Using Food Processing By-Products for

Animal Feed
Prepared by:
Roger G. Crickenberger, Associate State Leader, Agriculture and Natural Resources
Roy E. Carawan, Extension Food Science Specialists
Published by: North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service
Publication Number: CD-37
Last Electronic Revision: March 1996 (JWM)
Recovering by-products for use as animal feed can help food processors save money while
preventing pollution. Waste management and water quality have become key environmental and
economic issues in agriculture and industry. Today's food manufacturers face increased waste
management costs and tighter regulations than in the past. Effective ways of managing waste are
important in maintaining water quality, ensuring food safety, and protecting the environment
while maintaining profitability.
Offering by-products for use as animal feed is an economical and environmentally sound way for
food processors to reduce waste discharges and cut waste management costs. Selling by-products
can also produce additional revenue. Livestock producers can save money as well if by-products
offer a less expensive source of nutrients than traditional feeds and if they support acceptable
animal performance.

By-products Suitable for Animal Feeding

Many by-products can be fed to animals. Generally, by-products to be used as feedstuffs should
be economical, dense in nutrients, and free of toxins or other substances that may be unhealthy
for the animals. Table 1 lists some commonly available by-products that are used as animal
feeds. They are categorized by the principal nutrients supplied.

Table 1. Principal Nutrients in Common By-products Used for Feed

Nutrient supplied

By-product

Protein ..............Brewer's grains

Distiller's grains
Cull beans
Feather meal
Protein and energy ..Brewer's grains
Distiller's grains
Corn gluten feed
Peanut screenings
Wheat mids
Energy ..............Bakery meal
Fat
Hominy feed
Snack food waste
Soft drink syrup
Soyhulls
Vegetable, fruit processing waste
Roughage sources ...Apple pomace
Corn cobs
Cottonseed hulls
Peanut hulls
Rice by-products

Factors to Consider in Selecting By-products for Feed

It is vitally important to determine whether the by-products being considered for animal feeds are
appropriate to the needs and conditions of specific feeding situations. Many factors must be
considered in evaluating the suitability of by-products as feeds. Some of the most important
factors are discussed here.
Moisture content. Many by-products contain more than 75 percent water. These materials are
not suited for feeding swine or poultry in confinement, where automated dry-feeding systems
predominate. They are much better suited to dairy or beef feeding, where silage-based diets are
mixed and fed daily. The dry matter content of material from some processing plants may vary
50 percent or more during a typical week's processing. Thus, careful monitoring of moisture
content and frequent ration adjustments are needed to ensure that the animals achieve the desired
nutrient intake. Moisture content is the factor that often determines whether the feeding of wet
by-products is economical. It adds to the cost of transporting nutrients to livestock, and the
purchase price must be adjusted to discount for high moisture content and moisture variation.
Because of transportation costs, most wet by-preducts are fed in animal operations located close
to the food processing plant.
Nutrient density. The unique advantage of many by-products is that they can be inexpensive
sources of valuable nutrients needed by livestock. The greater the nutrient concentration in the
dry matter equivalent of the by-product, the more valuable it is to a livestock operator. Energy,
protein, minerals, and roughage are the most frequent nutrients or diet components supplied
through by-products.

Waste stream composition. In evaluating a by-product for its potential as an animal feed,
livestock producers must know more about the material than just its moisture and nutrient
contents. To determine whether a material is appropriate for a particular animal feeding situation,
producers should consider these other factors:

types and proportions of by-products generated

variability in moisture and nutrient content

storability of the material

handling characteristics

potential for the presence of physical contaminants (sticks, metal items, glass, plastic,
etc.)

