Jain Sir Paper Jan-Mar 2013

Journal Of The
Indian Roads Congress

Volume 74-1
CONTENTS

Page
Paper No. 586 Disaggregated Modeling of Mode Choice by Ann - A Case Study of Ahmedabad
City in Gujarat State
P. S. Ramanuj and P. J. Gundaliya
Paper No. 587 Study of Composite Effect of Concrete Base in Rigid Pavement for Village
Roads in Alluvial Region
R.K. Srivastava, K.K. Shukla and S.K. Duggal
13
Paper No. 588 Full Scale Field Performance Study on Sbs Modified and Conventional
Bitumen in Bituminous Concrete Surface Subjected to Heavy Traffic
P. K. Jain
21
Paper No. 589 Guidelines for Design & Construction of Mega Coastal Sea-Links in the
Arabian Gulf & Similar Surrounds
V.K. Raina
37
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January-March 2013
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Paper No. 586
DISAGGREGATED MODELING OF MODE CHOICE BY ANN A CASE STUDY OF AHMEDABAD CITY IN GUJARAT STATE
P. S. Ramanuj*
and
P. J. Gundaliya**
Abstract
Traveling is an integral part of todays life style for people across the world. The increased traveling has led to a number of serious problems like
congestion, noise pollution, air pollution, greenhouse effect etc. In the transportation planning, the choice of a transportation mode is one of the most
important parameter and it is difficult to predict the same as it depends on human behaviour which is very complex in nature. By far, most of the Discrete
Mode Choice models are based on the principle of random utility maximization derived from the Econometric theory. However, in the present study the
Artificial Intelligence technique is used for modeling of the Mode choice behaviour.
Further, an attempt has been made to predict the mode choice by using neural network technique. The present study is aimed at introducing a new modeling
technique Artificial Neural Network abbreviated as ANN. An ANN is inspired by biological neurons as it learns from past. The ANN is best suited for the
problems where input variable are complex in nature1. The study provides guidelines in deciding network architecture for the behaviour model. For efficient
use of ANN technique it is required to decide types of activation functions, the number of neuron/s in different layers and the amount of data used for the
training. The data used for the present study were collected from the household travel survey conducted in the Ahmedabad city of Gujarat state for the
Public Transportation System. In the study an attempt has been made to find out the sensitivity of the various parameters in the model. Same data is also
analyzed by linear regression method to obtain utility function and finally the output of ANN model is compared with the regression model.
INTRODUCTION
The 20th century has witnessed an accelerated

industrialization world wide to result in to the life style
changes which has taken place with concentration of
population at settlements with high industrial base.
The factors like the economic growth, increased
income and the mobility motive have encouraged the
people to opt for private vehicles. Also, the inadequate
availability, substandard quality and service of citys
public transportation have further accentuated the trend
of using private vehicles in the state. Though there
have been considerable improvements in the service
of public transport facilities in most of the cities with
growing economy, there still remains a considerable
gap between demand and supply of transport facility.
Principal concerns of the planners of urbanization are
the evolution in the usage pattern of the urban land
and demand profiles of the related transportation.
Appreciable efforts have been made till date to
understand intricacies involved in dynamic system
*
**
of human settlements which form the vital basis for

transportation planning. In the transport planning,
mode split is a complex entity and the model for mode
split can be developed by using various behavioural
theories. The nature of traffic on the roads results
from individual decisions taken by the travelers for
choosing the mode of travel but it is, however, very
complex and difficult to predict human behaviour.
2 OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The main objectives of present study are:
i)
To understand the travel pattern in the study

area.
ii)
To develop an ANN based choice model.
iii)
To understand the influence of the various

parameters in the functioning of the
model.
iv)
To develop a choice model based on regression

technique.
Lecturer in Civil Engg. Deptt., L.D. College of Engg., Ahmedabad, E-mail:pinakramanuj@gmail.com

Assistant Prof., Civil Engg. Deptt., L.E. College of Engg., Morbi, E-mail:pjgundaliya@gmail.com
Written comments on this Paper are invited and will be received upto 15th May, 2013
Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2013
4
v)
Ramanuj and Gundaliya on

To compare the reliability quotient of ANN
model with that derived from the regression
model.
3 LITERATURE REVIEW
Travel demand theory was introduced in context of
trip generation. The core of the field is a set of models
which were developed on the basis of the work done
by Warner (1962) who investigated classification
techniques using models from biology and psychology2.
Beginning with Warner (1962) and followed by the
work of other early investigators, disaggregate demand
models emerged. Here the analysis can be termed as
disaggregate since the individuals are the basic units
of observation, yet aggregate since these models
yield a single set of parameters describing the choice
behaviour of the population. Behaviour has to be taken
into account since the theory uses the concepts of
consumer behaviour from the discipline of economics
and choice behaviour concepts from the discipline
of psychology. Researchers at the University of
California, Berkeley especially Daniel McFadden and
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Moshe BenAkiva) have developed what has been known as Choice
Models, Direct Demand Models (DDM), Random
Utility Models (RUM) or, in its most prevalent form,
the Multinomial Logit Model (MNL)3. Particularly, the
use of neural computing for transportation application
began much more recently and work to date has been
of an explanatory nature. Faghri and Aneja (1996) have
found that ANN based models capture the relationship
between trip production rates and the independent
variables more accurately than regression model4.
Recently Sikdar P. K. and Sekhar R. (2005) have
used ANN for mode choice. Their article reported the
result of an analysis of the mode-choice behaviour
of commuters in Nagpur. In their study mode choice
behaviour model has been developed by using ANN
techniques. A multilayer feed forward neural network
was considered and back propagation algorithm was
selected for training. The relative importance of input
variables is found by the proportioning of weight
algorithm which was suggested in the paper of Sikdar
P. K. and Sekhar R., (2005)5. Yarlagadda, Amith and
Srinivasan S.(2007) conducted a detailed study for

