Finite Element Method

Many practical problems in engineering are either extremely

difficult or impossible to solve by conventional analytical
methods. Such methods involve finding mathematical
equations which define the required variables. For example, the
distribution of stresses and displacements in a solid
component, or of pressure and velocities in the flow of a fluid,
might be required.
In the past, the common practice was to simplify such problems
to the point where an analytical solution could be obtained
which, it was hoped, bore some resemblance to the solution of
the real problem. Because of the uncertainties involved in such
a procedure (over-simplification of the initial problem), large
factors of safety would be introduced.
What is FEM (FEA)?
The basis of the finite element method (also commonly known
as Finite Element Analysis) is that a body or structure may be
divided into smaller elements of finite dimensions called Finite
Elements. The original body or structure is then considered as
an assemblage of these elements connected at a finite number
of joints called Nodes or Nodal Points.

Steps involved in a Finite Element Analysis procedure

1. Discretization (subdivision of the body or structure into
smaller elements)
2. Application of mathematical model to each element
(formulation of the properties of the elements)
3. Combination of the elements to obtain the properties of
the whole body/structure (assembly)

Thus, instead of solving the problem for the entire

body/structure in one operation, in the method of finite
elements, attention is mainly devoted to the formulation of
properties of the constituent elements. A common procedure is
then adopted for combining the elements.

Single Spring Element

When a pin-jointed truss element is part of a structure, its ends
will be able to move due to
(i). displacement of the structure (lump displacement)
(ii). deformation of the member
This may be modelled by a spring element.

Fig. 1
The nodes of the spring element are indicated by points i and
j in Fig. 1.
Let

f i = nodal force at node i

ui = nodal displacement at node i
For this particular case of the spring element, we will consider
only one degree of freedom (DOF) for each node of the spring.
We will assume that displacements are possible only along the
axis of the spring.

Spring element loaded by oppositely directed forces

Let us first evaluate the response of a spring element to which
oppositely directed forces of magnitude N are applied.

If we now consider that a spring element is used to model a

truss member of length L and cross-sectional area A , the
stiffness k1 of the spring will be given by

k1 = AE
L
where

[1]

E is Young's Modulus for the material.

Using the sign convention that forces and displacements are

positive in the positive x -direction, the forces may be related to
the displacements by the following equations:

f1 = k1 u1 u2 = k1u1 k1u2

f 2 = k1 u2

u1 = k1u1 + k1u2

[2]
[3]

In matrix form, the system of equations can be written as

f
1

f
2

k1

k
1

k1 u1

u
k1 2

local stiffness
matrix

f i = (element) nodal force vector

u j = (element) nodal displacement vector
kij = (element) "stiffness" matrix

[4]

We shall denote by Kie or

the

Kie the element stiffness matrix for

i numbered element. Therefore,

e
e
K1 = K1

k1

k
1

k1

k1

An important property of the stiffness matrix for an element

(and as will be seen later, for a complete structure) is that it is
symmetrical.

Assembly of Spring Elements

Consider a system of combined spring elements. For this
particular configuration of linked spring elements, the assembly
process is equivalent to finding the stiffness matrix for the
whole system.
As a n example, let us consider a system consisting of two
spring elements (Fig. 2).
Note that F1 , F2 and F3 are externally applied loads.
The element nodal force components are denoted by

f ji ,

where i is the element number, and j is the node number for

each element.
Drawing free body diagrams for each spring element allows for
the representation of internal nodal forces ( f ji ).

Using equation [4], the force-displacement relationship for each

element may be written as
f 1 k
1 1
1 =
f k1
2

k1 u1

u
k1 2

f 2 k
1 2
2=
f k2
2

k2 u2

k2 3

Fig. 2

Assembly Method 1
We expand the two matrix equations so that they are in
equivalent form
f 1 k
1 1
1
f = k1
2
0 0

K1e =

k1

k
1
0

k1 0 u1

k1 0 u2

0 0 3

k1 0

k1 0

0 0

0 0
2
f1 = 0

f 2 0
2

K2e =

0
0 u1

k2 k2 u2

k2 k2 u3

0 0

k2 k2

k2 k2

The matrix equation for the whole system is obtained by adding

the matrix equation for each system (superposition)
(assembly of spring elements addition)

f11

1
2
f + f
1
2
2

k1

k
1
0

k1
0

k1 + k2 k2

k2 k2

u
1
u
2
u
3

[5]

global stiffness
matrix

K = K1e +K2e

[6]

Note:
1) It is imperative that the element stiffness matrices are first
expanded before proceeding with the addition operation.
2) The global stiffness matrix will have dimensions n n ,
where n is the number of degrees of freedom (DOF) of
the system.