potential for development of molds and related mycotoxins

Target animals. In evaluating one or more by-products, livestock producers should ask these
questions: Will the by-product supply needed nutrients more economically than other feeds? Will
the animals consume diets containing the by- product? Are the characteristics of the by-product
compatible with the other diet ingredients and the technical aspects of the feeding system? Is
animal feeding and nutrition expertise available to help manage the feeding program so that the
by-product can be used effectively?
Handling and processing. Most by-products are transported in tractor trailers capable of
carrying 20 tons or more. However, the density of some dry by-products limits the amount that
can be hauled on a trailer and may increase transportation costs. In any case, access with a tractor
trailer is usually necessary when feeding by-products. In addition, storage facilities to protect the
materials from the weather and prevent liquid runoff are needed. Because many dry by-products
will bridge if stored in grain bins or tanks, they are often stored in commodity sheds (pole sheds
covered on the top and three sides). The feeding system must be of a type that makes it easy to
incorporate the by- product into diets
Volume of material. Large processing plants usually generate enough by-Foduct to ensure an
adequate supply, even for large livestock operations. Before a manufacturer and a livestock
Foducer enter into an agreement to feed by-Foducts, it is essential to determine the quantity of
material available, the seasonality of the supply, the ability of the animal operation to use the
available quantities, and whether feeding the by-products will benefit both parties. From the
standpoints of nutrition, safety, and animal health, the inventory of by-Foduct should be turned
over relatively quickly, usually within seven days for wet materials. Wet by-products may
deteriorate and become contaminated with molds and mycotoxins if stored longer.
Regulations. Government regulations may be involved in marketing a by-yoduct for feeding to
animals. Before marketing by-products, processing plant operators should contact the Food and
Drug Protection Division at their state department of agriculture to determine what regulations, if
any, must be considered. Feed definitions, labels and guarantees, transportation regulations, and
other legal matters should be investigated before beginning the marketing program.

Cost versus benefit. Livestock growers can feed by-Foducts economically only if animals can
gain weight or Foduce milk less expensively using by-products in the diet than if alternative
feeds were used. It is important to seek the expertise of a nutritionist when determining whether
this condition can be met.
Effects on feed consumption. Some by-products, because of their moisture or nutrient content,
may limit consurnption of the diet, resulting in poor animal performance. One example of a
nutrient imbalance causing low feed consumption and performance is the feeding of high-fat byproducts. The fat may combine with the calcium in the diet to form insoluble soaps, resulting in a
calcium deficiency and decreased feed intake. This Foblem can be overcome by adding more
calcium to the diet. Fat alone, if it exceeds 10 percent of the diet dry matter, may restrict feed
intake and performance.
Safety concerns. For by-products to be useful as animal feeds, they must not present safety or
health Foblems to the animals nor present a risk of contaminating the animal product to be sold.
In the production and utilization of by-products, all parties must take care to prevent
contamination with pesticides, mycotoxins, and other materials that could be dangerous to the
animals or contaminate the animal product.

Procedure for Evaluating a By-product as a Potential Feed Source

Food manufacturers may use different approaches to determining the potential of their byproducts for use as animals feeds. Some may employ a by-product specialist, waste engineer, or
other person with the expertise to assimilate the needed information. Others may have to rely on
university or Fivate nutritional consultants, waste engineers, feed manufacturers, or livestock
feeders. In most cases, the expertise of several specialists will be required to develop and
implement a successful by-product feeding Fogram. Laboratory analyses will be needed to
determine the amounts of moisture, crude protein, crude or acid detergent fiber, macro and micro
minerals, and other nutrients present in the material. Laboratory tests may also be needed to
verify that no toxins or other contaminants are present.
The flow chart in Figure I shows the key steps in evaluating a by-product as a potential feed
source.

Figure 1. Procedure for evaluating the suitability of by-products for animal feed.
1. Characterize the by-product.
o Determine the types and proportions of raw products.
o Determine the types and proportions of by-products.
o

Describe the seasonality of the by-product supply.

Determine the moisture and nutrient content of representative samples taken from
the waste stream.

Describe the variability of the by-product based on the seasonality, nutrient

composition, and types and proportions of contents.

2. Review regulations (feed definition, nutrient guarantees, transportation, storage

requirements, handling, feeding management).
3. Calculate the cost-benefit ratio for substituting the by-product for conventional feeds.
4. Describe quality control measures needed to avoid contaminants such as molds,
mycotoxins, pesticides, and chemicals.
5. Develop a financial plan for marketing the by- product.
6. Develop a sales agreer ment and any other legal documents needed.
7. Develop a feeding program, including delivery schedule, rations, and special
management requirements.
8. Maintain contact with the livestock producer.

Summary
Marketing by-products as animal feeds can help reduce pollution and minimize waste treatment
costs. If by-Foduct recovery is feasible in a given situation, it is critical that the material be kept
free of contaminants, that inventory (if wet) be turned over rapidly, and that moisture and
nutrient content be as consistent as possible. With effective quality controls, many livestock
feeders can benefit from using food processing by-products.
Distributed in furtherance of the Acts of Congress of May 8 and June 30, 1914. Employment and
program opportunities are offered to all people regardless of race, color, national origin, sex, age,
or disability. North Carolina State University, North Carolina A&T State University, U.S.
Department of Agriculture, and local governments cooperating.

