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Activatedcarbon
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Activatedcarbon,alsocalledactivatedcharcoal,activated
coal,orcarboactivatus,isaformofcarbonprocessedtohave
small,lowvolumeporesthatincreasethesurfaceareaavailable
foradsorptionorchemicalreactions.[1]Activatedissometimes
substitutedwithactive.
Duetoitshighdegreeofmicroporosity,justonegramof
activatedcarbonhasasurfaceareainexcessof500m2,as
determinedbygasadsorption.Anactivationlevelsufficientfor
usefulapplicationmaybeattainedsolelyfromhighsurface
areahowever,furtherchemicaltreatmentoftenenhances
adsorptionproperties.

Activatedcarbon

Activatedcarbonisusuallyderivedfromcharcoaland,increasingly,highporositybiochar.

Contents
1Uses
1.1Medicaluses
1.2Adversedrugeffects
1.3Analyticalchemistryapplications
1.4Environmentalapplications
1.5Fuelstorage
1.6Gaspurification
1.7Chemicalpurification
1.8Soundabsorption
1.9Distilledalcoholicbeveragepurification
1.10Mercuryscrubbing
1.10.1DisposalintheUSAafterabsorbingmercury
2Production
3Classification
3.1Powderedactivatedcarbon(R1,PAC)
3.2Granularactivatedcarbon(GAC)
3.3Extrudedactivatedcarbon(EAC)
3.4Beadactivatedcarbon(BAC)
3.5Impregnatedcarbon
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3.6Polymercoatedcarbon
3.7Other
4Properties
4.1Iodinenumber
4.2Molasses
4.3Tannin
4.4Methyleneblue
4.5Dechlorination
4.6Apparentdensity
4.7Hardness/abrasionnumber
4.8Ashcontent
4.9Carbontetrachlorideactivity
4.10Particlesizedistribution
5Modificationofpropertiesandreactivity
6Examplesofadsorption
6.1Heterogeneouscatalysis
6.2Absorptionrefrigeration
7Reactivationandregeneration
7.1Thermalreactivation
7.2Otherregenerationtechniques
8Seealso
9References
10Externallinks

Uses
Activatedcarbonisusedingaspurification,decaffeination,goldpurification,metalextraction,water
purification,medicine,sewagetreatment,airfiltersingasmasksandrespirators,filtersincompressedair
andmanyotherapplications.
Onemajorindustrialapplicationinvolvesuseofactivatedcarboninthemetalfinishingfield.Itisvery
widelyemployedforpurificationofelectroplatingsolutions.Forexample,itisamainpurification
techniqueforremovingorganicimpuritiesfrombrightnickelplatingsolutions.Avarietyoforganic
chemicalsareaddedtoplatingsolutionsforimprovingtheirdepositqualitiesandforenhancingproperties
likebrightness,smoothness,ductility,etc.Duetopassageofdirectcurrentandelectrolyticreactionsof
anodicoxidationandcathodicreduction,organicadditivesgenerateunwantedbreakdownproductsin
solution.Theirexcessivebuildupcanadverselyaffecttheplatingqualityandphysicalpropertiesof
depositedmetal.Activatedcarbontreatmentremovessuchimpuritiesandrestoresplatingperformanceto
thedesiredlevel.
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Medicaluses
Activatedcarbonisusedtotreatpoisoningsandoverdoses
followingoralingestion.Itisnoteffectiveforanumberof
poisoningsincluding:strongacidsoralkali,cyanide,iron,lithium,
arsenic,methanol,ethanolorethyleneglycol.[2]
Tabletsorcapsulesofactivatedcarbonareusedinmanycountries
asanoverthecounterdrugtotreatdiarrhea,indigestion,and
flatulence.

Adversedrugeffects
Incorrectapplication(e.g.intothelungs)resultsinpulmonary
aspirationwhichcansometimesbefatalifimmediatemedical
treatmentisnotinitiated.[3]Theuseofactivatedcarbonis
contraindicatedwhentheingestedsubstanceisanacid,analkali,or
apetroleumproduct.

Analyticalchemistryapplications
Activatedcarbon,in50%w/wcombinationwithcelite,isusedas
stationaryphaseinlowpressurechromatographicseparationof
carbohydrates(mono,ditrisaccharides)usingethanolsolutions(5
50%)asmobilephaseinanalyticalorpreparativeprotocols.

