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Generalizations about
Advertising Effectiveness in Markets

GERARD J. TELLIS

Based on over 260 estimates, the mean elasticity of sales or market share to

Marshall School of

advertising is 0.1 percent. Another 450 field experiments suggest that changes in

Business
University of Southern
California
tellis@marshall.usc.edu

media, product, target segments, advertising scheduling, and advertising content are
more likely to yield changes in sales than do changes in advertising weight. Numerous
other studies suggest that advertising wear-in does not exist or occurs quite rapidly
while advertising wear-out occurs more slowly. Details of and differences in these
results by condition are discussed in this article.

OVERVIEW
Advertising effectiveness in markets refers to

Product refers to any good, service, idea, or

person being advertised.

market response to a firms (or a brands) adver-

Firm refers to any organization that adver-

tising. I define market response as the firms (or

tises, whether a for-profit commercial organiza-

brands) choices, sales, or market share in real

tion, governmental agency, or not-for-profit

market contexts. Researchers have also examined

organization.

the effects of advertising on consumer awareness,

attitudes, beliefs, and intentions. These effects typically have been examined in laboratory contexts
and are not the focus of this review.
Researchers probably have examined the effect

Brand refers to the label used for the product

being advertised.
Consumer refers generically to the audience
of the advertisingbuyers, voters, members of
organization, citizens, etc.

of advertising from the time mass advertising first

Market refers to the aggregate of consumers.

began more than a hundred years ago. Scientific

Sales refers to the object of transaction that

research, however, began to accumulate in the last

the advertiser desires from the consumer, such

50 years (Tellis, 2004, 2007). We can classify this

as product purchases, votes, attendance at or-

work into two broad paradigms of research: be-

ganizational meetings, good citizenship, etc.

havioral research and field research. Behavioral

research typically uses theater or lab experiments

I classify field research into five groups, depend-

to address the effects of advertising on mental

ing on which aspect of advertising it researches:

responses of individuals such as awareness, atti-

advertising elasticity, weight, frequency, wear-in/

tudes, beliefs, and intentions. Field research, on

wear-out, and content. Studies are most abundant

the other hand, uses field experiments or econo-

and rigorous on elasticity, abundant, but not as

metric models to assess the effects of advertising

rigorous on weight, reasonably abundant, but not

on such market responses as brand choice, sales,

as rigorous on wear-in/wear-out, limited on fre-

or market share. This review summarizes what

quency, and very limited on content.

has been learnt from this latter paradigm of

research.

240

RESEARCH ON ADVERTISING ELASTICITY

For this essay, I define the meaning of six terms:

Advertising elasticity is the percentage change

product, firm, brand, consumer, mar-

in sales of a brand for a 1 percent change in the

ket, and sales. Specifically:

level of advertising. It is free of any units. Studies

JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH

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ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS IN MARKETS

The advertising elasticity is lower in

EMPIRICAL GENERALIZATION

models that incorporate disaggregate

Research on over 260 estimates of advertising elasticity leads to the following important generalization. If advertising changes by 1 percent, sales or market share will
change by about 0.1 percentthat is, advertising elasticity is 0.1. The advertising
elasticity is higher in Europe relative to the United States, for durables relative to
nondurables, in early relative to late stages of the product life cycle, and in print over TV.
The advertising elasticity is lower in models that incorporate disaggregate data, advertising carryover, quality, and promotion relative to those that do not. The advertising
elasticity is lower in multiplicative models relative to other model forms, such as the
additive model. The advertising elasticity is invariant over the measure of the dependent

data, advertising carryover, quality, and

promotion relative to those that do not.
The advertising elasticity is lower in
multiplicative models relative to other
model forms, such as the additive
model.
The advertising elasticity is invariant
over the measure of the dependent variable or the method of estimation.

variable or the method of estimation.

About carryover effect
The carryover elasticity of advertising
in this area try to estimate the statistical

elasticity is the percentage change in sales

relationship by which sales respond to

for a 1 percent change in advertising in the

advertising. To do so, the studies define

concurrent time period. Carry-over elastic-

The estimates of the carryover effect

a model with sales as the dependent

ity, alternatively, refers to the percentage

of advertising decrease with the inter-

variable and advertising as the indepen-

change in sales for a 1 percent increase in

val of the data used to estimate the

dent variable. As far as possible the

advertising in subsequent time periods, af-

carryover.

studies try to control for the effect of

ter or beyond the concurrent one.

seems twice as large as that of the current effect.

other independent variables such as

A meta-analysis is a higher level study

price, quality, distribution, promotion,

of such primary studies that seeks to sum-

These results suggest the following four

or brand name. The effect of advertis-

marize the mean advertising elasticity and

implications. First, advertising is not the

ing on sales is captured by a statistic

explain its differences across various char-

variable of choice for increasing sales.