understanding the school-travel behaviour of children
and the related interdependencies among the travel
patterns of parents and children6.
4 ARTIFICIAL NEURAL NETWORK
Artificial neural network is a system loosely modelled
on the human brain. ANN models have become more
popular in recent years and are being used in diversified
fields like financial analysis, cognitive science, decision
making problems and pattern recognition. ANN can
also be applied to dynamic traffic pattern classifications
as was done by Jiuyi and Faghri. Evaluation of
applications developed on neural network theory in
the field of transportation engineering is presented by
Faghri and Hua (1992)7.
The fundamental building block of ANN is a neuron,
which is a processing element. A schematic diagram of
a typical with neuron is shown in Fig.1
A set of inputs labeled X1, X2,.., Xn are applied to the
artificial neuron, each representing the output of
another neuron. These inputs collectively referred to as
the input vector X, corresponding to the signal into
the synapses of a biological neuron. Each signal (input)
is multiplied by an associated weight Wji before it is
applied to the summation block, labeled WijXij bj .
The set of weights collectively referred to as the weight
vector W, corresponds to the strength of a single
biological synapses connection. The operations described
here constitute a linear-combiner. In addition, it has a bias
term b, a threshold value that has to be reached or exceeded
for the neuron to produce a signal. A non-linearity or
activation function that acts on the other neurons.
Fig. 1 Model of neuron
Disaggregated Modeling of Mode Choice by Ann - A Case Study of Ahmedabad City in Gujarat State
The output of the neuron can be expressed

mathematically as
supervised learning algorithm or by an unsupervised

learning algorithm8.
The most popular activation functions are hard limiter

and sigmoid. The proper activation function can be
selected by experience or by trial and error in such that
it can correlate input output relation efficiently.
Oi=fi(ui)
...1
Where

Table 1 Number of Registered Vehicles

in Ahmedabad
i and j is number of neuron in the layers.

The purpose of the activation function is to ensure that
the neuron response is bounded i.e. actual response of
the neuron is conditioned, or damped, in response to a
large or small activity stimuli and thus, is controllable.
The various types of activation function used are shown
in Fig 2.
ANN Learning: Learning is the process by which the
ANN is able to produce a correct output corresponding
to a given input. It is somewhat similar to the condition
when the network is able to generate the correct response
to a given stimulus. The network learns either by a
Year
No. of yearly
registered
vehicles
Growth Rate
Comparing
previous Year
1996-97
78525
1997-98
81121
3.30
1998-99
82585
1.80
1999-00
92286
11.70
2000-01
69811
-24.35
2001-02
74952
7.36
2002-03
91643
22.26
2003-04
109161
19.11
2004-05
136982
25.48
005-06
147560
7.72
2006-07
158290
7.27
(Source: Regional Transport Office, Ahmedabad)
Network Architecture: In general, network
architectures may be fundamentally classified into
three different classes as listed.
a) Single layer feed forward networks: It is
the simplest form of a layered Network. In
this network, an input-layer of source nodes
projects onto an output-layer of neurons.
Fig. 2 Typical activation function
b) Feed forward networks: In this form of the

network one or more layer, known as hidden
layer, are added whose computational nodes
are correspondingly called hidden neurons or
hidden units as shown in Fig 3. The function
of hidden neuron is to intervene between the
external inputs and the network output in such
a way that the accurate result is obtained.
c) Feedback or Recurrent Network: It

distinguishes itself from a feed forward neural
network in that it has at least one feedback loop.
Feed back loops involve the use of particular
brands composed of unit-delay elements, which
result in a non-linear dynamical behaviour.
The Feedback network learns new knowledge
by adjusting these connection weights every
time it propagates through feedback. The back
propagation-learning algorithm is most useful in
modeling and processing of many quantitative
phenomena using neural networks.
Table 1 summarizes number of vehicles registered yearly

in Ahmedabad in the last decade. Table 1 also shows the
percentage increase compared to previous year. It may
be noted that year 2000-01 shows negative growth rate
due to the earthquake and riots in Ahmedabad City.
The household survey was conducted for determining
the feasibility of Bus Rapid Transit System (BRTS)
project and to find the percentage of switch over to the
use of public transportation by the traveling class11. For
this, nine spots were identified for the data collection.
Targets sampled per spot are 100-200 based on their
economic conditions. From 9 identified spots a total
of 1399 samples were surveyed out of which 1348
samples are filtered and used in the study.
6 MODE CHOICE
Fig. 3 Multiplayer Neural Network
For a given model a training set of input-output pairs,

{(x(k), d(k))}, k=1,2 ..,p, the back propagation
algorithm performs two phases of data flows. First, the
input pattern x(k) is propagated from the input layer to
the output layer and as a result of this forward flow of
data, it produces an actual output y(k). Then the error
signals resulting from the difference between d(k) and
y(k) are back propagated from the output layer to the
previous layers for them to update their weights.
5 STUDY AREA AND DATA SOURCE
Ahmedabad is the commercial capital of the Indian State
of Gujarat. It is located about 500 kms North of Mumbai
and 1000 kms South West of New Delhi. Formerly it
was known as the textile capital of India, it is also a
major industrial and financial city contributing about
14% of the total investments in all stock exchanges in
India and 60% of the total productivity of the State9,10.
Due to the technological development in the automobile
industry, there is a marked increase in the number of
vehicles plying on road. As per Regional Transport
Office (RTO), Ahmedabad, there is an average increase
of number of vehicles by 9 to 10 % per annum10.
Increased number of privately owned vehicles and the

substandard quality and service of public transportation
may be responsible for rapid generation of private
trip. The traffic congestion patterns on the roads are
directly influenced by the individual decisions made
by commuters in choosing the mode of transport, time,
route etc. Mode choice analysis is the third step in the
conventional four-step transportation forecasting model,
after the trip generation and trip distribution but before
it comes to the assignment of route. A mode choice or
modal split model is concerned with the trip makers
behaviour regarding the selection of travel mode. It is
usually assumed that various modes of urban transport
are open to the trip- maker. An individuals choice of
travel mode is influenced by the following four main
sets of factors12.
a)
Personal characteristics: such as age, sex,

