CANDIDATES DECLARATION

I hereby certify the work which is being presented in this report by entitled in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the awards of the degree of Master of Science, submitted in the
department of applied physics of the college is an authentic record of my own work carried out
under the supervision of Mrs. Anu Malik.
The mater embodied in this report has been submitted by me for the award of any other.

Pooja Sirohi

This is certify that the above statement made by the candidate is correct to the best of my
knowledge.

Dr. Harsh Mohan

Head of the app. Phy. Deptt.

Mrs. Anu Malik

Supervisor

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I feel privileged to express mu unfined thank and deepest gratitude to Mrs. Anu Malik for
providing me an opportunity to work under his kind supervision.
I am highly thankful to General Manager Mr. Parveen Talwar for providing me necessary
facilities and encouragement to carry out this project.
Last but not least I am deeply inhabited to my parents without whose content encouragement it
would have not been possible to complete this project.

Pooja Sirohi
M.Sc. Applied Physics

CONTENTS

GERBER CENTRIFUGE MACHINE

CENTRIFUGE IN LIQUID
PRINCIPAL SEDIMENTATION
ANGLE HEAD
EQUIPMENT QUALITY
GERBER METHOD
APPLICATIONS

CENTRIFUGE MACHINE

Centrifuges are machines used in laborartories, medical facilities & industries to separate
suspended material from the mediums they are mixed with. This is done by spinning closed
comtainers of the mixture very quickly around a fixed, central point. The centrifugal force
generated by this motion force the denser material in the motion force the denser material in the
suspension against the walls of the container, effectively separating it from the solution. These
devices are used to separate solids from fluid suspensions medium e.g. they are essential medical
tool for separating plasma from blood samples.

Centrifuge in liquid
The core principle of centrifuge operation is centrifugal force. If a bucket half filled with water is
spun quickly in a circle over the head and back down to the ground, centrifugal force created by
the rotation of the bucket forces the water towards the bottom. This is what keeps the water in the
bucket even when its upside down.
Most centrifuges harness this force in a similar way; and consist of a casing with a lid & a driven
central rotor. The rotor has a row of holes around its circumference into which the containers,
typically test tubes, of solution are placed. Once the machine lid is closed and the centrifuge
switched on, the rotor spins at high speed. As is the case with the bucket experiment, the
centrifugal force causes any matter in the solution denser than the liquid to be forced against the
outer walls of the tubes, separating it from the fluid in the process. Once the centrifuge has
completed its cycle, it is gradually slowed & brought to a stop to prevent any turbulence that
could cause the solution to re-mix. This slowing period also allows all the separated material to
drop towards the bottom of the test tube. Once the rotor has stopped, the tube may be removed
and the sample processed

ARYCYCLIC COVER

Fig. arcyclic cover

CLAMPS

Fig. clamps

Principle (Sedimentation)
This article is about the scientific phenomenon of sedimentation for sedimentation in the
treatment of water and waste water. Sedimentation is the tendency for particle in suspension to
settle out of the fluid in which they are entrained and come to rest against a barrier. This is due to
their motion through the fluid in response to the forces acting on them. These forces can be due
to gravity. Centrifugal acceleration or electromagnetism.
Sedimentation is often used as the polar opposite of erosion i.e. the terminal end of sediment
transport by saltation or true bad load. Setting is the falling of suspended particles through the
liquid, whereas sedimentation is the termination of the settling process . even small molecules
supply a sufficiently strong force to produce significant sedimentation.

Gravity separation
Fat globules in milk are lighter than the plasma phase, & hence rinse to form a cream layer. The
rate of rise (v) of the individual fat flouble can be estimated using stokes law which defines the
rate of setting of spherical particles in a liquid.
V = (r2(d1 - d2)g )n
r = radius of fat globules
d1 = density of the liquid phase
d2 = density of the sphere
g = acceleration due to gravity
n = specific viscosity of the liquid phase

ANGLE HEAD

Fig. angle head

particles r2 :- As temperature T1 fat expands and therefore r2 increases. Since the sedimentation
velocity of the particles increases in propotion to the square of the particle diameter a particle of

