Numerical Methods in

Computational Fluid Dynamics

(CFD)
Tao Xing and Fred Stern
IIHRHydroscience & Engineering
C. Maxwell Stanley Hydraulics Laboratory
The University of Iowa
58:160 Intermediate Mechanics of Fluids
http://css.engineering.uiowa.edu/~me_160/
Oct. 8, 2004

Outline

Introduction to Numerical Methods

Components of Numerical Methods
2.1. Properties of Numerical Methods
2.2. Discretization Methods
2.3. Application of Numerical methods in PDE
2.4. Numerical Grid and Coordinates
2.5. Solution of Linear Equation System
2.6. Convergence Criteria
10. Methods for Unsteady Problems
11. Solution of Navier-Stokes Equations
12. Example

Introduction to numerical
methods
Approaches to Fluid Dynamical Problems:

1. Simplifications of the governing equations

AFD
2. Experiments on scale models EFD
3. Discretize governing equations and solve by
computers CFD
CFD is the simulation of fluids engineering
system using modeling and numerical methods
Possibilities and Limitations of Numerical
Methods:
1. Coding level: quality assurance, programming
defects, inappropriate algorithm, etc.
2. Simulation level: iterative error, truncation
error, grid
error, etc.
3

Components of numerical
methods (Properties)
Consistence
1. The discretization should become exact as the grid
spacing
tends to zero
2. Truncation error: Difference between the discretized
equation
and the exact one

Stability: does not magnify the errors that

appear in the course off numerical solution
process.
1. Iterative methods: not diverge
2. Temporal problems: bounded solutions
3. Von Neumanns method
4. Difficulty due to boundary conditions and nonlinearities
present.

Convergence: solution of the discretized

equations tends to the exact solution of the

Components of numerical
methods (Properties, Contd)

Conservation

1. The numerical scheme should on both local and global

basis respect the conservation laws.
2. Automatically satisfied for control volume method,
either individual control volume or the whole domain.
3. Errors due to non-conservation are in most cases
appreciable only on relatively coarse grids, but hard to
estimate quantitatively

Boundedness:
1. Iterative methods: not diverge
2. Temporal problems: bounded solutions
3. Von Neumanns method
4. Difficulty due to boundary conditions and nonlinearities present.
Realizability: models of phenomena which are too
complex to treat directly (turbulence, combustion, or
multiphase flow) should be designed to guarantee
physically realistic solutions.
Accuracy: 1. Modeling error 2. Discretization errors 3.5

Components of numerical methods

(Discretization Methods)
Finite Difference Method (focused in this

lecture)

1. Introduced by Euler in the 18th century.

2. Governing equations in differential form domain with
grid replacing the partial derivatives by approximations
in terms of node values of the functions one algebraic
equation per grid node linear algebraic equation
system.
3. Applied to structured grids

Finite Volume Method (not focused in this

lecture)
1. Governing equations in integral form solution domain
is subdivided into a finite number of contiguous control
volumes conservation equation applied to each CV.
2. Computational node locates at the centroid of each CV.
3. Applied to any type of grids, especially complex
geometries
4. Compared to FD, FV with methods higher than 2nd
order will be difficult, especially for 3D.

Finite Element Method (not covered in this

Discretization methods (Finite

Difference, introduction)
First step in obtaining a numerical solution is to
discretize the geometric domain to define a
numerical grid
Each node has one unknown and need one
algebraic equation, which is a relation between
the variable value at that node and those at
some of the neighboring nodes.
The approach is to replace each term of the
PDE at the particular node by a finite-difference
approximation.
Numbers of equations and unknowns must be
equal

Difference, approximation of the first

derivative)
Taylor Series Expansion: Any continuous
differentiable function, in the vicinity of xi , can be
expressed as a Taylor series:
( x xi )
( x ) = ( xi ) + ( x xi )
+
2!
x i

n
2 ( x xi ) 3 3
(
x xi ) n
2 +
3 + ... +
n + H
3! x i
n! x i
x i

i +1 i xi +1 xi

x
x

x
2

i
i +1
i

2 ( xi +1 xi ) 2 3
2
3 + H
6
x i
x i

Higher order derivatives are unknown and can be

dropped when the distance between grid points is
small.
By writing Taylor series at different nodes, xi-1, xi+1, or
both xi-1 and xi+1, we can have:

i +1 i

xi +1 xi
x i

i +1 i 1

xi +1 xi 1
x i

Forward-FDS
Central-FDS

i i 1

xi xi 1
x i

Backward-FDS

1st order, order of accuracy Pkest=1

2nd order, order of accuracy Pkest=1
8

Discretization methods (Finite Difference,

approximation of the first derivative,
Contd)
Polynomial fitting: fit the function to an interpolation
curve and differentiate the resulting curve.
Example: fitting a parabola to the data at points xi1,xi, and xi+1, and computing the first derivative at xi,
2
2
2
2
we obtain:
i +1 ( xi ) i 1 ( xi +1 ) + i ( xi +1 ) ( xi )

x i

xi +1xi ( xi + xi +1 )

xi = xi xi 1

2nd order truncation error on any grid. For uniform

meshing, it reduced to the CDS approximation given
in previous
slide. Depending on the choice of
Compact
schemes:
parameters , , and , 2nd order and 4th order CDS, 4th
order and 6th order Pade scheme are obtained.

i +1 i 1
i+2 i2

+
+

x
2 x
4 x

i +1
i

i 1

Non-Uniform Grids: to spread the error nearly

uniformly over the domain, it will be necessary to use

smaller x in regions where derivatives of the
function are large and larger x where function is
smooth
9

Difference, approximation of the

second derivative)

Geometrically, the second derivative is the slope of

the line tangent to the curve representing the first
derivative.
2
2
x i

x i +1 x i

xi +1 xi

Estimate the outer derivative by FDS, and estimate the

inner derivatives using BDS, we get
2 i +1 ( xi xi 1 ) + i 1 ( xi +1 xi ) i ( xi +1 xi 1 )
2
( xi +1 xi ) 2 ( xi xi 1 )
x i

For equidistant spacing of the points:

2 i +1 2 i + i 1
2
( x ) 2
x i

Higher-order approximations for the second derivative can be

derived by including more data points, such as xi-2, and xi+2, even
xi-3, and xi+3
10

Discretization methods (Finite

Volume)
FV methods uses the integral form of the conservation

equation
FV defines the
control volume
boundaries while
FD define the
computational
nodes

NW
WW

node located at
the Control
Volume center
Global
conservation
automatically
satisfied

nw
w
sw

Computational

SW

NE

ne
ne E
e
y
P
s
se
SE
n

EE

j
i

Typical CV and the notation for Cartesian 2D

FV methods uses the integral form of the conservation

equation

fdS = fdS
k

Sk

11

Application of numerical methods in

PDE
Fluid Mechanics problems are governed by the laws of
physics, which are formulated for unsteady flows as
initial and boundary value problems (IBVP), which is
defined by a continuous partial differential equation
(PDE) operator LT (no modeling or numerical errors, T is
the
) = 0 or exact
( x, t = 0 ) = G ( x )
L ( Ttrue
IC : Tsolution)
BC : T ( x , t ) = H ( t )
T

A1

Analytical and CFD approaches formulate the IBVP by

selection of the PDE, IC, and BC to model the physical

( M ) = 0 IC : M ( x, t = 0) = GM ( x ) BC : M ( xB , t ) = H M ( t ) A2
LMphenomena
Using numerical methods, the continuous IBVP is
reduced to a discrete IBVP (computer code), and thus
introduce numerical errors:
A3
LN ( S ) = 1
IC : S ( x, t = 0 ) = g N ( x ) BC : S ( xB , t ) = hN ( t )

Numerical errors can be defined and evaluated by

A4
transforming the discrete IBVP back to a continuous
JIBVP.
( x ) i
LModified ( S ) = LM ( S ) = N BC : S ( xB , t ) = H Modified ( t )
i S
j
J
S = SC +
i
i! x j
N = 1 + j
j =1 i =1
IC : S ( x, t = 0) = GModified ( x )
j =1

Truncation error

12

Application of numerical methods in

PDE (Truncation and Discretization
errors)

Subtracting equations A2 and A4 gives the

SN = S M
IBVP that governs the simulationJ numerical
LM ( S M ) = LM ( SN ) = N = 1 + j
error
j =1

IC : SN ( x, t = 0 ) = GModified ( x ) GM ( x )

