceptable damage t o bus material
on release o f a r c f a u l t energy have been established
[20, U ] . A s m a r y o f t h e recent findings i s given
i n Appendix I, These form a b a s i s o f s e t t i n g s
adopted on ground - f a u l t protective devices 151.
Reference [l] gives the maximum limits o f the
acceptable ground - f a u l t c u r r e n t s e t t i n g s and time
delays. Lower s e t t i n g s should always be provided,
where possible, t o l i m i t t h e a r c f a u l t damage.
Figure 4 shows ground - f a u l t coordination.
The
s e t t i n g s chosen w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e following arc
f a u l t damages:
i)
4000 amperes main secondary breaker
ground f a u l t pickup s e t t i n g i s 800 ampere, ground
f a u l t delay is 0.33 second and clearing time is 0.05
seconds. The p r a c t i c a l damage l i m i t is 1.0 x 1 U 6
(amperes)l.
seconds.
Thus the maximum t o l e r a b l e
arcing current w i l l be 1 9 070 amperes and acceptable
Figure 4 shows t h a t
damage t o copper 0.72 in3.
f a u l t s above 2000 amperes are cleared with a time
delay o f 0.38 seconds and thus maximum a r c f a u l t
damage t o copper is .0245 in3.
Appendix I may be
seen f o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s .
i i ) 800 amperes secondary breaker ground
f a u l t pickup s e t t i n g i s 120 ampere, ground-fault
delay 0.18 second and clearing time is .05 second.
The p r a c t i c a l
damage l i m i t
is
0.2
x lo6
(amperes)l.5 seconds.
Thus the maximum t o l e r a b l e
arcing current w i l l be 9114 amperes and acceptable
damage t o copper w i l l be 0.144 in3. Figure 4 shows
t h a t f a u l t s above 500 amperes w i l l be cleared i n 0.23
seconds and thus maximum arc f a u l t damage t o copper
is 0.0018 in3.
The 480 volt motor c o n t r o l center ( K C ) i s
not provided w i t h ground - f a u l t protection on each
motor starter. Qnsider t h a t t h e smallest disconnect
i n the MCC is rated a t 100 amperes. The p r a c t i c a l
damage l i m i t i s .025 x 106 (ampere)ls5 second.
Reference [U]indicates t h a t an arcing ground-fault
protection w i l l not be required t o protect against
arcing f a u l t s through a i r , i f t h e available ground
f a u l t current a t every point on branch or feeder
c i r c u i t i s a t least 263% o f instantaneous t r i p
s e t t i n g . In practice, it is d i f f i c u l t t o c a l c u l a t e
the magnitude of bolted ground-fault current. If i t
i s above 3000 amperes, additional arcing f a u l t
protection is not required for 100 ampere disconnect,
a s shown i n Figure 4. Appendix I may be seen f o r
further details.
The above analysis shows t h a t the calculated
a c t u a l damage is much lower than the permissible
damage on a r c f a u l t s and the system is adequately
protected.
The ground- f a u l t t r i p s e t t i n g s on
480 volt feeder breaker connected t o the motor
c o n t r o l c e n t e r w i l l operate i n 0.18 seconds f o r a
ground f a u l t current o f approximately 500 amperes.
This shows t h a t conductors up t o 1 0 amperes can be
protected without exceeding the permissible damage
limits. It is, however, evident from Figure 4 t h a t
t h e ground-fault s e t t i n g s on feeder breaker w i l l not
coordinate with overcurrent devices on t h e motor
starter feeders i n t h e MCC. If t h i s is unacceptable,
an instantaneous ground-fault protection, coordinated
with the 0.18 second ground-fault band o f t h e
480 v o l t feeder breaker device, should be added
t o each MCC feeder. The pick-up s e t t i n g s on the
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CONCLUSIONS
the
1871
APPENDIX I1
APPENDIX I
Calculation o f Generator F a u l t Decrement Curve
Arcing Faults on 480 Volt S o l i d l y Grounded Systems
Single-phase 277 v o l t arcing f a u l t t e s t s using
spacings o f one t o four inches from bus bars t o ground
a t current l e v e l s o f 3000 t o 26000 amperes indicates
t h a t f a u l t damage i s proportional t o (I)1.5t
[U].
The damaged volume o f material, VD i s given by the
expression:
VD = ks ( I ) l S 5 t (in3 /A1s5S)
where k, = 0.72 x 1(r6f o r copper
k 5 = 1.52 x 1F6f o r aluminum
k s = 0.66 x 1F6f o r s t e e l
------(1)
(1)1.5t = 250 I~
where I R = current r a t i n g
---_--(2)
------(3)
A sudden s h o r t - c i r c u i t o f a generator w i l l r e s u l t
i n a changes i n the f l u x linkages i n d i r e c t and
quadrature axes. A change i n the d i r e c t a x i s tends t o
change the f l u x l i n k i n g w i t h main f i e l d , which i s
r e s i s t e d by an induced current i n the r o t o r .