Environmentalapplications
Carbonadsorptionhasnumerousapplicationsinremoving
pollutantsfromairorwaterstreamsbothinthefieldandin
industrialprocessessuchas:

Activatedcharcoalformedicaluse

Spillcleanup
Groundwaterremediation
Drinkingwaterfiltration
Airpurification
Volatileorganiccompoundscapturefrompainting,drycleaning,gasolinedispensingoperations,and
otherprocesses.
In2007,UGent(GhentUniversity,Belgium)beganresearchinwatertreatmentafterfestivals.[4]Afull
scaleactivatedcarboninstallationwasbuiltattheDranoutermusicfestivalin2008,withplanstoutilizethe
technologytotreatwateratthisfestivalforthenext20years.[4]
Activatedcarbonisalsousedforthemeasurementofradonconcentrationinair.
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Fuelstorage
Researchisbeingdonetestingvariousactivatedcarbons'abilitytostorenaturalgasandhydrogengas.The
porousmaterialactslikeaspongefordifferenttypesofgases.Thegasisattractedtothecarbonmaterialvia
VanderWaalsforces.Somecarbonshavebeenabletoachievebondingenergiesof510kJpermol.The
gasmaythenbedesorbedwhensubjectedtohighertemperaturesandeithercombustedtodoworkorinthe
caseofhydrogengasextractedforuseinahydrogenfuelcell.Gasstorageinactivatedcarbonsisan
appealinggasstoragemethodbecausethegascanbestoredinalowpressure,lowmass,lowvolume
environmentthatwouldbemuchmorefeasiblethanbulkyonboardcompressiontanksinvehicles.The
UnitedStatesDepartmentofEnergyhasspecifiedcertaingoalstobeachievedintheareaofresearchand
developmentofnanoporouscarbonmaterials.Allofthegoalsareyettobesatisfiedbutnumerous
institutions,includingtheALLCRAFTprogram,[5]arecontinuingtoconductworkinthispromisingfield.

Gaspurification
Filterswithactivatedcarbonareusuallyusedincompressedairandgaspurificationtoremoveoilvapours,
odour,andotherhydrocarbonsfromtheair.Themostcommondesignsusea1stageor2stagefiltration
principleinwhichactivatedcarbonisembeddedinsidethefilter
media.ActivatedcarbonisalsousedinspacesuitPrimaryLife
SupportSystems.Activatedcarbonfiltersareusedtoretain
radioactivegasesfromanuclearboilingwaterreactorturbine
condenser.Theairvacuumedfromthecondensercontainstracesof
radioactivegases.Thelargecharcoalbedsabsorbthesegasesand
retainthemwhiletheyrapidlydecaytononradioactivesolidspecies.
Thesolidsaretrappedinthecharcoalparticles,whilethefilteredair
passesthrough.

Chemicalpurification
Activatedcarboniscommonlyusedonthelaboratoryscaletopurify
solutionsoforganicmoleculescontainingunwantedcoloredorganic
impurities.

Soundabsorption
Activatedcarboncanfilterairandwater.Soundenergyisfound
withinairandwaterandactivatedcarboncanbeusedtoabsorbthat
energy.Withthehighdegreeofporosityineachactivatedcarbon
granule,soundenergyhasnumerousareastoenterintoandbe
convertedtoheat.Withtheenergychangetoheat,theprocessof
soundabsorptionoccurs.

Activatedcarbonisusuallyusedin
waterfiltrationsystems.Inthis
illustration,theactivatedcarbonis
inthefourthlevel(countedfrom
bottom).

Activatedcarboninitsgranuleformcanbeusedtoabsorbmiddleandhighfrequencyrangesprovidedthe
absorber'sdesignletsairpassthroughthecarbon.Activatedcarboncanalsobeusedinsideof
diaphragmaticabsorptiontechnologytoincreasetherateofabsorptionwithinthediaphragmaticabsorber.[6]

Distilledalcoholicbeveragepurification
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Activatedcarbonfilterscanbeusedtofiltervodkaandwhiskeyoforganicimpuritieswhichcanaffect
color,taste,andodor.Passinganorganicallyimpurevodkathroughanactivatedcarbonfilterattheproper
flowratewillresultinvodkawithanidenticalalcoholcontentandsignificantlyincreasedorganicpurity,as
judgedbyodorandtaste.