A5

BC : SN ( xB , t ) = H Modified ( t ) H M ( t )
An IBVP for the modeling error M-T can be obtained by
subtracting A1 and A2:
LM ( M T ) = LM ( SM ) = M = LM ( T )
IC : SM ( x, t = 0) = GM ( x ) GT ( x )
BC : SM ( xB , t ) = H M ( t ) H T ( t )

A6

Adding A5 and A6

LM ( S T ) = LM ( S ) = N + M
IC : S ( x,0 ) = GModified ( x ) GT ( x )

BC : S ( xB , t ) = H Modified ( t ) H T ( t )

S = S T = SN + SM
13

Numerical grids and coordinates

The discrete locations at which the

variables are to be calculated are defined

by the numerical grid
Numerical grid is a discrete representation
of the geometric domain on which the
problem is to be solved. It divides the
solution domain into a finite number of
sub-domains
Type of numerical grids: 1. structured
(regular grid), 2. Block-structured grids,
and 3. Unstructured grids
Detailed explanations of numerical grids
will be presented in the last lecture of this
CFD lecture series.
Different coordinates have been covered in
Introduction to CFD
14

Components of numerical methods

(Solution of linear equation systems,
introduction)
The result of the discretization using either
FD or FV, is a system of algebraic
equations, which are linear or non-linear

A = Q

For non-linear case, the system must be

solved using iterative methods, i.e. initial
guess iterate converged results
obtained.
The matrices derived from partial
differential equations are always sparse
with the non-zero elements of the matrices
lie on a small number of well-defined
diagonals
15

Solution of linear equation systems

(direct methods)
A11

A21
.
A=
.
.

A
n1

Gauss Elimination: Basic methods for solving linear

systems of algebraic equations but does not vectorize or
parallelize well and is rarely used without modifications
CFD
Qn
Ain
A13 . problems.
. . A1n
A11 A12 A13 . . . A1n
12

A22
.
.
.
An 2

A23
.
.
.
An 3

.
.

.
.

.
.

A2 n
.
.
.
.
Ann

U =

0
.
.
.
0

A22
.
.
.
0

A23
.
.
.
0

.
.

.
.

.
.

A2 n
.
.
.
.
Ann

n =

i =

Qi

Ann
n

k = i +1

ik

Aii

LU Decomposition: the factorization can be performed

LY = Q
= LU Q U = Y
without knowing the A
vector
Tridiagonal Systems: Thomas Algorithm or Tridiagonal
Matrix Algorithm
Ai (TDMA)
+ Ai P95
+ Ai = Q
W

i
i 1
A
A
APi = APi W i 1E
AP

i 1

AWi Qi*1
Q = Qi
APi 1
*
i

i +1

Qi* AEi i +1
i =
APi
16

Solution of linear equation systems

(iterative methods)
Why use iterative methods:
1. in CFD, the cost of direct methods is too high since
the
triangular factors of sparse matrices are not sparse.
2. Discretization error is larger than the accuracy of the
computer arithmetic
Purpose of iteration methods: drive both the residual
and error to be zero
Rapid convergence of an iterative method is key to its
effectiveness.

A = Q

A = Q
n

A =
n

=
n

Approximate solution after n iteration

n

n residual

n Iteration error
17

Solution of linear equation systems

(iterative methods, contd)
Typical iterative methods:
1. Jacobi method
2. Gauss-Seidel method
3. Successive Over-Relaxation (SOR), or LSOR
4. Alternative Direction Implicit (ADI) method
5. Conjugate Gradient Methods
6. Biconjugate Gradients and CGSTAB
7. Multigrid Methods

18

Solution of linear equation systems

(iterative methods, examples)
Jacobi method:
k
n
R
k +1
k
i
k
i = i +
Ri = Qi Aij x kj
Aii
j =1

( i = 1,2,..., n )

Gauss-Seidel method: similar to Jacobi

i
method, but most recently computed
values of
all are used in all computations.
k
R
ik +1 = ik + i
Aii

i 1

j =1

j =i

Rik = Qi Aij x kj +1 Aij x kj

( i = 1,2,..., n )

Successive Overrelaxation (SOR):

k
R
ik +1 = ik + i
Aii

i 1

j =1

j =i

Rik = Qi Aij x kj +1 Aij x kj

( i = 1,2,..., n )
19

Solution of linear equation systems

(coupled equations and their
solutions)
Definition: Most problems in fluid dynamics
require solution of coupled systems of
equations, i.e. dominant variable of each
equation occurs in some of the other equations
Solution approaches:
1. Simultaneous solution: all variables are
solved for
simultaneously
2. Sequential Solution: Each equation is
solved for
its dominant variable, treating the other
variables
as known, and iterating until the solution is
obtained.
For sequential solution, inner iterations and
20
outer iterations are necessary