income, car ownership etc.
b)
Characteristics of the transport system: Such

as travel cost, time, comfort, convenience,
prestige etc.
c)
Characteristics of trip: Such as purpose, length,

urgency, peak, off peak etc.
d)
Characteristics of the trip end: Such as home

and work based trip, density etc.
In each of the above mentioned cases, the trip maker
will make a choice based on only those characteristics
which he perceives. They may well be less than the
total set.
6.1 Mode Choice Model
Mode choice models can be aggregate or disaggregate.
Aggregate models are based on zonal information
whereas disaggregate models are based on household
data and individual data or either of the two. Aggregate
demand (first-generation) transportation models
are either based on relations observed for groups of
travelers, or on average relations at a zonal level. On the
other hand, disaggregate demand (second-generation)
models are based on observations of choices made by
individual travelers13. The most common theoretical
base for generating discrete choice models is the
random utility theory.
6.2 Random Utility Theory
The utility is mathematically represented as a linear
function of the attributes of the journey weighted by
the coefficients which attempt to represent their
relative importance as perceived by the traveler.
Model may further assume that the utility Uin can be
represented by two components:
i)
A measurable systematic part Vin, which is

the function of the measured attributes; and
ii)
A random part in, which reflects the

measurement or observational error along with
the taste of the individual.
The utility associated by individual n to alternative i,

denoted by Uin is a random variable such that

Uin=Vin+in
... 2
Where, VinR is the deterministic or systematic,

component of the utility, and in is a random term. If zin
is a vector of attributes of alternative i for individuals
n, and Sn is a vector of socio-economical characteristics

for individual n, we have

Vin=Vin(, zin,Sin)
...3
Where, is a vector of unknown parameters which are to

be estimated. For simplification, it is a common practice
to merge zin and Sn into a vector of attributes, denoted
by xin. Therefore, we have a simpler formulation

Vin=Vin(, xin )
...4
The probability that individual n selects alternative i is

given by

P (i\Cn ) = P (Uin > Uin j Cn)
...5
The expression for this will depend on the distribution

of random error term in. In case the random residuals
are independently and identically distributed (IID)
Gumbel distributed, the expression will reduce to wellknown Multinomial Logit Model (MNL) or if it is
normally distributed then it will reduce to probit model,
or if the random residuals are separately IID Gumbel
distributed then it will reduce to Hierarchical Nested
Logit (NL) model. In case of Revealed Preference (RP)
data this random error term (in) is associated with the
independent variables. This error can be assumed to be
same for estimation and prediction cases and hence, the
utility function estimated can be used directly for the
prediction purposes.
7 ANN MODELING
Considering previous study outcomes and existing
scenario the following variables are identified for the
model development as listed in Table 2.
The general neural has a set of n inputs xi, where the
subscript i take values from 1 to n and indicates the
source of the input signal. The inputs to the neuron may
come from the environment in which it is embedded or
outputs of other neurons depending on the layer that the
neuron is located in. Each input xi is weighted before
reaching the main body of the processing element by
the connection strength or the weight factor wi.
Multilayer feed forward neural network with signal

hidden layer was considered as it is enough for
complexity of the present data and back propagation
algorithm was selected for training the network in
which the error is propagated from the output layer
backward with adjustment of the synaptic connection
weights up to input layer.
Table 2 Variables Consider for Mode Choice Analysis
Sr.
No
Description of
Variables
Values
having 6 nodes. One of the objectives of the present

study is to evaluate the optimal neural network design
developed for the present problem and to determine the
relative interdependencies of the variables. MATLAB
has been used for developing the software for the
ANN model. Analysis of network sensitivity involves
training each network by using different architecture,
by varying number of hidden nodes and calculating the
reliability level in the network.
7.1
Optimization of the Network
Household size
No. of car in Household Discrete
No. of 2-wheeler in
Household
Discrete
No. of Bicycle in
Household
Discrete
Household income (Rs) 1-<=2500 ;

2- 2501-5500 ;
3-5501-10000 ;
4-10001-15000;
5- >15000
Gender of traveler
Age of traveller in years Discrete
The optimum network for the present problem is the

one that yields the highest network performance level
and has a minimum number of nodes in the hidden
layer. The neural network reliability level (Refer
Table 3) represents the accuracy of the model. It is
observed that reliability increases by increasing the
number of hidden nodes in hidden layer up to a certain
extent. Less number of neurons causes inadequacy in
mapping between input and output variables. While
more number of neurons may be responsible for the
over fitting of the model. To avoid over fitting of the
model a validation check is introduced in the model.
The optimum number of hidden nodes for mapping
between input and output variables is considered as 18
which is shown in Fig 4. An optimum neural network
in the present study is designed using 11 input nodes,
18 hidden nodes and 6 output nodes.
Status of traveller
1 student ;
2 working
7.2
Distance travel (km)
Discrete
Discrete
1 Male;
2 Female
10 Total travel time in

minute
Discrete
11 Travel cost (Rs)
Discrete
The designing of network architecture includes

identifying the number of layers, the number of nodes in
each layer and synaptic connections between the nodes
of the different layers. In the present study, a neural
network topology is used which consists of input layer
having 11 nodes, the hidden layer and output layer
Data Division
It is a common practice to split the available data

into sub-sets; namely a training set, an independent
validation set and a testing set. Typically, ANNs are
unable to extrapolate beyond the range of data used
for training14. Consequently poor forecast results
when the validation data contain the values outside
the range of those used for the training. The basic
idea is to withhold the small subset of the data for
the validation set and to train the network on the
remaining data. After generalization with training and
validation, the model is tested for data which is not
used in above process. In the present study 20% data
is randomly selected of the total data set and set apart
to be used for testing the model accuracy without any
bias. Remaining 80% data sets should be used for the
training and validation purpose. Various combinations
of training and validation data set size were used for
the said purpose. Table 4 illustrates the ANN accuracy
in training, validation and testing.
Table 3 Sensitivity Analysis for Hidden Neuron
No. of
Correctly
Hidden node Classified
Reliability
Level (%)
R2
Table 4 Sensitivity of NN Performance for