Mercuryscrubbing
Activatedcarbon,ofteninfusedwithsulfur[7]oriodine,iswidelyusedtotrapmercuryemissionsfromcoal
firedpowerstations,medicalincinerators,andfromnaturalgasatthewellhead.Thiscarbonisaspecialty
productcostingmorethanUS$4.00perkg.However,itisoftennotrecycled.
DisposalintheUSAafterabsorbingmercury
Themercuryladenactivatedcarbonpresentsadisposaldilemma.[8]Iftheactivatedcarboncontainsless
than260ppmmercury,UnitedStatesfederalregulationsallowittobestabilized(forexample,trappedin
concrete)forlandfilling.However,wastecontaininggreaterthan260ppmisconsideredtobeinthehigh
mercurysubcategoryandisbannedfromlandfilling(LandBanRule).Thismaterialisnowaccumulatingin
warehousesandindeepabandonedminesatanestimatedrateof1000tonsperyear.
TheproblemofdisposalofmercuryladenactivatedcarbonisnotuniquetotheUnitedStates.Inthe
Netherlands,thismercuryislargelyrecovered[9]andtheactivatedcarbonisdisposedofbycomplete
burning.

Production
Activatedcarboniscarbonproducedfromcarbonaceoussourcematerialssuchasnutshells,coconuthusk,
peat,wood,coir,lignite,coal,andpetroleumpitch.Itcanbeproducedbyoneofthefollowingprocesses:
1. Physicalreactivation:Thesourcematerialisdevelopedintoactivatedcarbonsusinghotgases.This
isgenerallydonebyusingoneoracombinationofthefollowingprocesses:
Carbonization:Materialwithcarboncontentispyrolyzedattemperaturesintherange600
900C,usuallyininertatmospherewithgaseslikeargonornitrogen
Activation/Oxidation:Rawmaterialorcarbonizedmaterialisexposedtooxidizingatmospheres
(oxygenorsteam)attemperaturesabove250C,usuallyinthetemperaturerangeof600
1200C.
2. Chemicalactivation:Priortocarbonization,therawmaterialisimpregnatedwithcertainchemicals.
Thechemicalistypicallyanacid,strongbase,orasalt[10](phosphoricacid,potassiumhydroxide,
sodiumhydroxide,calciumchloride,andzincchloride25%).Then,therawmaterialiscarbonizedat
lowertemperatures(450900C).Itisbelievedthatthecarbonization/activationstepproceeds
simultaneouslywiththechemicalactivation.Chemicalactivationispreferredoverphysicalactivation
owingtothelowertemperaturesandshortertimeneededforactivatingmaterial.

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Classification
Activatedcarbonsarecomplexproductswhicharedifficulttoclassifyonthebasisoftheirbehaviour,
surfacecharacteristicsandotherfundamentalcriteria.However,somebroadclassificationismadefor
generalpurposebasedontheirsize,preparationmethods,andindustrialapplications.

Powderedactivatedcarbon(R1,PAC)
Normally,activatedcarbons(R1)aremadein
particulateformaspowdersorfinegranuleslessthan
1.0mminsizewithanaveragediameterbetween0.15
and0.25mm.Thustheypresentalargesurfaceto
volumeratiowithasmalldiffusiondistance.Activated
carbon(R1)isdefinedastheactivatedcarbonparticles
retainedona50meshsieve(0.297mm).
PACmaterialisfinermaterial.PACismadeupof
crushedorgroundcarbonparticles,95100%ofwhich
willpassthroughadesignatedmeshsieve.TheASTM
classifiesparticlespassingthroughan80meshsieve
(0.177mm)andsmallerasPAC.Itisnotcommonto
usePACinadedicatedvessel,duetothehighheadloss
thatwouldoccur.Instead,PACisgenerallyadded
directlytootherprocessunits,suchasrawwater
intakes,rapidmixbasins,clarifiers,andgravityfilters.