Solution of linear equation systems

(non-linear equations and their
solutions)
Definition:

Given the continuous nonlinear function f(x),

find the value x=, such that f()=0 or f()=
Solution approaches:
1. Newton-like Techniques: faster but need
good estimation of the solution. Seldom used
for solving Navier-Stokes equations.

f ( x ) f ( x0 ) + f ( x0 )( x x0 )
'

f ( xk 1 )
xk = xk 1 '
f ( xk 1 )

2. Global: guarantee not to diverge but

slower, such as sequential decoupled method

21

Solution of linear equation systems

(convergence criteria and iteration
errors)
Convergence Criteria: Used to determine
when to quite for iteration method
1. Difference between two successive
iterates
2. Order drops of the residuals
3. Integral
variable vs. iteration
history
k +1
k +1
i , j < f i ,kj (for all i, j)
i , j < (for all i, j)
n

i, j

k +1
i, j

<

i, j

ik,+j1

k
i, j

<

n
ik,+j1

i, j

12

<

Inner iterations can be stopped when the

residual has fallen by one to two orders of
magnitude.
Details on how to estimate iterative errors
have been presented in CFD lecture.
22

Methods for unsteady problems

(introduction)
Unsteady flows have a fourth coordinate

direction time, which must be discretized.

Differences with spatial discretization: a force
at any space location may influence the flow
anywhere else, forcing at a given instant will
affect the flow only in the future (parabolic
like).
These methods are very similar to ones
applied to initial value problems for ordinary
differential equations.

The
basic problem is to find the solution
a short

time t after the initial point. The solution at t1=t0+ t,

can be used as a new initial condition and the solution
can be advanced to t2=t1+ t , t3=t2+ t, .etc.

23

Methods for unsteady problems

Methods for Initial Value Problems in

ODEs
1. Two-Level Methods (explicit/implicit
Euler)
2. Predictor-Corrector and Multipoint
Methods
d ( t )
3. Runge-Kutta
Methods
( t0 ) = 0
= f ( t , ( t ) )
4. Other
dt methods

Application to the Generic Transport

Equation
2

1. Explicit methods
= u
+
2. Implicit
t methods
x x 2
3. Other methods

24

Methods for unsteady problems

(examples)
Methods for Initial Value Problems in ODEs (explicit
and implicit Euler method)

explicit n +1 = n + f ( tn , n ) t

n +1 = n + f t n +1 , n +1 t implicit

Methods for Initial Value Problems in ODEs (4th

order Runge-Kutta method)

t
n
f
t
,

1
n
n+
2
2

t
**
n
*

1 = +
f t 1 , 1
n+
2 n+ 2 n+ 2
2
*

= n +

**

= + tf t 1 , 1
n+ 2 n+ 2

t
n +1
n
n
*
**
*
= + f ( t n , ) + 2 f t 1 , 1 + 2 f t 1 , 1 + f ( t n +1 , n +1 )
6

n+ 2 n+ 2
n+ 2 n+ 2
*
n +1

25

Methods for unsteady problems

(examples)
Application to the Generic Transport Equation

(Explicit Euler methods)

n +1
i

in+1 in1 in+1 + in1 2 in

= + u
+
t
2
2x

( x )

n
i

Assume constant velocity

c
c

in +1 = (1 2d ) in + d in+1 + d + in1
2
2

t Time required for a disturbance to be transmitted

d=
2
( x ) By diffusion over a distance x
c=

ut
x

Courant number, when diffusion negligible,

Courant number should be smaller than unity to
make the scheme stable
26

Methods for unsteady problems

(examples)
Application to the Generic Transport Equation

(Implicit Euler methods)

n +1
i

in++11 in+11 in++11 + in+11 2 in +1

= + u
+
t Assume constant velocity
2
2x

( x )

n
i

(1 + 2d ) in+1 + c d in++11 + c d in+11 = in

2

Advantage: Use of the implicit Euler method

allows arbitrarily large time steps to be taken
Disadvantage: first order truncation error in
time and the need to solve a large coupled
set of equations at each time step.
27