Assembly Method 2
An alternative way of assembling the stiffness matrix for the
system is to consider the equilibrium of forces for each node of
the system.

 Equilibrium of forces at node 1

For node 1, the element nodal force is equal to the
externally applied force F1 :

f11 = F1
F1 = k1u1 k1u2

Equilibrium of forces at node 2

The sum of element nodal forces applied to node 2 is
equal to the externally applied force F2 :

f 21 + f12 = F2
F2 = k1u1 + ( k1 + k2 ) u2 k2u3

Equilibrium of forces at node 3

The element nodal force applied to node 3 is equal to the
externally applied force F3 :

f 22 = F3
F3 = k2u2 + k2u3

Writing the equations for nodal equilibrium in matrix form, we

obtain the same global stiffness as when we expand the
element stiffness matrices and added them together.

Assembly Method 3
A 3rd method for performing the assembly of elementary
stiffness matrices is to use a table of connectivity.

As an introduction to the use of the method, a sample

connectivity table is given below. Details of the method will be
introduced through a sample problem.
Local Element
Element no.
Node 1

Node 2

3
global node
numbers

Boundary and Load Conditions

Let us assume that:

u1 = 0 (node 1 is fixed)
F2 = F3 = P
We have

f11

1
2
f + f
1
2
2

F
1

F2

F
3

k1

k
1
0

k1
0

k1 + k2 k2

k2 k2

u
1
u
2
u
3

Therefore
F
1

P
P

k1

k
1
0

k1
0

k1 + k2 k2

k2 k2

0
u
2
u
3

which reduces to

P
P

k1 + k2

k
2

k2 u2

k2 3

and

F1 = k1.u2

The unknowns are U

u
= u2
3

and the reaction force F1 .

Solving the equations, we obtain the nodal displacements and

the reaction force.

2P

u
k1
2
=

P
u3 2P

+
k2
k1

F1 = 2P

Problem 1

For the spring system above,

k1 = 100 N / mm , k2 = 200 N / mm , k3 = 100 N / mm

P = 500 N , u1 = u4 = 0
Find:
a) the global stiffness matrix
b) the displacements of nodes 2 and 3
c) the reaction forces at nodes 1 and 4
d) the force in the spring 2

Problem 2

For the above spring system, with arbitrarily numbered nodes

and elements as shown, find the global stiffness matrix.
Solution :

Truss
russ element having 2 DOF / NODE
Note that the analysis is based on the fact that the elements
used sustain only axial forces (bars or rods). The terms bar,
rod or truss member
member can be used indifferently in what follows.
For this particular configuration,
configuration we consider the
e following:
a) each node of a bar has 2 degrees of freedom
b) the bar is no longer aligned with the global x coordinate
axis

Local and Global Coordinates

The spring element can be used as a simplified model in many
important engineering problems.
problem
A structure is one such
example. Structures normally consist of trusses, i.e. bars joined
by frictionless hinges which imply that only tension or
compression exists
ts in the bars. A typical truss structure is
shown below.

Fig. 3

Analysis of truss structures provides an opportunity to discuss

the concept of local and global coordinate systems.
In previous discussions, we considered only 1 DOF for each
node of the spring element.

Let us now consider the more general configuration where each

node of the spring element has 2 DOF. In addition, we suppose
that the spring element is inclined at some angle to the
horizontal x axis .

From the diagram, we see that it is necessary to consider 2

coordinate systems when dealing with the problem of springs
having arbitrary orientations.
In previous sections, the spring elements were aligned with the
x axis . The assembly process was facilitated in some
respect, as all the spring elements had a common frame of
reference. The elementary stiffness matrices only needed to be
expanded before proceeding with the superposition.
In the case of trusses, for which the bar elements have a priori
different orientations; assembly of individual elements will be
possible only if a common reference is used for the different
elements of the structure.