As the
magnetic f l u x represents a considerable amount o f
stored energy, i t s decay i s dependent upon the time
circuits.
At
constant associated with e l e c t r i c
instance o f s h o r t - c i r c u i t subtransient reactances and
time constants are considered, a f t e r a few cycles when
the e f f e c t s o f damper windings and eddy currents i n
pole faces
disappear,
the
transient
conditions
prevail.
These s e t t l e down t o a steady-state
s h o r t - c i r c u i t current a f t e r a l l damping currents i n
the f i e l d windings have decayed.
The decay w i l l also be dependent upon e x c i t e r
c e i l i n g voltage, pre-loading and regulator response.
The i n s t a n t of f a u l t on the voltage wave w i l l
determine the presence o f a decaying dc component.
Reference [51 gives the following expression f o r the
t o t a l ac component o f armature current:
//
where E, = phase-to-neutral p o t e n t i a l i n v o l t s
Rg = resistance o f the ground g r i d
Rf = minimun f a u l t resistance
Xl",
x2,
xo
?c
decaying components o f the
and Ld i s the steady-state component.
-----
R1, Rz, Ro
ib- a r e
Ldand
current
= eft
x k s ~ we
-----,, (7)
= mahine i n t e r n a l v o l t a g e behind X d
------( 8 )
I
e'= e t + % & S i n e
------ ( 9 )
I
= m a c h i n e i n t e r n a l v o l t a g e b e h i n d X&
= Sequence resistancesand
reactances
1872
i&
et=
.4
C L &
----- (14)
e
The r e s u l t s o f the f i n d i n g s can be summarizea i n
Table 2.
TABLE 2
E f f e c t i v e Current w a t i o n s f o r Various
Relay Types and Settings
machine i n t e r n a l voltage
Relay Type
Settings
I
Voltage r e s t r a i n t
Inverse r e l a y s
APPENDIX I11
Very inverse r e l a y s
I
I
I
1
I"=
Mathematical solution:
Reference [261 r e l a t e s
various calculations o f e f f e c t i v e current t o the
d i f f e r e n t types o f r e l a y operating characteris t i c s and t h e i r slopes.
The e f f e c t i v e currents
considered are:
i&Xd
--v
-----(15)
XCL
= r e s t r a i n t i n p.u.
o f generator voltage
TABLE 3
Calculations o f ismr
Decrement
From Generator Decrement
Curve
Time t
0.01
0.04
0.08
a. 12
Current i
6057
4831
3751
3362
3076
Average
Current
are i a v
Square
Root Average
Current
ismr =
(&.IFS
JET
--
--
--
--
--
--
5444
4291
3557
73.78
65.50
59.64
3219
56.74
0.738
1.9651
2.386
2.260
0.738
2.703
5.089
7.454
73.80
67.57
63.62
62.00
5446
4566
4096
3844
1873
REFERENCES
NFPA 70, National E l e c t r i c Code.
ANSI/IEEE C37.96
1976, IEEE Guide f o r AC Motor
Protection.
ANSI/IEEE C37.91
Protective
Relay
Transformers.
1985,
IEEE
Applications
ANSUIEEE C37.95
1973,
Protective
Relaying
of
Interconnections.
Guide f o r
to
Power
IEEE Guide f o r
Utility-Consumer
ANSUIEEE C37.2
1979, IEEE Standard E l e c t r i c a l
Power System Device Function Numbers.
1980,
IEEE Standard
ANSI/IEEE C57.12.00
General
Requirements
for
Liquid-Immersed
D i s t r i b u t i o n , Power and Regulating Transformers.
ANSI/IEEE
C57.13
1978,
IEEE
Standard
Requirements f o r Instrument Transformers.
[lo]
-r241- David
H.
Smith. "Problems i n v o l v i n g i n d u s t r i a l
plant-utility
bower system enti<ies,*f
IEEE
Trans. US, Vol. I A - 1 1 ,
No. 6, pp. 636-Nov.ecX975.
[141 R.
[ 151 R.
H.
Hopkinson,
"Ferroresonance
during
single-phase
switching
of
three-phase
d i s t r i b u t i o n transformer banks,"
IEEE Trans.
PAS, Vol. PAS-86, pp. 1258-1265, Oct. 1967.
[16] R.
H.
bpkinson,
"Ferroresonant
overvoltage
[27] NEMA
PBl-2-1977,
application
guide
for
ground-fault p r o t e c t i v e devices f o r equipment.
1281 Richard R. Conard and Den0 Dalasta, "A new
around-fault Drotective svstem f o r e l e c t r i c a l
Z i s t r i b u t i o n ' c i r c u i t s f 1 , ' IEEE
Trans
IAS,
Vol. IGA-3, No. 3, pp. 217-227, May/June 1977.