Solution of Navier-Stokes equations

Special features of Navier-Stokes

Equations
Choice of Variable Arrangement on
the Grid
Pressure Poisson equation
Solution methods for N-S equations

28

Solution of N-S equations (special

features)
Navier-Stokes equations (3D in Cartesian coordinates)
2 u 2u 2u
u
u
u
u
p

+ u
+ v
+ w
=
+ 2 + 2 + 2
t
x
y
z
x
y
z
x
2v 2v 2v
v
v
v
v
p
+ u + v + w = + 2 + 2 + 2
t
x
y
z
y
y
z
x

2w 2w 2w
w
w
w
w
p

+ u
+ v
+ w
= + 2 + 2 + 2
t
x
y
z
z
y
z
x
Local
acceleration

Convection

Piezometric pressure gradient

Viscous terms

( u ) ( v ) ( w)
+
+
+
= 0 Continuity equation
t
x
y
z

Discretization of Convective, pressure and Viscous terms

Conservation properties: 1. Guaranteeing global energy
conservation in a numerical method is a worthwhile goal, but not
easily attained;
2. Incompressible isothermal flows, significance is kinetic energy;

29

Solution of N-S equations (choice of

variable arrangement on the grid)
Colocated arrangement:
1. Store all the variables at the same set of grid points and to use
the
same control volume for all variables
2. Advantages: easy to code
3. Disadvantages: pressure-velocity decoupling, approximation
for terms
Staggered Arrangements:
1. Not all variables share the same grid
2. Advantages: (1). Strong coupling between pressure and
velocities, (2). Some terms interpolation in colocated
arrangement can be calculated withh interpolcation.
3. Disadvantages: higher order numerical schemes with order
Colocated
higher than 2nd will be difficult

Staggered
30

Solution of Navier-Stokes equations

(Pressure Poisson equation)
Why need equation for pressure: 1. N-S
equations lack an independent equation for
the pressure; 2. in incompressible flows,
continuity equation cannot be used directly
Derivation: obtain Poisson equation by
taking the divergence of the momentum
equation and then simplify using the
continuity equation.
Poisson equation is an elliptic problem, i.e.
pressure values on boundaries must be
known to compute the whole flow field
p
( ui u j )

xi xi
xi x j
31

Solution methods for the NavierStokes equations

Analytical Solution (fully developed laminar pipe flow)
Vorticity-Stream Function Approach
The SIMPLE (Semi-Implicit Method for pressure-Linked

Equations) Algorithm:
1. Guess the pressure field p*
2. Solve the momentum equations to obtain u*,v*,w*
3. Solve the p equation (The pressure-correction equation)
4. p=p*+p
5. Calculate u, v, w from their starred values using the
velocity-correction equations
6. Solve the discretization equation for other variables,
such as
temperature, concentration, and turbulence quantities.
7. Treat the corrected pressure p as a new guessed
pressure p*,
return to step 2, and repeat the whole procedure until a
converged solution is obtained.
32

Example (lid-driven cavity)

The driven cavity

problem is a classical
problem that has wall
boundaries surrounding
the entire computational
region.
Incompressible viscous
flow in the cavity is
driven by the uniform
translation of the
moving upper lid.
the vorticity-stream
function method is used
to solve the driven
cavity problem.

u=UTOP, v=0

u=v=0

UTOP

u=v=0

y
o

x
u=v=0

33

Example (lid-driven cavity,

governing equations)
u v
+
=0
x y

2u 2u
u
u
u
p
+u
+v
= + 2 + 2
t
x
y
x
y
x

v u
=
x y

2v 2v
v
v
v
p
+ u + v = + 2 + 2
t
x
y
y
y
x

1 2 2
2 + 2
+u
+v
=
t
x
y Re l x
y
2
2
2
2
2
2

p p

+ 2 = 2 2 2
2
x
y
x y xy
u

( u ) ( v )
+v
=
+
x
y
x
y

=u
y

= v
x

2 2
+ 2 =
2
x
y

Ul
Re l =

34

Example (lid-driven cavity,

boundary conditions)
= 0 on all walls

The top wall

i , NJ =
p
s

w+1 = w + n
n

2
1
2
( n ) 2
w +
2
n

2( i , NJ y i , NJ 1 )