Granularactivatedcarbon(GAC)

Amicrographofactivatedcharcoal(R1)under
brightfieldilluminationonalightmicroscope.
Noticethefractallikeshapeoftheparticleshinting
attheirenormoussurfacearea.Eachparticleinthis
image,despitebeingonlyaround0.1mmacross,
hasasurfaceareaofseveralsquaremetres. [11]The
entireimagecoversaregionofapproximately1.1
by0.7mm,andthefullresolutionversionisata
scaleof6.236pixels/m.

Granularactivatedcarbonhasarelativelylargerparticle
sizecomparedtopowderedactivatedcarbonandconsequently,presentsasmallerexternalsurface.
Diffusionoftheadsorbateisthusanimportantfactor.Thesecarbonsaresuitableforabsorptionofgases
andvapors,becausetheydiffuserapidly.Granulatedcarbonsareusedforwatertreatment,deodorization
andseparationofcomponentsofflowsystemandisalsousedinrapidmixbasins.GACcanbeeitherin
granularorextrudedform.GACisdesignatedbysizessuchas820,2040,or830forliquidphase
applicationsand46,48or410forvaporphaseapplications.A2040carbonismadeofparticlesthat
willpassthroughaU.S.StandardMeshSizeNo.20sieve(0.84mm)(generallyspecifiedas85%passing)
butberetainedonaU.S.StandardMeshSizeNo.40sieve(0.42mm)(generallyspecifiedas95%retained).
AWWA(1992)B604usesthe50meshsieve(0.297mm)astheminimumGACsize.Themostpopular
aqueousphasecarbonsarethe1240and830sizesbecausetheyhaveagoodbalanceofsize,surface
area,andheadlosscharacteristics.

Extrudedactivatedcarbon(EAC)
Extrudedactivatedcarboncombinespowderedactivatedcarbonwithabinder,whicharefusedtogetherand
extrudedintoacylindricalshapedactivatedcarbonblockwithdiametersfrom0.8to130mm.Theseare
mainlyusedforgasphaseapplicationsbecauseoftheirlowpressuredrop,highmechanicalstrengthand
lowdustcontent.AlsosoldasCTOfilter(Chlorine,Taste,Odor).
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Beadactivatedcarbon(BAC)
Beadactivatedcarbonismadefrompetroleumpitch
andsuppliedindiametersfromapproximately0.35to
0.80mm.SimilartoEAC,itisalsonotedforitslow
pressuredrop,highmechanicalstrengthandlowdust
content,butwithasmallergrainsize.Itsspherical
shapemakesitpreferredforfluidizedbedapplications
suchaswaterfiltration.

Impregnatedcarbon
Porouscarbonscontainingseveraltypesofinorganic
impregnatesuchasiodine,silver,cationssuchasAl,
Mn,Zn,Fe,Li,Cahavealsobeenpreparedforspecific
applicationinairpollutioncontrolespeciallyin
museumsandgalleries.Duetoitsantimicrobialand
Amicrographofactivatedcharcoal(GAC)under
antisepticproperties,silverloadedactivatedcarbonis
scanningelectronmicroscope
usedasanadsorbentforpurificationofdomesticwater.
Drinkingwatercanbeobtainedfromnaturalwaterby
treatingthenaturalwaterwithamixtureofactivatedcarbonandAl(OH)3,aflocculatingagent.
ImpregnatedcarbonsarealsousedfortheadsorptionofHydrogenSulfide(H2S)andthiols.Absorptionrates
forH2Sashighas50%byweighthavebeenreported.

Polymercoatedcarbon
Thisisaprocessbywhichaporouscarboncanbecoatedwithabiocompatiblepolymertogiveasmooth
andpermeablecoatwithoutblockingthepores.Theresultingcarbonisusefulforhemoperfusion.
Hemoperfusionisatreatmenttechniqueinwhichlargevolumesofthepatient'sbloodarepassedoveran
adsorbentsubstanceinordertoremovetoxicsubstancesfromtheblood.

Other
Activatedcarbonisalsoavailableinspecialformssuchasclothsandfibres.The"carboncloth"forinstance
isusedinpersonnelprotectionforthemilitary.