called the coefficient. When the variables

acteristics of primary studies, such as au-

Second, there are distinct circumstances

in the model are all measured as percent-

thors, models, and ecological contexts

when advertising is effective in increas-

age changes or transformed by taking

(firm, products, or markets). There are

ing sales. Third, researchers need to be

the logarithm of their actual values, then

several meta-analyses done to date (Ass-

cautious about modeling advertising re-

the estimated coefficient of advertising is

mus, Farley, and Lehmann, 1984; Clarke,

sponse. They need to properly control

an elasticity, as defined above. Such a

1976; Leone, 1995; Sethuraman and Tellis,

for independent variables, carryover ef-

model, which relates sales to advertising,

1991).

fects, and multiplicative models. Fourth,

is called an econometric model (Tellis,

Implications

researchers need to use data at the unit

1988b). The statistical field of science that

Generalizations from elasticity studies

exposure time and correct for estimates

carries out such studies is known as

Research on advertising elasticity leads to

of elasticity if they use more aggregate

econometrics.

the following important generalizations:

data (Tellis and Franses, 2006). The unit

There are more than 260 estimates of ad-

exposure time is the largest calendar pe-

vertising elasticity carried out in numer-

About current effect

riod in the time frame being studied,

ous studies using a variety of models and

If advertising changes by 1 percent, sales

such that advertising exposure occurs at

data across many countries, product cat-

or market share will change by about

most once in that period, and if it oc-

egories, brands, and time periods. I restrict

0.1 percent. In other words: advertising

curs, it does so at the same time in that

this summary only to brand-levelnot

elasticity is 0.1.

period.

product-levelelasticities (i.e., brands such

The advertising elasticity is higher in

as Tide or Toyota, not corresponding prod-

Europe relative to the United States, for

RESEARCH ON ADVERTISING WEIGHT

ucts such as detergents or automobiles).

durables relative to nondurables, in early

Weight refers to the level or intensity of

There also are two types of elasticities,

relative to late stages of the product life

the advertising budget. Typically, the stud-

current and carry-over. The current

cycle, and in print over TV.

ies in this group examine the effect of

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ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS IN MARKETS

The effect of advertising on sales is captured by a

ing, they are more likely to cause

changes in sales than if they merely

statistic called the coefficient. When the variables in

change weight.
Where profitability of the advertising

the model are all measured as percentage changes or

has been assessed, advertising seems to

be profitable less than half the time.

transformed by taking the logarithm of their actual

Implications

values, then the estimated coefficient of advertising is

These results suggest three implications.

First, firms could be over-advertising, not
only in the amount of advertising they

an elasticity.

do, but also in using the same content,

positionings, product, media, and scheddifferences in advertising budget across

Busch (Ackoff and Emshoff, 1975), Grey

ule too long. Second, advertising may

time periods or regions. The main focus

and DArcy Advertising (Aaker and Car-

have carryover or permanent effects, so

of such studies is to determine whether

man, 1982), AdTel (Aaker and Carman,

that continued advertising at the same

an increase in weight translates into a

1982), Campbell Soup (Eastlack and Rao,

level is not always necessary. If the carry-

proportional or profitable increase in sales

1989), Information Resource Inc. (Lodish

over effect is present, however, it starts

of the advertised product. Alternatively,

et al., 1995) as well as miscellaneous

to occur immediately and does not build

the studies assess whether a decrease in

studies reported by Aaker and Carman

up over time. Third, a firms budget in-

weight results in a proportional decrease

(1982). These experiments varied widely

crease or original budget itself is more

in sales of the advertised brand. While

in time period, markets, product contexts,

fruitfully enhanced by changes in media,

weight studies involve discrete changes

advertised brands, and changes in weight.

content, target segments, product, or

in advertising levels, elasticity studies ex-

Some time periods were short; others

schedule rather than on weight alone. In

plore the relationships between sales and

lasted for years. Some experiments had

other words, variety in advertising is likely

advertising for numerous changes in ad-

small changes in weight; others used large

to yield better results than increases in

vertising that normally occur over time.

changes in weights (Tellis, 2004, 2007).

weight.

allows a more fine-grained analysis of

Generalizations from advertising-weight

RESEARCH ON ADVERTISING

advertising effectiveness than research on

studies

FREQUENCY

advertising weight. The large number of

Research from weight studies leads to the

A firms advertising budget normally af-

weight studies, nevertheless, provides

following six important and surprising

fects consumers through the exposure of

many interesting generalizations that com-

findings:

consumers to advertisements through the

Thus, research on advertising elasticity

plement those from elasticity studies.

media. Frequency, in this context, refers

Researchers have carried out more than

Even if advertisers make a big increase

to the number of advertising exposures

450 market or field experiments to assess

or decrease in weight, sales do not in-

each consumer receives in a particular

crease or decrease by much.

time period. The advertising budget in a

the effectiveness of advertising. In such

experiments, researchers compare two or

If advertisers make cuts in weight, sales

more similar markets, each of which differs by a particular advertising weight. In

do not immediately decrease.

time period ultimately translates into a

sequence of individual exposures tar-

If advertising is effective, its effects are

geted to one or more consumers. Simi-

most cases, the experiments last for sev-

visible early in the life of a campaign.

larly, sales is an aggregate of brand

eral time periods to enable the research-

Conversely, if early advertising is inef-

choiceconsumers choices of brands. Re-

ers to get a baseline sales before the change

fective, then repetition will not create

search on frequency normally examines

in advertising weight and assess carry-

or enhance its effectiveness.

the effect of advertising frequency on con-

over sales after the change has been made.