( y ) 2

1
Re l n

ps +1, w ps 1,w
w

2s

w + o ( n )

2( w+1 w ) The other

w =
Three walls
( n ) 2
=

1
Re l

3 s , w + 4 s , w+1 s , w+ 2

2n

For wall pressures, using the tangential momentum

equation to the fluid adjacent to the wall surface, get:
* s is measured along the wall surface and n is normal to it
* Pressure at the lower left corner of the cavity is assigned 1.0
35

Example (lid-driven cavity,

discretization methods)
in, +j 1 in, j uin+1, j in+1, j uin1, j in1, j vin, j +1 in, j +1 vin, j 1 in, j 1
+
+
t
2x
2y
1
=
Re l

1st order upwind for

time derivative

in+1, j 2 in, j + in1, j in, j +1 2 in, j + in, j 1

+
2
2

x
)
(

y
)

in+1, j 2 in, j + in1, j

( x ) 2
pin+1, j 2 pin, j + pin1, j
(x) 2

in, j +1 2 in, j + in, j 1

( y ) 2

= in, j

pin, j +1 2 pin, j + pin, j 1

n 2 n + n
i +1, j
i, j
i 1, j
= 2

(x) 2

(y ) 2
in, j +1 2 in, j + in, j 1 in+1, j +1 in+1, j 1 in1, j +1 + in1, j 1

4xy
(y )

2nd order central difference scheme used for all spatial derivatives
36

Example (lid-driven cavity,

solution procedure)
Specify the geometry and fluid properties
= =0).
Specify initial conditions (e.g. u=v=
Specify boundary conditions
Determine t
+1
nfor
Solve the vorticity transport equation
n +1

Solve stream function equation for

Solve for un+1 and vn+1
n +1
Solve the boundary conditionsfor
on the walls
Continue marching to time of interest, or until the
steady state is reached.

37

Example (lid-driven cavity,

residuals)
1
NI NJ

i = NI , j = NJ

i =1, j =1

in, +j 1 in, j 110 8

and

1
NI NJ

i = NI , j = NJ

i =1, j =1

in, +j 1 in, j 110 8

38

Example (lid-driven cavity, sample

results)

0.1

25
29

13

27

21 19

17

29

15

28

25

0.2

23

27

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

11

27

15

0.6

11

17

13

0.4
7

0.2
0.1
0

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

0.3
0.2
0.1
0

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

0.9

1.1905
1.1754
1.1604
1.1454
1.1303
1.1153
1.1003
1.0852
1.0702
1.0552
1.0401
1.0251
1.0101
0.9950
0.9800

0.8

14
16
19

17

9
11

13
15
19

4
8

17

Level

21
21

0.7
0.6

y 0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2

21

21

0.1
0

25

24

0.3

Level
29
27
25
23
21
19
17
15
13
11
9
7
5
3
1

y 0.5

0.4

29 27
25

29

25

13

0.7

y 0.5

19

0.8

0.6

15 17 19 21 23

0.9

0.7

1.1

x
1

0.8

27 25

5
9

13

11

113
1
9

21

0.3

-0.0064
-0.0119
-0.0174
-0.0228
-0.0283
-0.0338
-0.0393
-0.0448
-0.0502
-0.0557
-0.0612
-0.0667
-0.0721
-0.0776

0.9

19

19

29

15

23 25
27

0.4

27
25
23
21
19
17
15
13
11
9
7
5
3
1

21
23

Level psi
31
0.0018
29
-0.0009

21

27
25
21 23

29

17

y 0.5

14

0.6

23

13 11
9

0.7

27

23 21
19
17

0.9
0.8

29
23
21

25
19
17
15
13 1
1

21

29

27

15
17
21 19
23
25 27
29

29
27
25
23
21
19
17
15
13
11
9
7
5
3
1

zeta
11.2711
8.3232
5.3753
2.4273
-0.5206
-3.4686
-6.4165
-9.3644
-12.3124
-15.2603
-18.2082
-21.1562
-24.1041
-27.0521
-30.0000

23

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

39

Some good books

J. H. Ferziger, M. Peric, Computational Methods for Fluid

Dynamics, 3rd edition, Springer, 2002.
Patric J. Roache, Verification and Validation in
Computational Science and Engineering, Hermosa
publishers, 1998
Frank, M. White, Viscous Fluid Flow, McGraw-Hill Inc.,
2004

40