Various Combination
Trial
No.
No. of sample/
(% of total sample)
Network Accuracy(%)
Training
Validation
Training Validation Testing
1079(80%)
94.53
1051(78%)
28(2%)
92.29
88.88
85.13
1011(75%)
68(5%)
90.11
88.06
83.52
944(70%)
135(10%)
94.49
90.31
89.55
810(60%)
269(20%)
85.43
77.61
80.67
1005
74.55
0.7933
674(50%)
405(30%)
91.54
82.18
79.18
1267
93.99
0.9619
539(40%)
539(40%)
88.87
71.59
75.47
1177
87.31
0.9230
10
1268
94.07
0.9620
12
1267
93.99
0.9613
14
1252
92.88
0.9570
16
1289
95.62
0.9751
17
1236
91.69
0.9479
18
1298
96.29
0.9792
19
1292
95.85
0.9760
20
1291
95.77
97.08
7.3
Mode-Wise Accuracy in Various Phases
The multilayer feed forward neural network with 11

neurons in input layer, 18 neurons in hidden layer
and 6 neurons in output layer is found optimum
during the process of optimization and it is thereby
froze. Data set divisions is done over a number of
trials after reserving 20% data for testing model
and optimum result is obtained when the data set is
distributed 70% in training, 10 % validation and 20%
independent data in testing. Mode-wise prediction
success in different phases for the model is shown in
Table 5, 6 and 7.
During training (refer Table 5) average prediction
accuracy is found 95% which includes 100% accuracy
in the car prediction (72/72) and minimum 87.1%
accuracy (54/62) in the prediction of walking mode.
Table 5 Prediction Success in Training
Actual
Mode
Fig. 4 Network Sensitivity with No. of Hidden nodes
It is clear from the Table 4 that optimum accuracy in

all phases is found by allocating the data for training,
validation and testing in the combination of 70%, 10%
and 20% data respectively.
Car(72)
TW(486)
Auto(68)
Bus(133)
Bicycle
(123)
Walk(62)
Total(944)
Predicted Mode Choice

Individual
(Training)
Match(%)
Car 2 wh Auto Bus Bicycle Walk
72
0
0
0
0
0
100
0 470 16
0
0
0
96.7
0
1
59
8
0
0
86.8
0
0
9
122
2
0
91.7
0
115
93.5
2
1
5
54
87.1
Correctly classified-892;
Missed classified-52; Accuracy(%)-95
10
In the validation as shown in the Table 6 total prediction

accuracy is found 85% which includes maximum
accuracy of 92% in car prediction (22/24) and minimum
accuracy of 46% (11/24) in the prediction of walking
mode.
The model is tested by separated 20% data sets and
the total prediction accuracy is found to be 90% which
includes maximum 91% accuracy in car prediction
(21/23) and minimum 62% accuracy (13/21) in the
prediction of walking mode. Total missed classified
mode is only 27 out of 269.
Table 6 Prediction Success in Validation
Actual
Mode
Predicted Mode Choice

(Validation)
Individual
Match(%)
2
Car
Auto Bus Bicycle Walk
wh
Car(24)
22
92
TW(135)
129
96
Auto(25)
10
40
Bus(29)
28
97
Bicycle(32)
28
87
Walk(24)
11
11
46
8 RELATIVE IMPORTANCE
INPUT PARAMETERS
OF
THE
Neural network is quite good for the purpose of

classification, but it fails to provide a basis for modeling
a set of casual factors. ANN performance is good in
predicting the observed choice correctly; however it
suffers from accurate interpretation of the significance
of input variables due to lack of required statistical
computation tools. This is because ANN learns
parameter behaviour by encoding it in a numerically
assignable weight. This Black box image of the neural
network is revealed by finding the effect of the variables
on the output.
The relative importance of input variables is found by
the proportioning of weights 5. For this purpose, all the
variables are kept at its mean value except one variable
and the relative change in the output with respect to
change in that variable from mean up to half the value
of standard deviation is determined.
The procedure is to be repeated for the all variables. In
the present study, it is found that relative importance
of the distance traveled, traveling cost, traveling time,
and vehicle ownership is more which is shown in
Fig 5.
Correctly classified-228; Missed classified-41;

Accuracy (%)-85
Total(269)
Table 7 Prediction Success in Testing

Actual
Mode
Predicted Mode Choice(Testing)

Car
Individual
Match(%)
2
Auto Bus Bicycle Walk
wh
Car(23)
21
91
TW(143)
140
98
Auto(15)
53
Bus(30)
28
93
Bicycle(37)
32
86
Walk(21)
13
62
Total(269)
Correctly classified-242; Missed classified-27;