radius 2 (r2 = 4) will settle four times as fast as a particle of radius (R 2 = 1). Thus heating
increases sedimentation velocity.
D1 d2 sedimentation rate increases. As the difference between d 1 and d2 vertical and horizontal
operations combined angle head, with a fixed 90 0 spindle angle, combine vertical and horizontal
operations on one machine. They increases productively by easy changing the angle of the cutter
while utilizing the original work piece set up.
Outlet velocity triangles for different blades setting in a centrifugal pump. Backward facing for
which the blade curvature Is in a direction opposite to that of the impeller rotation & therefore B 2
< 900 . the outlet velocity triangles for all the cases are also shown 35.2 a, 35.2b, 35.2c from the
geometry of any triangle, the relationship between Vw,U2 and B2 can be written as
Vw2 = U2 Vf2CotB2
Which was expressed earlier by outlet velocity triangles for different blades setting in a
centrifuge pump. Between 20 to 50 0C, milk fat expands faster than the liquid phase on heating.
Therefore the difference between d1 and d2 increases with increases temperature.
G = Accelaration due to gravity is constant. This will be considered when discussing centrifugal
separation.
N = Serum viscosity decreases with increases temperature calculation of the sedimentation
velocity of a fat globule reveals that it rises very slowly, rise is directly proportional to the
square of the radius of the globules. Larger globules overtake smaller ones quickly when a large
globule comes into contact with other globules forming clusters of considerable size. These
clusters rise much faster than

individual globules. However, they not behave strictly in

accordance with stokes law because they have an irregular shape and contain some milk serum.
In case of forward facing blade, B2 > 900 and therefore Vw2 is more than U2. In case of radical
blade B2 = 900 and Vw2 = U2. In case of backward facing blade B2<900 and Vw2 < U2 therefore the
sign of K2, the constant in the theoretical head discharge relationship given by eq. depends
according on the type of blade setting as follows. K2 < 0 for radical blades, K2 > 0 for backward
blades with the incorporation of above condition.

GERBER METHOD

The Gerber method is a primary and historic chemical test to determine the fact content of
substances, most commonly milk and cream. The Gerber method is the primary testing method
in Europe and much of the world. The fairly similar Babcock test is used primarily in the united
states, although the Gerber Method also enjoys significant use in the US as well.
The Gerber Method was developed and patented by Dr. Niklaus Gerber of Switzerland in 1891.
Milk fat is separated from proteins by adding sulphuric acid. The separation is facilitated by
using amyl alcohol and centrifugation. The fat content is read directly via a special calibrated
butyrometer. Gerber developed specialized butyrometer (tubes), pipettes and centirfuges. Water
baths built specifically for the Gerber tubes are often used. The test is still in widespread USE
TODAY and is the basis for numerous national and international standards such as ISO:2446,
International Dairy Federation (FIL) regulation 105, BS 696 (United Kingdom), and IS 1223
(India). Larger facilities may prefer to use faster analysis techniques such as infrared
spectroscopy as these greatly reduce the potential for used error and reduce the time.

Procedure to find fat from milk

1. Take 10ml. of Gerber H2SO4 from automatic measurement into Butyrometer.
2. Pipette out 10.75ml of well mixed sample of milk and transfer it to butyrometer carefully
3.
4.
5.
6.

without allowing it with the acid.

Add 10ml. of amyl alcohol.
Tight the stopper and mix the content until all the curd has been dissolved.
Place the Butyrometer in the centrifuge & centrifuge it for 50 minute.
Adjust the fat column with the scale on butyrometer with the help of key and note down
the fat% directly on the scale.

Fig. butyrometer

Fig. fat %

DIFFERENT METHODS USED TO TEST THE CONSTITUENT OF Milk

e.g. Cow milk : 4.0/9.0 SNF (Solid not fat)

Buffalo Milk : 6.5/8.7 SNF (8.11)
Standard Lab Equipments:-

1. POWDER operated centrifuge

2. Hand operated centrifuge
3. Butyrometer
4. Refractometer (BR value) for determination of milk
5. Lactometer (SNF)
6. Pipettes
7. Burettes
8. Butyrometer stand
9. Refrigerator
10. Moisture balance (Infrared moisture balance)
11. Bulk density apparatus
12. Muffel furnance
13. Ovens
14. Calorimeter
15. pH meter
16. physical balance
17. electric pH meter
18. bursting strength (thickness of paper used)
19. Milk tester
20. Gas analyzer
21. Mixture
22. Stirrer
23. Water bath
24. Plate heater
25. Distilled water apparatus
26. Kjelhal apparatus (Protein system)
27. Powder centrifuge

12 cup Butyrometer
24 cup butyrometer
400C Temp BR (40 43)
10.75 ml for fat
(25 ml, 50 ml) (10,5,100)

5 gm. Tortion wire

6 kg to 9 kg

Bacteriological Lab
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Microscope
Colony counter
Lovibond comparator
Incubator
Autoclave
Electronic balance
Petri dishes
Petrol gas burner

Butyrometer
Uses:
This standard specifies the butyrometer and their stoppers required for the determination of % of
fat in milk, evaporated (unsweetened) milk, separated milk, skim milk, buttermilk, cream and
cheese by Gerber method.
Seven types of butyrometer with stoppers are specified as follows
Dimensions: Essential dimensions of the butyrometer shall be as given
Dimensions of butyrometer