Properties
Agramofactivatedcarboncanhaveasurfaceareainexcessof500m2,with1500m2beingreadily
achievable.[12]Carbonaerogels,whilemoreexpensive,haveevenhighersurfaceareas,andareusedin
specialapplications.
Underanelectronmicroscope,thehighsurfaceareastructuresofactivatedcarbonarerevealed.Individual
particlesareintenselyconvolutedanddisplayvariouskindsofporositytheremaybemanyareaswhereflat
surfacesofgraphitelikematerialrunparalleltoeachother,separatedbyonlyafewnanometersorso.
Thesemicroporesprovidesuperbconditionsforadsorptiontooccur,sinceadsorbingmaterialcaninteract
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withmanysurfacessimultaneously.Testsofadsorptionbehaviourareusuallydonewithnitrogengasat77
Kunderhighvacuum,butineverydaytermsactivatedcarbonisperfectlycapableofproducingthe
equivalent,byadsorptionfromitsenvironment,liquidwaterfromsteamat100C(212F)andapressure
of1/10,000ofanatmosphere.
JamesDewar,thescientistafterwhomtheDewar(vacuumflask)isnamed,spentmuchtimestudying
activatedcarbonandpublishedapaperregardingitsadsorptioncapacitywithregardtogases.[13]Inthis
paper,hediscoveredthatcoolingthecarbontoliquidnitrogentemperaturesallowedittoadsorbsignificant
quantitiesofnumerousairgases,amongothers,thatcouldthenberecollectedbysimplyallowingthe
carbontowarmagainandthatcoconutbasedcarbonwassuperiorfortheeffect.Heusesoxygenasan
example,whereintheactivatedcarbonwouldtypicallyadsorbtheatmosphericconcentration(21%)under
standardconditions,butreleaseover80%oxygenifthecarbonwasfirstcooledtolowtemperatures.
Physically,activatedcarbonbindsmaterialsbyvanderWaalsforceorLondondispersionforce.
Activatedcarbondoesnotbindwelltocertainchemicals,includingalcohols,diols,strongacidsandbases,
metalsandmostinorganics,suchaslithium,sodium,iron,lead,arsenic,fluorine,andboricacid.
Activatedcarbonadsorbsiodineverywell.Theiodinecapacity,mg/g,(ASTMD28StandardMethodtest)
maybeusedasanindicationoftotalsurfacearea.
Carbonmonoxideisnotwelladsorbedbyactivatedcarbon.Thisshouldbeofparticularconcerntothose
usingthematerialinfiltersforrespirators,fumehoodsorothergascontrolsystemsasthegasis
undetectabletothehumansenses,toxictometabolismandneurotoxic.
Substantiallistsofthecommonindustrialandagriculturalgasesadsorbedbyactivatedcarboncanbefound
online.[14]
Activatedcarboncanbeusedasasubstratefortheapplicationofvariouschemicalstoimprovethe
adsorptivecapacityforsomeinorganic(andproblematicorganic)compoundssuchashydrogensulfide
(H2S),ammonia(NH3),formaldehyde(HCOH),mercury(Hg)andradioactiveiodine131(131I).This
propertyisknownaschemisorption.

Iodinenumber
Manycarbonspreferentiallyadsorbsmallmolecules.Iodinenumberisthemostfundamentalparameter
usedtocharacterizeactivatedcarbonperformance.Itisameasureofactivitylevel(highernumberindicates
higherdegreeofactivation),oftenreportedinmg/g(typicalrange5001200mg/g).Itisameasureofthe
microporecontentoftheactivatedcarbon(0to20,orupto2nm)byadsorptionofiodinefromsolution.
Itisequivalenttosurfaceareaofcarbonbetween900m/gand1100m/g.Itisthestandardmeasurefor
liquidphaseapplications.
Iodinenumberisdefinedasthemilligramsofiodineadsorbedbyonegramofcarbonwhentheiodine
concentrationintheresidualfiltrateis0.02normal.Basically,iodinenumberisameasureoftheiodine
adsorbedintheporesand,assuch,isanindicationoftheporevolumeavailableintheactivatedcarbonof
interest.Typically,watertreatmentcarbonshaveiodinenumbersrangingfrom600to1100.Frequently,this
parameterisusedtodeterminethedegreeofexhaustionofacarboninuse.However,thispracticeshould
beviewedwithcautionaschemicalinteractionswiththeadsorbatemayaffecttheiodineuptakegiving
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falseresults.Thus,theuseofiodinenumberasameasureofthedegreeofexhaustionofacarbonbedcan
onlyberecommendedifithasbeenshowntobefreeofchemicalinteractionswithadsorbatesandifan
experimentalcorrelationbetweeniodinenumberandthedegreeofexhaustionhasbeendeterminedforthe
particularapplication.