MORGAN, 1980
INTRODUCTION
The waste products generated during the processing of food and fiber for human use are often
rich in nutrients. The feed industry began as a recycler of these nutrients through livestock diets,
thereby turning waste nutrients into edible products. Today, feed costs amount to between 20 and
70 percent of the cost of raising livestock, and these by-products of food processing industries
play an important role in managing feed costs. The profitability of livestock operations will
depend on how efficient the animals are in converting feed nutrients into saleable products. This
efficiency declines when animals are raised in stressful environments. The production of
livestock is closely related to many other fields of science and business including management,
quantitative analysis, agronomy, computer science, animal behavior, environmental policy,
agriculture engineering, animal health, and microbiology.
TERMINOLOGY
In discussing the subject of feeding and animal nutrition, a few terms must be defined at the
outset. Feedstuffs contain the substances that are the nutrient requirements of animals. A
feedstuff is an ingredient in a ration. A ration is a mixture of feedstuffs formulated to meet the
daily nutrient requirements for the target animal. The ration is a subset of the diet. The diet refers
to all feedstuffs consumed by the animal over time. In intensely managed animal operations, the
composition of the diet is described by the ration. Feed can mean the same as feedstuff, but feed
can also mean a mixture of feedstuffs as a "finished feed" or "complete feed."
Grain is a classification of feedstuffs. Examples of grains include corn, sorghum, wheat, oats,
and barley. What these feedstuffs have in common is energy: they all consist of the seed of the
plant, and the seed is rich in high-energy compounds. Grains are essential components of most
animal diets because the need for energy is what drives animals' appetites. The most important
grain is corn grain. Corn is such a dominant grain that the term grain is sometimes used to refer
to corn grain specifically. To the feed company, "grain" may refer to the feed product shipped to
the farm, regardless of what is contained in the feed product. In this case, grain is used
synonymously with feed.
Like grain, forage is a classification of feedstuffs. Examples of forage include pasture, green
chop, hay, hay crop silage, corn silage, forbes, and browse. What these feedstuffs have in
common is fiber: they all include the portions or stage of the plant when fiber is highest. Because
of their relatively high fiber content, forages are sometimes called roughages. The term
roughage, however, lost favor among many nutritionists because it has, for some, a negative
connotation. The reality is that some diets suffer for lack of roughage. Although there will be
exceptions, forages are generally homegrown feedstuffs and grains are generally purchased from
feed mills.

Although the term nutrient requirement is not unique to the feed and animal nutrition industries,
application of the term to different species of livestock presents some challenges. In animal
nutrition, a nutrient requirement is the level of a specific chemical or general chemical category
that must be consumed each day if the animal is to meet specific performance criteria.
Depending on the animal and the situation, these performance criteria may include body weight
status, reproductive performance, and health and/or production criteria. In animal nutrition, it is
becoming increasingly evident that the level of nutrition necessary will vary depending on the
performance criteria used. For example, there may be different levels of nutrients required if the
animal is to attain maximum productivity compared to maximum health or maximum longevity.
Given the complexity with which animals absorb, metabolize, modify, mobilize, and excrete
nutrients, not to mention the interactions that occur between nutrients, it may never be possible
to establish precise optimal levels of nutrients in animal diets. Because of this, each nutrient
requirement value established by researchers is taken from a range of acceptable nutrient content.
The required value may be the minimum within the acceptable range or it may be the minimum
augmented with some degree of overage. The companion application to this text represents the
nutrient requirement as a range and the user is cautioned when the nutrient level of the
developing ration falls outside either end of the acceptable range. Use of a nutrient range rather
than a nutrient value necessitates replacement of the term requirement. In the companion
application to this text, the term requirement has been replaced by the term target.
RECYCLING IN THE FEED AND ANIMAL NUTRITION INDUSTRIES
Few people realize that the businesses involved in feed and animal nutrition are some of the most
active and effective recycling businesses in existence. Nutrient-rich by-products (also referred to
as coproducts) of food manufacturing processes such as brewing, distilling, bread making, milk
processing, edible nut processing, sugar refining, citrus processing, and meat processing are
potentially powerful pollutants. These by-products could be disposed of in a landfill or drain off
the site of origin into a stream. In the stream, microorganisms could use available oxygen to
oxidize the nutrients contained in the by-products, impacting the stream as a habitat for other
species.
Alternatively, these by-products can be used as ingredients in livestock feeds. In fact, the feed
industry originated as a

