Geology is the science that deals with the physical structure and substance of the

earth, their history, and the processes, which act on them. This involves theories that
explain the theory of tectonic plates and the formations and structures that occur as a
result of the movement beneath the earths crust. Geological processes continually
modify the Earths surface, destroy old rocks, create new rocks and add to the
complexity of ground conditions. The hot interior of the Earth is the ultimate energy
source, which drives all geological processes.
Most rocks were formed 200-300M years ago, when the area was near the equator
in a deltaic swamp, disturbed by earth movements then left in a shallow sea. The ground
surface was shaped by erosion in the last million years, when the alluvium and slope
deposits party filled the river-cut valley. Now there are rocks and minerals both varying in
strength, chemical and physical structure that are used accordingly for civil
constructions. Rocks are mixtures of minerals with varying properties where as minerals
are compounds of elements with fixed properties. Rock properties depend on strength
and stability of constituent minerals, interlocking or weaknesses of mineral structures,
fractures, and bedding and larger rock structures.
Rocks fall into three categories; igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic. Since
rocks play a major role in civil engineering as it is a engineering resource this is reason
for further investigation.
Igneous rocks is originally formed due to crystallization of molten magma, it is found
underground, It has a mosaic of interlocking crystals and usually have high strength,
example granite or basalt. Magma is generated by heating and melting of rocks with the
mantle due to extreme pressures and temperatures depths between 10-100km below the
crust at temperatures of 800-1200 degrees Celsius. When the magma cools and
solidifies it crystallizes into a mosaic of minerals to form igneous rock. These rocks have
different structures depending on the eruption of volcanoes and the viscosity. Lava is the
name for both molten rocks no the surface, and also the solid rock formed when it cools.
Fluid basaltic lavas flow easily to form low profile shield volcanoes, or near-horizontal
sheets of flood basalt. More viscous lavas, mainly andesitic, build up conical composite,
strato-volcanoes, where lava is inter-bedded withers and debris, which are thickest close
to the vent. With relevance to engineering mainly civil engineering we understand that
granite and basalt are used in for interior design and concrete respectively. Granite looks
good when it is polished and because it is also a very hard rock, it is often used for the
faades (fronts) of buildings, for expensive kitchen worktops and gravestones.
Sedimentary rocks are formed by erosional debris on the earths surface, it has a
granular or cemented texture and is variably low and possesses planar weaknesses.
Examples of sedimentary rock are sandstone, limestone and clay. Sediments are for the
most part the result of weathered rock on the earths surface. Rocks are weathered by
many processes upon exposure to air and water to form soils which is later transported
by water currents and breeze which is regarded as sediments. Ultimately all sediments

are deposited i the sea and mostly as stratifies layers or beds of sorted material.

Column1
Name of
Rock
Breccia
Conglomer
ate
Sandstone
Arkose
Shale
Siltstone
Mudstone
Limestone

Column2
Fragment Type
Coarse Fragments of Angular Gravel and
Rocks
Coarse Fragments of Rounded Gravel and
Rocks
Sand Sized Particles that are 90% Quartz
Sandstone composed of 25% Feldspar
Grains
Clay Particles
Silt Particles
Mixture of Clay and Silt
Mixture of Shells, Coral, and Other Marine
Skeletons

Due to the small size and composition sediments are mainly used for
cementation. For engineering sediments are used in lithification and
compaction to create foundations for structures. It is also used to
prevent water seepage. By using recrystallization processes sediments
can be used effectively to produce stronger mosaic textures.
Metamorphic rocks are created by changes induced at high
temperature up to about 600 degrees Celsius and pressures around
500 MPa at 20 km depth. These changes take place in the solid state.
The type of metaphoric rock produced depends on the original rock
material that was metamorphosed and the temperature and pressure
conditions, which were imposed. There are two types of
metamorphism; regional metamorphism involves high temperatures
and pressure. Occurs in mountain chains due to continental collision on
plate boundaries. This type extends over large areas. Thermal or
contact metamorphism involves high temperatures only. Occurs in
metamorphic aureoles each about 0.001-2 km wide around igneous

intrusions where rock has been baked. Metamorphic rocks have many
useful properties that make it suitable to for engineering.
Schist: A metamorphic uneven-granular, medium to coarse grained,
crystalline with prominent parallel mineral orientation. Goes from
silvery white to all shades of gray with yellow to brown tones
depending on the mineral concentration. Some schist has graphite and
some are used as building stones.
Gneiss: A metamorphic uneven granular medium to coarse grained
crystalline with more or less parallel mineral orientation. Colors are too
variable to be of diagnostic value. Due to physical and chemical
similarity between many gneisses and plutonic igneous rocks some are
used as building stones and other structural purposes.

To summaries geology is quite important in the field of engineering

since most of civil engineering involves building and foundation and
innovative structural ideas. Civil engineering works are all carried out
on or in the ground. Its properties and processes are therefore
significant- both the strengths of rocks and soils, and the erosional and
geological processes which subject them to continual change. Site
investigation is where most civil engineers encounter geology. This
involves the interpretation of ground conditions (often from minimal
evidence), some 3-D thinking, and the recognition of areas of difficult
ground or potential geohazards.
For every geological feat there is a response, for example a soft ground
would require a foundation design to reduce or redistribute loading.
Weak ground or potential failure may require ground improvement or
cavity filling, severe river or costal erosion may require slow down
process with rock or concrete defenses. Potential earthquake or
volcanic hazard would require structural design to withstand vibration
and formatting plate margins and having a general understanding to
avoid eruptions concerning settlement location respectively.