For systems consisting of non-aligned members, the Finite

Element Analysis procedure would have to be modified in the
following way:
1.
2.
3.
4.

5.

Discretization
Formulation: model applied to individual elements (in
local coordinates)
Choice of a common reference system (global
coordinates)
Use of coordinate transformation to express the model
for individual elements in terms of global coordinates.
(globalization)
Assembly of elements.

Notations (analysis of 1 spring element (no. 1))

Local coordinates: ( x ,

y)

1 , u1 , u1
u11x , u1y
2x
2y

(nodal displacements)

1 , f1 , f1
f11x , f1y
2x
2y

(nodal forces)

k1


u



f
K1e

(stiffness constant)
(nodal disp. vector)
(nodal force vector)
(element stiffness matrix)

Global coordinates: ( X , Y )

U11X , U11Y , U 21 X , U 21Y

(nodal displacements)

F11X , F11Y , F21X , F21Y

(nodal forces)



U



F
K1G

(nodal disp. vector)

(nodal force vector)
(element stiffness matrix)

Coordinate Transformations

u11x = U11X .cos + U11Y .sin

u11y = U11X .sin + U11Y .cos

u12 x = U 21 X .cos + U 21Y .sin

u12 y = U 21 X .sin + U 21Y .cos

Using the following convention:
the relationship between
displacements is given by:

u1
1x
1
u
1y =
1
u2 x

u1
2 y

cos = c , sin = s

the

s
c
0
0

0
0
c
s

local

0
0

and

U 1
1X
1
U
1Y
U 1
2X
1
U 2Y

global

nodal

[7]

The 4 4 matrix that appears above is called a transformation

matrix and will be denoted by T .

Similarly, we have a relationship between the local nodal forces

and the global nodal forces.
Note that for elements that sustain only axial forces
(tension/compression), the transverse local nodal forces are
zero.

f1
1x

0
1 =
f 2x

s
c
0
0

0
0
c
s

0
0

F1
1X
1
F
1Y
F1
2X
1
F2Y

[8]

Recall that the force-displacement relationship (written in local

coordinate variables) for a spring element is given as
f1
1x

0 =
1
f 2x

k
1

0
k
1

0
0
0
0

k1 0
0 0
k1 0
0 0

Substituting [7] & [8] in [9], we obtain

u1
1x
1
u
1y
1
u2 x

u1
2 y

[9]

s
c
0
0

0
0
c
s

0
0

F1
1X
1
F
1Y
F1
2X
1
F2Y

k
1

0
k
1

0
0
0
0

k1
0
k1
0

0
0
0
0

s
c
0
0

0
0
c
s

0
0

U 1
1X
1
U
1Y
U 1
2X
1
U 2Y

Written in symbolic notation

T .F = K1e .T . U






[10]

Pre-multiplying [10] by T T , we obtain

T T .T .F = T T .K1e .T . U




Since T is an orthogonal matrix,



T T .T = I

Therefore, we obtain the expression for the force-displacement

relationship in terms of variables written in the global coordinate
system;

F = T T .K1e .T . U





Stiffness matrix
written in global
coordinates : K1G

The stiffness matrix K1G can be simplified as follows:

[11]

K1G =

s
c
0
0

0
0
c
s

0 k1
0 0

s k1

c 0

0
0
0
0

k1
0
k1
0

0
0
0
0

s
c
0
0

0
0
c
s

0
0

1
0
1
0

0
0

s
c
0
0

0
0
c
s

0
0

k1 s
0

s
c
0
0

0
0
c
s

0
0

0
0
0
0

K1G =

k1 s
0

s
c
0
0

0
0
c
s

0
0

0
c

s
0
s
0

K1G =

c2

k1 cs2
c

cs

cs
s2
cs
s2

c2
cs
c2
cs

cs
s 2

cs

s2

c
0
c
0

s
0
s
0

Example
Let us consider the case of a three member truss.

Find the displacements of the truss members given the load

P.

Problem

Solution :
Problem

Construct the stiffness matrix of the above given truss.

Determine the nodal displacements and reaction forces.
Find the normal stress in element 3.
L1 = L2 = 2m L3 = 2 2m

A1 = A2 = A3 = 80mm2

E = 200GPa

Solution :