The use of food waste as a protein source for

animal feed - current status and technological
development in Japan - Tomoyuki
Kawashima
Tomoyuki Kawashima
National Institute of Livestock and Grassland Science
Japan
INTRODUCTION
Food waste used to be well utilized as animal feed in Japan. The use of food waste, however,
declined due to the introduction of commercial concentrate feed and high performance exotic
breeds, accompanied by a change of producers strategy in pursuing more efficient production.
The quantity and quality of food waste also altered due to a change in lifestyle. The system used
in the past can no longer be applied. The relatively low price of imported animal products and
feed, due to foreign currency rates, has also been disturbing the efficient use of food waste as
animal feed in Japan.
While some of the food industrys by-products, whose quality and quantity do not fluctuate, are
being used as a part of dried concentrate feed or Total Mixed Rations (TMR), the quality of most
food wastes fluctuates considerably and its safety is of concern. Consequently, its use as animal
feed is limited. Such wastes have been incinerated and put into landfill. This process induces
emission of global warming gases and toxic substances such as dioxin and heavy metals. It is
reported that the amount of food waste in Japan is 20 million tonnes per year, of which the
amount used for fertilizer and feed are 3 percent and 5 percent, respectively (Table 1).
In order to alleviate the environmental burden from food waste, a food-recycling law has been in
force since May, 2001. Under this legislative system, many projects have been initiated. Most of
activities have been related to the production of compost but, as there has been limited
acceptance of this by crop farmers, it was proposed that the waste which can be safely used
should be processed into feed.
TABLE 1
Disposal of food waste in Japan
Generation
Disposal
Recycled Feed Other Total
(t/annum) Incineration/landfill Compost
Municipal Waste

16 000

Commercial waste

6 000

15 950

50

50

Household waste

10 000

(99.7%)

(0.3%)

(0.3%)

Industrial Waste

3 400

1 770
(52%)

470
(14%)

1 040 120 1 630

(31%) (3%) (48%)

Total commercial
waste (Total Household waste)

9 400

7 750
(83%)

490
(5%)

1 040 120 1 650

(11%) (1%) (17%)

Total

19 400

17,720
(91%)

520
(3%)

1 040 120 1 680

(5%) (1%) (9%)

Source: Derived from the statistics of Ministry of Health and Welfare (1996)
In September 2001, just after the introduction of this law, an incidence of Bovine Spongiform
Encephalopathy (BSE) was reported in Japan. So far, only three cases of BSE have been
diagnosed. This created a serious problem for the activities promoted by the food-recycling law.
The use of food waste containing mammalian meat was temporarily banned. It was announced
later by the Minister of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, however, that food waste containing
meats, which were originally processed for human consumption, could be fed to swine, but not to
ruminants.
To change the feeding system from the one based on imported concentrate to a recycling system,
it is necessary to develop a series of technologies, as follows:
Feed evaluation

Processing
Feeding system

Meat quality

Feed safety.

In this report, the current status of the use of food waste as animal feed and the development of
related technologies will be discussed mainly for swine production.
PROCESSING OF FOOD WASTE FOR ANIMAL FEED
The methods of processing food waste for animal feed can largely be classified into the
following three categories:

dehydration,
silage, and

liquid feeding

Distribution range, delivery system, costs of processing, ease of preservation, etc., differ
depending upon the processing method, which is mainly related to the differences in moisture
contents.
After the enforcement of the food recycling law, several kinds of model plant were built up to
manufacture feed from food waste using dehydration. The methods involved in dehydration are:

conventional dehydration by heat,

fermentation-dehydration, and

fry cooking.