Molasses
Somecarbonsaremoreadeptatadsorbinglargemolecules.Molassesnumberormolassesefficiencyisa
measureofthemesoporecontentoftheactivatedcarbon(greaterthan20,orlargerthan2nm)by
adsorptionofmolassesfromsolution.Ahighmolassesnumberindicatesahighadsorptionofbigmolecules
(range95600).Carameldp(decolorizingperformance)issimilartomolassesnumber.Molassesefficiency
isreportedasapercentage(range40%185%)andparallelsmolassesnumber(600=185%,425=85%).
TheEuropeanmolassesnumber(range525110)isinverselyrelatedtotheNorthAmericanmolasses
number.
MolassesNumberisameasureofthedegreeofdecolorizationofastandardmolassessolutionthathasbeen
dilutedandstandardizedagainststandardizedactivatedcarbon.Duetothesizeofcolorbodies,themolasses
numberrepresentsthepotentialporevolumeavailableforlargeradsorbingspecies.Asallofthepore
volumemaynotbeavailableforadsorptioninaparticularwastewaterapplication,andassomeofthe
adsorbatemayentersmallerpores,itisnotagoodmeasureoftheworthofaparticularactivatedcarbonfor
aspecificapplication.Frequently,thisparameterisusefulinevaluatingaseriesofactivecarbonsfortheir
ratesofadsorption.Giventwoactivecarbonswithsimilarporevolumesforadsorption,theonehavingthe
highermolassesnumberwillusuallyhavelargerfeederporesresultinginmoreefficienttransferof
adsorbateintotheadsorptionspace.

Tannin
Tanninsareamixtureoflargeandmediumsizemolecules.Carbonswithacombinationofmacroporesand
mesoporesadsorbtannins.Theabilityofacarbontoadsorbtanninsisreportedinpartspermillion
concentration(range200ppm362ppm).

Methyleneblue
Somecarbonshaveamesopore(20to50,or2to5nm)structurewhichadsorbsmediumsize
molecules,suchasthedyemethyleneblue.Methyleneblueadsorptionisreporteding/100g(range1128
g/100g).

Dechlorination
Somecarbonsareevaluatedbasedonthedechlorinationhalflifelength,whichmeasuresthechlorine
removalefficiencyofactivatedcarbon.Thedechlorinationhalfvaluelengthisthedepthofcarbonrequired
toreducethechlorinelevelofaflowingstreamfrom5ppmto3.5ppm.Alowerhalfvaluelengthindicates
superiorperformance.

Apparentdensity

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Thesolidorskeletaldensityofactivatedcarbonswilltypicallyrangebetween2.0and2.1g/cm3(125
130lbs./cubicfoot).However,alargepartofanactivatedcarbonsamplewillconsistofairspacebetween
particles,andtheactualorapparentdensitywillthereforebelower,typically0.4to0.5g/cm3(25
31lbs./cubicfoot).[15]
Higherdensityprovidesgreatervolumeactivityandnormallyindicatesbetterqualityactivatedcarbon.

Hardness/abrasionnumber
Itisameasureoftheactivatedcarbonsresistancetoattrition.Itisanimportantindicatorofactivated
carbontomaintainitsphysicalintegrityandwithstandfrictionalforcesimposedbybackwashing,etc.There
arelargedifferencesinthehardnessofactivatedcarbons,dependingontherawmaterialandactivitylevel.

Ashcontent
Ashreducestheoverallactivityofactivatedcarbonanditreducestheefficiencyofreactivation.Themetal
oxides(Fe2O3)canleachoutofactivatedcarbonresultingindiscoloration.Acid/watersolubleashcontent
ismoresignificantthantotalashcontent.Solubleashcontentcanbeveryimportantforaquarists,asferric
oxidecanpromotealgalgrowths.Acarbonwithalowsolubleashcontentshouldbeusedformarine,
freshwaterfishandreeftankstoavoidheavymetalpoisoningandexcessplant/algalgrowth.

Carbontetrachlorideactivity
Measurementoftheporosityofanactivatedcarbonbytheadsorptionofsaturatedcarbontetrachloride
vapour.