Accuracy(%)-90
Fig. 5 Relative Importance of Various Parameters
The Multi Regression model generates the

relationship between one dependent and one or
more independent variables. Generally regression
analysis can be used to develop a mathematical
relationship between independent and dependant
parameters.
Regression model is developed using the same data
used by artificial neural network model. Eleven input
parameters and targeted vehicle mode choice are
used. The input parameters are assumed independent
from each other. The model development is done by
regression function LINEST of the Ms Excel 2003
software. A utility function depicts the various modes
of transportation. The utility function value from 1 to
6 indicates Car, Bus, Two wheelers, Auto, Bicycle and
walking respectively. The utility function obtained
for the data for a linear relationship is given as Eq. 6.
This shows that variable X10 (Total travel time) and
X11(Travel cost) are maximum influencing parameters.
U = 0.03973X10.19798X20.14226X3+0.097131X4
0.11593X 5 +0.01285X 6 0.15435X 7 0.07586X 8 +
0.1821X90.51298X100.51403X11+0.910347
...6
The utility function depicting the non-linear relationship
between the parameters is given in equation 7. This
shows that variable X10 (Total travel time) and X11
(Travel cost) are maximum influencing parameters,
however the effect of X11 is more as compared to X10
which is also observed in ANN analysis.
log U= 2.66413 0.03929log X1 0.2250X2 +
0.04027X 3 +0.03807X 4 0.11398X 5 +0.00128X 6
0.17947X 7 +0.01267X 8 +0.26848X 9 0.32181X 10
0.64011X11
...7
where X1 to X11 are parameters as depicted
Table 2 respectively.
8.1
in
Comparison with ANN Model
Mode choice modeling is a behavioural model and

(system transfer function) input output relationship is
non-linear and complex.
Table 8 Comparison of ANN and Regression Model
ANN
Linear Non-linear
model Regression Regression
model
model
MSE
0.0965
0.999
0.9747
R2
0.9792
0.4272
0.4856
% accuracy
90
43.6
44.40
11
Therefore, the prediction accuracy of the regression

model is quite less as compared to ANN model.
Table 8 shows comparison of different models.
CONCLUSION
In the present case Artificial Neural Network model
is developed using 1348 data collected from various
areas of Ahmedabad city in Gujarat state at a micro trip
level. The data is normalized before using in the model.
18 hidden nodes are found to be best for this model
subject to compliance of certain conditions for over
fitting. The distribution of the entire data for training
and validation is done through various trials with
20 % data exclusively set apart for testing. The optimum
performance is found when the data distributed for the
training and validation and testing is 70%, 10% and
20% respectively. The accuracy achieved in the model
respectively in training, validation and testing is 95%,
85% and 90%.
The black box image of the neural network is clarified
by finding out relative importance of the explanatory
variables considered for model calibration through
proportioning of weights algorithm. It is observed that
the parameters which highly affect the mode choice
are Travel cost, Travel time, Travel distance, Vehicle
ownership and Household income.
Linear and Non-linear Regression model are also
developed for the same data but the result obtained is
quite poor as compared to ANN Model. Mean squared
error in regression model is 0.9747 compared to 0.0965
for ANN model. Similarly, R2 in linear regression model
is 0.427, for non-linear regression model is 0.485 while
in ANN model it is 0.9792. Being highly compatible,
ANN model should be used for the planning of various
transport facility.
REFERENCES
1.
Yegnanarayana, B. (2001), Artificial Neural

Networks, Prentice-Hall of India Private
limited, New Delhi, India.
2.
Warner S. (1962), Strategic Choice of

Mode in Urban Travel: A study of Binary
12

Choice Northwestern University Press, The
Transportation Centre.
3.
Ben-Akiva, M. and Lerman S. (1985), Discrete

Choice Analysis: Theory and Application to
Travel Demand, MIT Press, Cambridge,
Massachusetts.
4.
Faghri, A. and Aneja, S. (1996), Artificial

Neural Network-Based Approach to Modeling
Trip Production, Transportation Research
Record, Journal of TRB, vol 1556, pp. 131-136.
5.
Sikdar, P.K. and Sekhar R. (2005), Analysis

of Artificial Neural Networks for Mode
Choice Modeling START- 2005, International
Conference, IIT Kharagpur, India.
6.
7.
Yarlagadda, A.K. and Srinivasan, S. (2007),

Modeling Childrens School Travel Mode and
Parental Escort Decisions, Transportation,
Volume 35, Number 2, pp. 201-218.
Faghri, A. and J. Hua, Seasonal Roadway
Classification
Using
Neural
Networks.
Applications of Artificial Intelligence Techniques
in Transportation Engineering, Engineering

Foundation, pp. 363381 (1992).
8.
www.mathworks.com last accessed on 2nd Jan,

2009.
9.
www.censusindia.gov last accessed on 23rd

Dec., 2008.
10.
Rathod S. and Gundaliya P.J. (2008), Mode

Choice Model for Motorized Trips for Students A Case Study of Ahmedabad City TPMDC 08,
IIT Bombay.
11.
www.gidb.org last accessed on 30th Dec., 2008.
12.
Saxena, S.C.(1989), Traffic Planning and

Design, Dhanpat Rai Publication (P) Ltd., New
Delhi.
13.
Ortzar, J. and Willumsen, L.G., Modelling

Transport, Third Edsition, Wiley Publication.
14.
Flood, I., and Kartam, N. (1994a), Neural

Networks in Civil Engineering. I: Principles and
Understanding. J. Comput. Civ. Eng., 8 (2),
pp. 131148.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the authors may be contacted at:E-mail:pinakramanuj@gmail.com,
pjgundaliya@gmail.com
Paper No. 587
STUDY OF COMPOSITE EFFECT OF CONCRETE BASE IN RIGID

PAVEMENT FOR VILLAGE ROADS IN ALLUVIAL REGION
R.K. Srivastava*, K.K. Shukla** And S.K. Duggal***
Abstract
A composite rigid pavement removing the separation layer between lean concrete and pavement quality concrete is proposed for village
roads. Grade of concrete considered in the present work is up to M20. Composite effect of lean concrete (LC) and pavement quality
concrete (PQC) has been investigated. The proposed rigid pavement with the proposed grade of concrete comes out to be economical and
safe even for soils having low value of modulus of sub-grade reaction in alluvial regions.
INTRODUCTION
India is a country where a large population lives in

villages with their livelihood mainly depending upon
agriculture. Further because of stringent environmental
rules, industrial growth is shifting towards villages.
Both of these activities require a better means of
communication which can be provided by good
conditioned roads. Most of the village roads have very
low volume of traffic, consisting mostly of rural transport
vehicles, like agricultural tractors/trailers, light goods
vehicles, buses, animal drawn vehicles, motorized twowheelers and cycles. Some of the village roads may
also have light and medium trucks carrying sugarcane,
timber, quarry materials, etc. The percentage of village
roads is much higher compared to other category
roads like NH, SH, MDR and ODR. Therefore, village
connectivity assumes not only greater significance
in the development of the country but a challenging
task also. As of now flexible pavements are in use for
village connectivity program because of low initial cost
of construction. But due to high cost of maintenance,
sensitivity to water logging and lack of institutional set
up for their maintenance village roads deteriorate very
fast, especially in alluvial regions. Every year several
kilometers of village roads are washed away by floods
and water logging. Moreover, the nature of traffic is
also changing due to industrial growth in nearby areas.