The dry matter of products processed by these methods ranged from 70 to 97 percent. Farmers
can feed it to swine without any modification of their feeding system if feed composition is
appropriate, or the products can be used as ingredients for commercial concentrate feeds.
In Sapporo city, the Sapporo Kitchen Garbage Recycle Centre was set up. This collects 50 tonnes
of garbage from a total of 188 schools, hospitals and companies and processes it into dehydrated
feed by fry-cooking. Fry cooking is a new system of dehydrating food waste according to the
method of Templar 21[4] in which it is cooked in waste vegetable oil under reduced pressure at
relatively low temperature (about 110C). Variation of chemical composition of this feed is
shown in Table 2 (Sayeki et al., 2001).
TABLE 2
Chemical composition of dehydrated meal manufactured from garbage by fry cooking
(n=59) (%)
Item

Organic matter

Crude protein

Crude fat

Carbohydrates

Mean

92.2

23.4

9.7

59.1

Maximum

94.7

25.8

12.4

67.7

Minimum

90.2

19.8

7.2

52.0

SD

0.9

1.2

1.4

1.8

Source: Sayeki et al., (2001)

Dry matter content is about 95 percent with little fluctuation. It is generally understood that the
quality of garbage fluctuates considerably. However, the variation of chemical composition in
this manufactured feed ranged from only 1.2 to 1.8 percent. It is suggested, therefore, that the
chemical composition of garbage becomes constant when it is collected from many places. The
manufactured feed is approved by the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and the
certified nutritive values are listed in Standard Tables (National Agricultural Research
Organization, 2001) (Table 3). Consequently, it can be used as an ingredient of commercial
concentrate feed.

TABLE 3
Composition, digestibility and nutritive value of dried waste food for swine and poultry
Moisture CP

EE

NFE

CF

CA

Digestibility (%) TDN

DE

% DM % DM % DM % DM % DM CP EE NFE CF % DM MJ/KgDM

4.6

23.4

9.7

54.7

4.5

7.8

60 86 88

45 83.1

15.33

Source: National Agricultural Research Organization. 2001

Ensiling is another method of processing food waste for feed. However, it is not practically
utilized in swine production due to: 1) cost of preparation and transportation of silage, and 2)
silage cannot be delivered through conventional feeding systems for concentrate feed.
Liquid feeding is not popular in Japan in comparison with the situation in Europe. There are only
a few farmers using liquid feed from food waste. It requires a high investment to renew the
feeding system. However, it has great potential to exploit high moisture food waste as an animal
feed. As dehydration of the food waste is unnecessary, the cost of processing is considerably
lower and little protein is lost during the low temperature process.
Fermented liquid feeding is a process that involves fermentation to decrease pH and extend shelf
life. During the process of fermentation, anti-nutritional factors, such as phytate and non starch
polysaccharide, can be broken down by either endogenous or exogenous enzymes. However,
lactic fermentation creates a probiotic effect on animals (Brooks, 2001) and a Government
supported research project has just been initiated to develop fermented liquid feed.
Swill is the traditional method of utilizing garbage for swine feeding. In 1998 in Japan, 1004
farmers used swill to feed 194 186 animals, while the total number of swine farmers and total
number of swine were 14 400 and 9.8 million head respectively. It is often reported that the fat of
pigs given large amounts of swill becomes soft, and the price of pork is reduced. In order to
solve this problem, farmers in Osaka established a group which gets together periodically to
compare their pork and to discuss methods of improving meat quality when the pigs are given
large amounts of food waste. To overcome this problem, the farmers have developed a common
approach to utilizing different kinds of food waste and aim to collect low fat materials and as a
result prolong the fattening period. As plate wastes from hospitals are low in fat and salts, they
provide a good source of feed. By feeding these, the quality of pork is dramatically improved and
some shows high marbling, which increases its value. These farmers therefore make a lot of
profit due to the improved price and low cost of feed.
The effect of processing on the availability of protein
Wastes are heated for dehydration and sterilization. Temperatures for this process range from 70
to 230C but higher temperatures tend to decrease the availability of protein. Sayeki et al.
(personal communication) examined reports describing the digestibility of nutrients in
dehydrated food waste produced by different methods. From these they established relationships
between the nutrient content and its digestible fraction. While regression coefficients in Ether