Particlesizedistribution
Thefinertheparticlesizeofanactivatedcarbon,thebettertheaccesstothesurfaceareaandthefasterthe
rateofadsorptionkinetics.Invapourphasesystemsthisneedstobeconsideredagainstpressuredrop,
whichwillaffectenergycost.Carefulconsiderationofparticlesizedistributioncanprovidesignificant
operatingbenefits.

Modificationofpropertiesandreactivity
Acidbase,oxidationreductionandspecificadsorptioncharacteristicsarestronglydependentonthe
compositionofthesurfacefunctionalgroups.[16]
Thesurfaceofconventionalactivatedcarbonisreactive,capableofoxidationbyatmosphericoxygenand
oxygenplasma[17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]steam,[25][26][27]andalsocarbondioxide[21]andozone.[28][29][30]
Oxidationintheliquidphaseiscausedbyawiderangeofreagents(HNO3,H2O2,KMnO4),[31][32][33]
Throughtheformationofalargenumberofbasicandacidicgroupsonthesurfaceofoxidizedcarbonto
sorptionandotherpropertiescandiffersignificantlyfromtheunmodifiedforms.[16]
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Activatedcarboncanbenitrogenatedbynaturalproductsorpolymers[34][35]orprocessingofcarbonwith
nitrogenatingreagents.[36][37][38]
Activatedcarboncaninteractwithchlorine,[39][40]bromine[41]andfluorine.[42]
Sulfonicacidfunctionalgroupscanbeattachedtoactivatedcarbontogive"starbons"whichcanbeusedto
selectivelycatalysetheesterificationoffattyacids.[43]Formationofsuchactivatedcarbonsfrom
halogenatedprecursorsgivesamoreeffectivecatalystwhichisthoughttobearesultofremaininghalogens
improvingstability.[44]
Someofthechemicalpropertiesofactivatedcarbonhavebeenattributedtopresenceofthesurfaceactive
carbondoublebond.[30][45]
ThePolyaniadsorptiontheoryisapopularmethodforanalyzingadsorptionofvariousorganicsubstances
totheirsurface.

Examplesofadsorption
Heterogeneouscatalysis
Themostcommonlyencounteredformofchemisorptioninindustry,occurswhenasolidcatalystinteracts
withagaseousfeedstock,thereactant/s.Theadsorptionofreactant/stothecatalystsurfacecreatesa
chemicalbond,alteringtheelectrondensityaroundthereactantmoleculeandallowingittoundergo
reactionsthatwouldnotnormallybeavailabletoit.

Absorptionrefrigeration
Absorptionrefrigerationandheatpumpcyclesrelyontheadsorptionofarefrigerantgasintoanadsorbent
atlowpressureandsubsequentdesorptionbyheating.Theadsorbentactsasa"chemicalcompressor"
drivenbyheatandis,fromthispointofview,the"pump"ofthesystem.Itconsistsofasolarcollector,a
condenserorheatexchangerandanevaporatorthatisplacedinarefrigeratorbox.Theinsideofthe
collectorislinedwithanadsorptionbedpackedwithactivatedcarbonadsorbedwithmethanol.The
refrigeratorboxisinsulatedandfilledwithwater.Theactivatedcarboncanadsorbalargeamountof
methanolvaporsinambienttemperatureanddesorbitatahighertemperature(around100degreesCelsius).
Duringthedaytime,thesunshineirradiatesthecollector,sothecollectorisheatedupandthemethanolis
desorbedfromtheactivatedcarbon.Indesorption,theliquidmethanoladsorbedinthecharcoalheatsup
andvaporizes.Themethanolvaporcondensesandisstoredintheevaporator.
Atnight,thecollectortemperaturedecreasestotheambienttemperature,andthecharcoaladsorbsthe
methanolfromtheevaporator.Theliquidmethanolintheevaporatorvaporizesandabsorbstheheatfrom
thewatercontainedinthetrays.Sinceadsorptionisaprocessofreleasingheat,thecollectormustbecooled
efficientlyatnight.Asmentionedabove,theadsorptionrefrigerationsystemoperatesinanintermittentway
toproducetherefrigeratingeffect.