Thus, for village roads there is a need to think about
the option of rigid pavement as a substitute of flexible
pavement.
Rigid pavement is an alternative to flexible pavement
where the soil strength is poor, aggregates are costly
and the drainage conditions are bad. However, they
demand a high degree of professional expertise at the
design stage and construction besides high initial cost.
Prasad1 carried out life cycle cost analysis comparison
between rigid and flexible pavements and concluded
that cost difference is negligible considering the cost
of maintenance and vehicle operating cost. Further,
rigid pavement is a better option from climatic and
environmental considerations. Also, cement concrete
pavement is the best option for locations having
cement and fly ash in close proximity and sub-grade
soils having low CBR values. Kadiyali and Dandvate2
made a comparative study of economics of rigid and
flexible pavements and observed that rigid pavement is
far more economical than flexible one based on overall
economic considerations. This generalization is valid
for all zones of the country and is independent of subgrade characteristics3,4. For low traffic volume roads,
i.e. village roads and streets, a rural road manual has
been introduced by IRC where cement concrete roads
are preferred in populated areas/streets to meet the
Chief Engineer, Hq.1, U.P. P.W.D. Lucknow, E-mail: rajendra.srivastava@hotmail.com

Professor, Applied Mechanics Department
MNNIT Allahabad
***
Professor,Civil Engineering Department
*
**
14
Srivastava, Shukla and Duggal on
problems of maintenance due to poor drainage etc. As

most of northern parts of India belong to alluvial region
having soft soil and poor drainage conditions, lot of
expenditure is being incurred every year to maintain
the flexible pavements in their congenial condition and
this necessitates the use of cement concrete road.
IRC:SP:62-20045 provides guidelines regarding design
and construction of cement concrete pavement for
rural roads. Minimum grade of concrete specified
for rigid pavement is M 30. Such a high grade of
concrete is not easy to achieve in villages and remote
areas because of the requirement of fully modernized
mode of construction. The grade of concrete therefore
needs reconsideration. IRC:SP:62-2004 specifies
M 30 grade of concrete and a separation layer of
125 micron thick polythene sheet between lean concrete
(LC) as a base and pavement quality concrete (PQC) as
wearing surface to reduce the friction without taking
structural advantage of LC layer. Composite effect of
LC and PQC needs to be investigated by removing the
separation layer.
In the present work an attempt is made to consider
the combined effect of LC and PQC by removing the
separation layer between LC and PQC. Minimum
grade of concrete proposed herein is M 20 in place of
M 30 as specified by IRC. Cost comparison between
composite rigid pavement and plain concrete pavement
is made and it is found that cost reduces approximately
by 20%.
2 DESIGN
OF
PAVEMENT
COMPOSITE
RIGID
A composite rigid pavement without separation layer

between LC and PQC is designed for the village roads.
Design load is taken 30 kN single wheel load as it serves
isolated roads where traffic consists of agricultural
tractors/trailers, light commercial vehicles, motorcycles
buses etc. The fatigue damage is not considered for
these roads as percentage and frequency of heavy
vehicles are almost negligible. The tyre pressure for
village link roads does not exceed 0.50 N/mm2. The
width of the roads is taken as 3.0 m. For through roads
design single wheel load of 51 kN, width 3.75 m and
tyre pressure 0.7 N/mm2 is considered.

Total stresses induced in the pavements at edges, interior
and corners are considered. The critical condition
occurs when the wheel load is placed at the edges.
Maximum variation in the temperature takes place
during day time between 12 to 4 pm. Thus the critical
thermal condition occurs during this period. During
this period the chances of the vehicles having single
axle load of 30 kN and 51 kN passing through village
roads are rare. A maximum stress due to temperature
variation and wheel load occurring simultaneously is
almost not possible. However, stresses are computed
for the critical condition, assuming that such situation
may arise.
If pavement slab is laid over LC layer without
separation layer and assumed bonded with the base
concrete, a reduction in flexural stress in pavement is
possible which ultimately will reduce the thickness of
the pavement slab. Equivalent PQC thickness of higher
modulus corresponding to thickness of LC can be
calculated using the relationship (Kumar et al.6):

he
where,
= (ELC/EPQC)1/3 hLC
ELC = Modulus of Elasticity of LC
EPQC = Modulus of Elasticity of PQC
hLC = Thickness of LC
...1
Modulus of Elasticity of concrete is given by:

= 5000 fck (N/mm2)
where,
fck is the characteristic strength of concrete in N/mm2
Thickness of composite rigid pavement and thickness
of PQC laid M-10 concrete.
The design of composite rigid pavement without
separation layer between LC as base and PQC is carried
out. Design parameters considered are:
Tyre pressure
= 0.50 N/mm2 for
30 kN single wheel
load

= 0.70 N/mm2 for
Study of Composite Effect of Concrete Base in Rigid Pavement for Village Roads in Alluvial Region

51 kN single
wheel load
Modulus of Elasticity for PQC (M 20 Grade Concrete)

EPQC= 22,360 N/mm2
Modulus of Elasticity for LC (M 10 Grade Concrete)