Extract (EE), Nitrogen Free Extractives (NFE) and carbohydrate (total of Crude Fibre, (CF) and
NFE) were very high, that of Crude Protein (CP) was low. The low uniformity of CP is
considered to be due to the process of dehydration. Each method applied a different temperature
in the range 60 to130 C. During the process of dehydration, protein was degenerated and the
degree of degeneration was proportional to the temperature. The difference in heating
temperature would therefore seem to be the major reason for the low uniformity in protein.
The degeneration of protein during the process of heat treatment is one of the most serious
problems in the utilization of food waste as animal feed. It is important, therefore, to develop an
analysing method to monitor the magnitude of degeneration. Various feed samples, which were
produced from food waste, such as tofu cake, bread, rye bran, vegetables etc., were analysed by
an in vitro enzymatic method using pepsin and pancreatin (Boisen and Fernandez, 1995), and a
detergent analysis described in Cornel Net Carbohydrates and Protein System (CNCPS, Sniffen
et al., 1992). Nitrogen depletion rates of the food waste analysed by the in vitro enzymatic
method were affected by the temperature of the dehydration treatment and its duration. These
depletion rates negatively correlated with detergent insoluble protein fractions. It suggested that
detergent insoluble protein fractions could be utilized to estimate availability of protein in feed
for swine (Sayeki et al., personal communication).
An analysis method for these protein fractions is also being developed with Near infrared
spectroscopy (NIRS). Further advances in the technology for predicting protein availability in
processed food waste by the in vitro method or NIRS would promote greater use of food waste
for animal feed.
Detection of animal materials in processed feed
The occurrence of BSE in Japan has lead to serious concern about feed safety. Methodologies for
the detection and identification of animal materials in feed have been reported since BSE was
recognized in the United Kingdom in 1986. Therefore, detection of animal materials in feed
processed from food waste is also important. There are several methods of detection, such as
microscopic observation, NIRS, Enzyme-linked Immunoasorbent Assay (ELISA) and
Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) (Momcilovic and Rasooly, 2000). The National Institute of
Livestock and Grassland Science has developed a PCR method for the detection of materials
from ruminants, pigs and chickens with primers designed using a sequence of Art2, PRE-1 and
CR1 short interspersed repetitive elements (SINEs), respectively. These primers are able to
amplify each SINE with the total DNA extracted from feed. Each primers sensitivity for
detecting animal materials is less than 0.01 percent. The method can therefore be used to detect
the micro-contamination of feed with animal materials (Tajima et al., personal communication).
CONCLUSION
Self-sufficiency of food in Japan is only 40 percent. The very low self-sufficiency of animal feed
(only 20 percent) is one of the major reasons for this and the poorly balanced feed supply makes
the livestock sector unsustainable. The use of recycled food waste for feed is an effective method
of improving feed self-sufficiency and reducing the environmental burden from food waste.

In many Asian countries, urbanization induces an imbalance of nutrient accumulation. While

large amounts of nutrient accumulate in urban areas as food waste, livestock in the countryside
are suffering from malnutrition. Technological development in the use of food waste for animal
feed will contribute to the improvement of self-sufficiency of food. This will help correct the
imbalance in nutrient accumulation and make animal-agriculture more sustainable.
REFERENCES
Boisen, S. and & J. A. Fernandez, J. A. (1995). Prediction of the apparent ileal digestibility of
protein and amino acids in feedstuffs and feed mixtures for pigs by in vitro analyses. Animal
Feed Science and Technology, 51: 29-43.
Brooks, P. H., J. D. Beal, J. D. and & S. Niven, S. (2001). Liquid feeding of pigs: potential for
reducing environmental impact and for improving productivity and food safety. Recent Advances
in Animal Nutrition in Australia,. 13: 49-63.
Momcilovic, D. and & A Rasooly, A. (2000). Detection and analysis of animal materials in food
and feed. Journal of Food Protection, 63: 1602-1609.
National Agricultural Research Organization, (2001). Standard Tables of Feed Composition
in Japan.
Sayeki, M., Kitagawa, T., Matsumoto, M., Nishiyama, A., Miyoshi, K., Mochizuki, M.,
Takasu, A. and Abe, A. 2001. Chemical composition and energy value of dried meal from food
waste as feedstuff in swine and cattle. Animal Science Journal, 72 (7): 34-40.
Sniffen, C. J., J. D. OConnor, J. D.,P. J. Van Soest, P. J.,D. G. Fox, D. G.J. B. & Russell, J.
B. (1992). A net carbohydrate and protein system for evaluating cattle diets: II. Carbohydrate and
protein availability. Journal of Animal Science,. 70: 3562-3577.