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Heliumgascanalsobe"pumped"bythermallycyclingactivatedcarbon"sorptionpumps"between4
kelvinsandhighertemperatures.AnexampleofthisistoprovidethecoolingpowerfortheOxford
InstrumentsASTseriesdilutionrefrigerators.3Hevaporispumpedfromthesurfaceofthedilutephaseofa
mixtureofliquid4Heanditsisotope3He.The3Heisadsorbedontothesurfacesofthecarbonatlow
temperature(typically<4K),theregenerationofthepumpbetween20and40Kreturnsthe3Hetothe
concentratedphaseoftheliquidmixture.Coolingoccursattheinterfacebetweenthetwoliquidphasesas
3He"evaporates"acrossthephaseboundary.Ifmorethanonepumpispresentinthesystemacontinuous
flowofgasandhenceconstantcoolingpowercanbeobtained,byhavingonesorptionpumpregenerating
whiletheotherispumping.Systemssuchasthisallowtemperaturesaslowas10mK(0.01kelvin)tobe
obtainedwithveryfewmovingparts.

Reactivationandregeneration
Thereactivationortheregenerationofactivatedcarbons
involvesrestoringtheadsorptivecapacityofsaturatedactivated
carbonbydesorbingadsorbedcontaminantsontheactivated
carbonsurface.

Thermalreactivation
Themostcommonregenerationtechniqueemployedin
industrialprocessesisthermalreactivation.[46]Thethermal
regenerationprocessgenerallyfollowsthreesteps:[47]
Adsorbentdryingatapproximately105C(221F)

World'slargestreactivationplantlocatedin
Feluy,Belgium.

Hightemperaturedesorptionanddecomposition(500900C
(9321,652F))underaninertatmosphere
Residualorganicgasificationbyanoxidisinggas(steamor
carbondioxide)atelevatedtemperatures(800C(1,470F))
Theheattreatmentstageutilisestheexothermicnatureofadsorption
andresultsindesorption,partialcrackingandpolymerizationofthe
adsorbedorganics.Thefinalstepaimstoremovecharredorganic
Activatedcarbonreactivationcenter
residueformedintheporousstructureinthepreviousstageandre
inRoeselare,Belgium.
exposetheporouscarbonstructureregeneratingitsoriginalsurface
characteristics.Aftertreatmenttheadsorptioncolumncanbereused.
Peradsorptionthermalregenerationcyclebetween515wt%ofthecarbonbedisburntoffresultingina
lossofadsorptivecapacity.[48]Thermalregenerationisahighenergyprocessduetothehighrequired
temperaturesmakingitbothanenergeticallyandcommerciallyexpensiveprocess.[47]Plantsthatrelyon
thermalregenerationofactivatedcarbonhavetobeofacertainsizebeforeitiseconomicallyviabletohave
regenerationfacilitiesonsite.Asaresultitiscommonforsmallerwastetreatmentsitestoshiptheir
activatedcarboncorestoaspecialisedfacilityforregeneration,increasingtheprocess'alreadysignificant
carbonfootprint.[49]
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Otherregenerationtechniques
Currentconcernswiththehighenergy/costnatureofthermalregenerationofactivatedcarbonhas
encouragedresearchintoalternativeregenerationmethodstoreducetheenvironmentalimpactofsuch
processes.Thoughseveraloftheregenerationtechniquescitedhaveremainedareasofpurelyacademic
research,somealternativestothermalregenerationsystemshavebeenemployedinindustry.Current
alternativeregenerationmethodsare:
Chemicalandsolventregeneration[50]
Microbialregeneration[51]
Electrochemicalregeneration[52]
Ultrasonicregeneration[53]
Wetairoxidation[54]

Seealso
Carbonblack
Carbonfiltering
Conjugatedmicroporouspolymer
Kvrnerprocess
Onboardrefuelingvaporrecovery
Carbocatalysis
Hydrogenstorage

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Externallinks
"Imagingtheatomicstructureofactivatedcarbon"
(http://www.personal.rdg.ac.uk/~scsharip/Activated_carbon_JPCM.pdf)JOURNALOFPHYSICS:
CONDENSEDMATTER
Engber,Daniel(Nov.28,2005)."HowDoesActivatedCarbonWork?"
(http://www.slate.com/id/2131130/).Slate.
Retrievedfrom"http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Activated_carbon&oldid=655874222"
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