ELC= 15,800 N/mm2
Poissons ratio
= 0.15
Maximum joint spacing (L) = 4.5 m

Design life
= 20 years
Coefficient of thermal expansion =
10.0*10-6/0C
Thickness of PQC, hPQC = 100 mm for 30 kN

single wheel load

= 150 mm for 51
kN single wheel load
Thickness of LC, hLC
= 100 mm
Equivalent thickness of PQC

he= 89 mm
In the present work equivalent thickness of PQC

corresponding to LC layer is taken as 80 mm.
Thickness of composite
pavement LC+PQC = 80+100 = 180 mm. for
pavement width 3.0 m,
Thickness of
composite pavement
LC+PQC
= 80+150 = 230 mm. for
pavement width 3.75 m,
Temperature variation = 12.86 0C and 13.820C

for 180 mm and 230
pavement thickness
(Zone-I), respectively

= 16.08 0C and 16.820C for
180 mm. and 230 mm.`
pavement thickness
(Zone-II), respectively.
The design parameters based on CBR values are shown
15
Table 1 Design Parameters Based on CBR Values

S. Width of Modulus of
No. Pavement Sub-grade
(m)
Reaction k
(kg/cm2/cm)
Single Thickness Thickness Permissible

Axle of PQC
of Base
Stress
Load
(cm)
Layer
(N/mm2)
(kN)
(cm)
1.
3.0
4.2/2.1
30
10.0
10.0
3.75
2.
3.75
4.2/2.1
51
15.0
10.0
3.75
in Table 1. The stresses in the composite rigid pavement

due to wheel load and temperature variation across
pavement thickness are calculated at the edge, corner
and interior of the pavement and shown in Tables 2 to
9. Stress due to temperature is also calculated at 70%
of the temperature variation across the thickness, to
account for non-linearity of the temperature variation
across the thickness. This reduces the tensile stresses,
resulting in further economy. The total stress obtained
for the composite rigid pavement is found to be
less than the permissible value. The cross-sectional
details of the composite pavement are shown in
Figs. 1 to 4. Tables 10 and 11 show the kilometer wise
cost comparison between Plain Cement Concrete
with separation layer and composite rigid pavement
without separation layer for single wheel load of 30
kN and 51 kN, respectively. It has been observed that
there is saving of more than 20% when composite
effect is considered without separation layer.
Table 2 Stresses at Edge for Composite Rigid
Pavement with 10 cm LC (Axle load: 60 kN)
Zone-I
S. %
No. CBR
Modulus of
Sub-grade
Reaction, k
(kg/cm2/cm)
below LC
Stress
(N/mm2)
Total Stress
(N/mm2)
Temperature Load
t=12.860c
Temperature (t 0c)
0.7t
0.7t
1.
2.0
2.1
1.35
0.95
2.17
3.52
3.12
2.
5.0
4.2
1.708
1.19
2.01
3.71
3.200
16

Table 3 Stresses at Interior for Composite Rigid Pavement with 10 cm LC (Axle load: 60 kN) Zone-I
S.
No.
%
CBR
Modulus of Sub-grade
Stress (N/mm2)
2
Reaction, k (kg/cm /cm)
Temperature t=12.860c
below LC
t
0.7t
Total Stress (N/mm2)

Load
Temperature (t0c)
t
0.7t
1.
2.0
2.1
1.45
1.01
1.318
2.760
2.32
2.
5.0
4.2
1.89
1.32
1.22
3.11
2.54
Table 4 Stresses at Corner for Composite Rigid Pavement with 10cm LC (Axle load: 60 kN) Zone-I
S.
No.
%
CBR
Reaction, k (kg/cm2/cm)
below LC
Stress (N/mm2)
Temperature t=12.860c
t
0.7t

Load
Temperature (t 0c)
t
0.7t
1.
2.0
2.1
0.30
0.21
2.15
2.45
2.36
2.
5.0
4.2
0.33
0.22
2.04
2.37
2.26
Table 5 Stresses at Edge for Composite Rigid Pavement with 10cm LC (Axle load: 102 kN) Zone-I
S. No.
%
CBR
Reaction, k
(kg/cm2/cm) below LC
Stress
(N/mm2)
Temperature t=13.82 0c
t
0.7t
Total Stress
(N/mm2)
Load
Temperature (t 0c)
t
0.7t
1.
2.0
2.1
0.93
0.65
2.36
3.29
3.01
2.
5.0
4.2
1.40
0.98
2.19
3.59
3.17
Table 6 Stresses at Interior for Composite Rigid Pavement with 10cm LC (Axle load: 102 kN) Zone-I
S. No.
%
CBR
Reaction, k (kg/cm2/cm)
below LC
Stress (N/mm2)
t
0.7t

Load
Temperature (t 0c)
t
0.7t
1.
2.0
2.1
1.06
0.74
1.4
2.46
2.14
2.
5.0
4.2
1.58
1.11
1.30
2.88
2.41
17
Table 7 Stresses at Corner for Composite Rigid Pavement with 10cm LC (Axle load: 102 kN) Zone-I
S. No.
%
CBR
Reaction, k
(kg/cm2/cm)
below LC
Stress
(N/mm2)
t
0.7t
Total Stress
(N/mm2)
Load
Temperature (t 0c)
t
0.7t
1.
2.0
2.1
0.60
0.43
2.15
2.75
2.58
2.
5.0
4.2
0.66
0.46
2.04
2.70
2.50
Table 8 Critical Stresses at Different Locations in Composite Rigid Pavement with 10 cm LC

(Axle load: 60 kN, CBR = 5) Zone-I
S.
No.
Location
Reaction, k
Stress
(N/mm2)
Total Stress
(N/mm2)
Temperature (0.7t)
Load
1.
Edge
4.2
1.19
2.01
3.20
2.
Interior
4.2
1.32
1.22
2.54
3.
Corner
4.2
0.22
2.04
2.26
Table 9 Critical Stresses at Different Locations in Composite Rigid Pavement on 10 cm LC