Characteristics

Requirement

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Overall length
Length of neck
Internal diameter of neck
External diameter of body
External diameter of the bulb for butyrometer
External diameter of the bulb for butyrometer for
For testing cream and cheese
7. Wall thickness of graduated portion

190+ 5
14.5 + 1.5
11.0 + 0.5
25
15
18
1.2

The butyrometer are illustrated other dimensions of the butyrometer shown in fig 1 to 5 are for
information only and there should not be any gross departure from these. The wall thickness
throughout shall be at least 0.9mm except graduated portions.
Neck: The neck of butyrometer shall be either of plain type. In case of plain neck, it should
perfectly be thickened by an outside rim at the top to

Butyrometer, 6% scale
Butyrometer, 8% scale
Butyrometer, 10% scale
Butyrometer, 1% scale
Butyrometer 4% scale
Butyrometer, 70% scale
Butyrometer, 40% scale

For testing whole and evaporated milk

For testing separated milk, skim milk and
butter milk
For testing cream

Material: Butyrometer shall be made from clear glass resistant to chemicals and to the thermal
shocks incidental to the method. The butyrometer shall be well annealed and free from stones,
blistere, cracks and far of possible from bubbles and other visible defects also.
Shape: The inside of the butyrometer shall be so shaped that when carrying out the determination
as prescribed in IS : 1224-1958 after centrifuging, no fat shall remain elsewhere. Than in
graduated flat tube. The internal
The axis of the bulb flat tube body & neck shall be line. The butyrometer may have circular
graduated tube in place of flat tube. The graduated mark shall be laying in planes 1 to the

longitudinal axis of graduated tube. The thickness of the graduated mark shall be not < 0.1mm
and not > 0.2mm. they may be filled with a red coloring matter.
Range of Scale & Scheme of graduations:
a. The main no graduation mark should be carried on complete round of the tube.
b. The half graduation mark should comes3/4 of the round tube.
c. The smallest graduated mark should comes at least of the round tube
Inscription : Each tube shall have permanently and logicly marked on the body
a.
b.
c.
d.

Quantity of material to be used i.e. 11.04 ml milk, 5g cream or 3g cheese as

650C
Marker name
Identification of the tube shall be

SNF

Warm the milk samples up to 15.50 C dge

Mix the content by inverting the sample upside down and vice versa by taking care to

avoid the formation of bubbles.

Insert the lactometer gentl;y down to wet stand and allow the lactometer to remain steady

in milk
Take the reading within 30 sec and also the temp.
Obtain CLRC corrected lactometer reading.
Calculate % SNF as
% SNF = Clr/4+0.2x Fat% + 0.14

RM Value

Weight accurately 5 gm of Ghee in a polensky flask.

Add 20g of glycerol and 2ml of 50% NaOH and few glasses beads.
Heat the flask over naked flame with continuous mixing till the ghee becomes clear.
Measure 93ml of boiling distilled water and add this to the clear solution.
Add 50ml value to H2SO4.
Set the distillation assembly
Now increase the flow and distilled out 110ml in between 19 21 min.
Cool 110 ml flask and filter through whattnan filter paper and pipette out 100ml in dry
volumetric flask.
RM = 1.10 (V-V)
V = 0.1N NaOH used for sample
V = 0.1 N NaOH used for flask

Titrate it against 0.1N NaOH after adding phenol in indicator.

Applications of a centrifuge Machine

1. In industries (washing machines, other grinding machines)

2. In Dairy Farms (To separate different products from milk)
3. In medical (To separate blood corpuscles from infection viruses)

REFERENCES

1. Susan R. Mikkelsen & Eduardo Cortn. Bioanalytical Chemistry, Ch. 13. Centrifugation
Methods. John Wiley & Sons, Mar 4, 2004, pp. 247-267.
2. Jump

up^ Vogel-Prandtl,Johanna Ludwig

Prandtl:

Biographical

Sketch,

Remembrances and Documents, English trans. V. Vasanta Ram. The International Centre
for Theoretical Physics Trieste, Italy, pub. August 14, 2004. pp. 10-11.
3. Jump up^ "Basics of Centrifugation". Cole-Parmer. Retrieved 11 March 2012.
4. Jump up^ "Plasmid DNA Separation: Fixed-Angle and Vertical Rotors in the Thermo
Scientific Sorvall Discovery M120 & M150 Microultracentrifuges" (Thermo Fischer
publication)
5. Jump
up^ http://uqu.edu.sa/files2/tiny_mce/plugins/filemanager/files/4250119/lectures/1._instr
.pdf
6. Jump up^ Heidcamp, Dr. William H. "Appendix F". Cell Biology Laboratory Manual.
Gustavus Adolphus College,. Retrieved 11 March2012.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b "The Pull of HyperGravity - A NASA researcher is studying the strange
effects of artificial gravity on humans.". NASA. Retrieved 11 March 2012.