Introduction To

Electronics
Chapter 1

Semiconductors

McGraw-Hill

2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies Inc. All rights reserved.

INTRODUCTION
Materials used in Electronics
Semiconductors (N-type & P-type)
Majority and Minority Carriers

Materials used in electronics

In terms of their electrical properties, materials can be
classified into 3 groups
1.

Conductor is a material that easily conducts electrical

current. The best conductors are single-element materials,
such as copper (Cu), silver (Ag), gold (Au), and aluminum
(Al).
2. Insulator is a material that doesnt conduct electrical
current under normal conditions. Most god insulators are
compounds rather than single-element materials, such as
rubber, plastics, glass, mica, and quartz. Valence electrons
are tightly bound to the atoms.
3. Semiconductor is a material that is between conductors
and insulators in its ability to conduct electrical current.
Silicon (Si) is the most commonly used semiconductor.

Materials used in electronics

Band gap

When an electron acquires enough additional energy,

it can leave the valence shell, become a free electron,
and exist in what is known as the conduction band.

The difference in energy between the valence band

and the conduction band is called an energy gap or
band gap.
This is the amount of energy that a valence electron
must have in order to jump from the valence band to
the conduction band.

*** In chemistry, a valence electron (shell) is an electron that is

associated with an atom, and that can participate in the formation of a
chemical bond

Materials used in electronics

Energy diagrams for the three types of

materials.

Concept Preview
The nucleus of any atom is positively charged
(neutron & proton).
Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus.
The net charge on any atom is zero because the
protons and electrons are equal in number.
The valence orbit is the outermost orbit.
Copper has only one valence electron and is an
excellent conductor.
Materials with a full valence orbit act as insulators.
Materials with 8 electrons in the valence orbit act as
insulators.

NN
N

Theatoms
center
of an
atom
ishas
called
the nucleus.
Most
neutrons
which
have
no charge.
Ahave
nucleus
alsoelectrons
protons
Negative
and theyorbit
havethe
a positive
nucleus.charge.

Valence electron

It has 29 protons.

NN
N

It has 29 electrons.

This
copper =atom.
Its is
neta charge
0.

Valence electron

NN
N

The
valence electron
is the important
feature.
Its attraction
to the nucleus
is relatively
weak.

A simple model of the copper atom looks like this:

The valence electron

The nucleus plus the inner electron orbits

Remember, the valence

electrons are weakly
attracted to the nuclei.

Copper wire is used

to conduct electricity
because the valence
electrons move freely
through its structure.

So far, we know that coppers single valence

electron makes it a good conductor.
The rule of eight states that a material like this
would be stable since its valence orbit is full.

No Vacancy
It acts as an electrical insulator.

Concept Review
The nucleus of any atom is positively charged.
Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus.
The net charge on any atom is zero because the
protons and electrons are equal in number.
The valence orbit is the outermost orbit.
Copper has only one valence electron and is an
excellent conductor.
Materials with a full valence orbit act as
insulators.
Materials with 8 electrons in the valence orbit act
as insulators.
Repeat Segment

Semiconductors
Silicon has 4 valence electrons.
Silicon atoms can form covalent bonds with each
other.
Covalent silicon satisfies the rule of 8 and acts as an
insulator at room temperature.
Donor impurities have 5 valence (pentavalent)
electrons.
N-type silicon has been doped with a donor impurity
to make it semiconduct.
Acceptor impurities have 3 valence (trivalent)
electrons.
P-type silicon has been doped with an acceptor
impurity to make it semiconduct.
** Increasing the number of current carriers (electrons & holes) is
called doping

Atoms of the same type can join

together and form covalent bonds.
This is an electron sharing process.

Silicon atoms have four valence electrons.

The covalent sharing satisfies the rule of eight.

In this structure, one bond is formed with each neighbor.

This is a silicon crystal.

It does not conduct because its valence

electrons are captured by covalent bonds.

 When an electron jumps to the conduction band, a vacancy is left in the

valence band within the crystal. This vacancy is called a hole.
For every electron raised to the conduction band by external energy,
there is one hole left in the valence band, creating what is called an
electron-hole pair.
Recombination occurs when a conduction-band electron loses energy
and falls back into a hole in the valence band.

Covalent bonds can be broken by heating a silicon crystal.

Hole
Free electron
Thermal carriers

The thermal carriers support the flow of current.

Heating silicon crystals to make them conduct is not practical!

A silicon crystal can be doped with a donor impurity.

Free 5electron
1

This is an arsenic
Eachatom.
donor atom that enters the
crystal adds a2 free electron.
3

Silicon that has been doped with arsenic is called N-type.

The free electrons in N-type silicon support the flow of current.

A silicon crystal can be doped with an acceptor impurity.

Hole

This is a boron atom.

3
Each acceptor atom2that enters
the
crystal creates a hole.

Silicon that has been doped with boron is called P-type.

The holes in P-type silicon support the flow of current.

What are two practical methods

of making silicon semiconduct?

Free electron
(N-type)

Add a pentavalent
impurity.

Hole
(P-type)

Add a trivalent
impurity.

This is an N-type crystal.

Due to heat, it could have a few free holes.

Holes are called minority carriers.
Electrons are called the majority carriers.

This is a P-type crystal.

Due to heat, it could have a few free electrons.

Conduction (free) electron are called minority carriers.
Holes are called majority carries.

Silicon is the workhorse of the semiconductor industry

but compound semiconductors help out in key areas.

Gallium arsenide
Indium phosphide
Mercury cadmium telluride
Silicon carbide
Cadmium sulfphide
Cadmium telluride

Concept Review
Silicon has 4 valence electrons.
Silicon atoms can form covalent bonds with each
other.
Covalent silicon satisfies the rule of 8 and acts as
an insulator at room temperature.
Donor impurities have 5 valence electrons.
N-type silicon has been doped with a donor
impurity to make it semiconduct.
Acceptor impurities have 3 valence electrons.
P-type silicon has been doped with an acceptor
impurity to make it semiconduct.
Repeat Segment

REVIEW
Conductors and Insulators
Semiconductors
N-type Semiconductors
P-type Semiconductors
Majority and Minority Carriers