If advertisers make changes in media,

sumer choice (Deighton, Henderson, and

Six sets of experiments are probably the

product, target segments, scheduling,

Neslin, 1994; Gibson, 1996; Jones, 1995;

most important: experiments at Anheuser-

and especially content of the advertis-

McDonald, 1971; Pedrick and Zufryden,

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ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS IN MARKETS

gen, and Wedel (1999), Sawyer (1981),

There are more than 260 estimates of advertising

Sawyer and Ward (1976), and Tellis,

Chandy, and Thaivanich (2000). Some of

elasticity carried out in numerous studies using a

the research reviews did include a mix

variety of models and data across many countries,

of field and laboratory studies.

product categories, brands, and time periods.

Generalizations about wear-in

Research on wear-in and wear-out leads
to the following important findings:

1991; Tellis, 1988a). Such research pro-

lished brands have an earlier and lower

vides a more fine-grained and insightful

peak response to advertising exposures

analysis of advertising response than com-

than newer brands.

parable studies on advertising elasticity

Brand choice is more responsive to the

or advertising weight. In particular, such

number of consumers the advertise-

research can indicate the optimal level of

ment reaches than to frequency with

exposures an advertiser should target to a

which it is repeated.

Wear-in either does not exist or occurs

quite rapidly.
Wear-in occurs more slowly:

when consumers are not forced to

attend to the advertisement;

particular market segment or even a par-

when exposures are spread apart;

with advertisements that contain emotional appeals rather than arguments;

ticular consumer. Research on advertising

Implications

frequency, however, is not without limita-

These findings suggest two implications:

tions. Knowing the optimal frequency does

First, advertisers need to target loyal buy-

motivated to attend to the advertise-

not immediately translate into ascertain-

ers and nonbuyers of their products with

ment or actively process the advertis-

ing the optimal budget. The advertiser

differing levels of exposures. Second, con-

ing content;

would still need models that relate adver-

sistent with findings from prior sections,

tising frequency to budget and consumer

heavier exposures need to be reserved for

choices to sales. So the trade-off here is

new consumers and brands.

for consumers who are not highly

in markets relative to theater or lab

settings.

Wear-in may be stronger with advertisements that have higher persuasion

between detail and insight versus managerial usefulness.

RESEARCH ON WEAR-IN/WEAR-OUT

scores than those with lower persua-

What are the varying effects of advertis-

sion scores.

ing over the life of a campaign? This

Generalizations from
advertising-frequency studies
Research on advertising frequency leads
to the following five findings:

research focuses on two aspects of adver-

Generalizations about wear-out

tisings effects: wear-in and wear-out. An

advertising campaign is a series of exposures of an advertisement. Wear-in
transpires when the effect of an adver-

The effects of advertising exposure are

tisement keeps increasing with repetition

less prominent and immediate and more

of the advertisement within the cam-

fragile than those for price or promo-

paign. In contrast, wear-out occurs when

tion on brand choice.

the effect of an advertisement continues

Advertising campaigns wear-out if run

long enough.
Wear-out occurs more slowly:

with advertising content that is complex, emotional, or ambiguous;

with advertisements that are less

effective;

In general, increasing frequency of ex-

to decrease as the advertisement is re-

with infrequently purchased products;

posures increases probability of brand

peated within a campaign. If they occur,

when exposures are spread apart;

choice at a decreasing rate.

wear-in normally happens early in the

with light viewers of TV;

For mature, frequently purchased prod-

life of a campaign, and wear-out nor-

with campaigns that offer a richer

ucts, the optimum level of exposure is

mally takes place later. This summary is

variety

relatively small, ranging from one to

based on individual studies or research

executions.

three exposures a week.

of

advertisements

and

reviews by Blair (2000), Greenberg and

A break in a campaign leads to an in-

Brand loyalty moderates response to

Sutton (1973), Masterson (1999), Pech-

crease in effectiveness of an advertise-

advertising exposures, in that estab-

mann and Stewart (1992), Pieters, Rosber-

ment; if that happens, the advertisement

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ADVERTISING EFFECTIVENESS IN MARKETS

Advertisers need to target loyal buyers and nonbuyers

When, and Why Advertising Works by Gerard J.

Tellis (Sage Publications, 2004).

of their products with differing levels of exposures.

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