(Axle load: 102 kN, CBR = 5) Zone-I
S.
No.
Location
Reaction, k
Stress
(N/mm2)
Total Stress
(N/mm2)
Temperature (0.7t)
Load
1.
Edge
4.2
0.98
2.19
3.17
2.
Interior
4.2
1.11
1.30
2.41
3.
Corner
4.2
0.46
2.04
2.50
Fig. 1 Cross Section of Composite Rigid Pavement for Dead End Village Link Road.
18
Fig. 2 Cross Section of Composite Rigid Pavement for Through Village Road
Fig. 3 Cross Section of Rigid Pavement for Through Village Road with DLC
Fig. 4 Cross Section of Rigid Pavement for Dead End Village Road with DLC
19
Table 10 Per km. Cost Comparison between PCP and Composite Rigid Pavement for Dead End Village
Link Road (with Single Wheel Load of 30 kN)
S. Plain Concrete Pavement

No.
Item
Measurement
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
M 30 Grade
Cement
Concrete
Number of
Joints
M 20 Cement
Concrete
LC of Grade
M 10
Polythene
Saving = 21.39%
Composite Cement Concrete Pavement

Qty.
110003.00.15 450 m3
1000
Rate
Amount
Measurement
(Rs.)
4913 per 2210850.00
m3
223 No. 3000 per 669000.00

Joint
Qty.
Rate
(Rs.)
Amount
1000
223 No. 3000 669000.00

per
4.5
4.5
Joint
110003.00.10 300 m3 4555 1366500.00
per m3
110003.00.10 300 m3 3744 per 1123200.00
1123200.00
m3
110003.0
3000 m2 5 per m2 15000.00
Total: 4018050.00
3158700.00
Table 11 Per km. Cost Comparison between PCP and Composite Rigid Pavement for through Village Road
(with Single Wheel Load of 51 kN)
S. Plain Concrete Pavement
No.
Item
Measurement
1.
2.
3.
M 30 Grade
Cement
Concrete
Number of
Joints
Composite Cement Concrete Pavement

Qty.
1x1000x3.75x0.20 750 m3
1000
223 No. 4000

per
Joint
4.5
4.
M 20 Cement
Concrete
LC of Grade 1x1000x3.75x0.10 375 m3
5.
M 10
Polythene
Saving = 19.02%
Rate Amount
Measurement
(Rs.)
4913 3684750.00
per m3
1x1000x3.75
892000.00
Qty.
1000
Rate
(Rs.)
223 No. 4000

per
4.5
Joint
1x1000x3.75x0.15 562.5
4555
3744 1404000.00 1x1000x3.75x0.10 375 m3

per m3
3750 m2 5per m2 18750.00

Total: 5999500.00
Amount
892000.00
2562187.50
3744 1404000.00
per m3
4858187.50

20 Study of Composite Effect of Concrete Base in Rigid Pavement for Village Roads in Alluvial Region
3 DESIGN CURVES FOR COMPOSITE
RIGID PAVEMENT
The stresses induced in composite rigid pavement,
taking into account the effect of base concrete, which
is of lower grade, than that of concrete pavement are
calculated for different values of sub-grade modulii
and pavement thicknesses. The design chart showing
the variation of the stresses with pavement thickness
for different k values are shown in Figs. 5 and 6 for
CONCLUDING REMARKS
The design of composite rigid pavement without

separation layer between LC and PQC is carried out.
It is observed that the advantage of composite rigid
pavement is appreciable. LC layer below concrete slab
increases the strength of pavement and consequently
thickness of slab can be reduced. The minimum grade
of concrete used can be reduced to M 20 in place of
M 30. It is found that the composite design is safe, even
for the smallest value of modulus of sub-grade reaction
(k = 2.1 kg/cm2/cm) specified by IRC SP 62: 2004. The
concept of composite effect of LC and PQC may be
very useful in alluvial regions having poor soil strength.
It has been found that composite rigid pavement is
economical by 21.39% and 19% than PCP for dead end
road and through village road, respectively.
5 References
1
Prasad, B. (2007), Life Cycle Cost Analysis

of Cement Concrete Roads vs. Bituminous
Roads. Indian Highways, Sept. 2007,
pp. 19-28.
Kadiyali, L.R. and Dandavate, M.G. (1984), A

Comparative Study of the Economics of Rigid
and Flexible Pavements, The Indian Concrete
Journal, Vol. 58, No. 11, 1984.
Taunk, G.S. (1998), Rigid Pavements Vs

Flexible Pavements, Indian Highways,
Feb.1998, pp. 5-11.
Roy, S., Suresh, R., Reddy, K.S. and Pandey,

B.B. (2009), Flexible-Rigid Pavement with
Different Materials- A Sustainable Solution
for Village Roads, Journal of Indian Road
Congress, Oct.-Dec.2009, pp. 261-273.
IRC:SP:62-2004 (2004), Guidelines for the

Design and Construction of Cement Concrete
Pavements for Rural Roads, The Indian Road
Congress, 2004.
6.
Kumar S. Santosh, Srinivas, T., Suresh, K. and

Pandey, B.B. (2006), Mechanistic Design of
Concrete Pavement, Journal of Indian Road
Congress, 67-3, pp. 209-224.
Fig. 5 Design Curve for Composite Rigid Pavement for

Dead End Village Link Roads
Fig. 6 Design Curve for Composite Rigid Pavement for

Through Village Roads
dead end and through village roads, respectively. It

can be seen that induced stresses in the pavement
are almost same for k values beyond 6. Total stress
in the composite pavement on sub-grade having k
value as low as 2 and that even for 100 mm thick
pavement is less than the permissible value. Thus,
utilizing the composite effect the rigid pavement will
be economical.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Authors. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail: rajendra.srivastava@hotmail.com
Paper No. 588
Full Scale Field Performance Study on SBS Modified

and Conventional Bitumen in Bituminous Concrete
Surface Subjected to Heavy Traffic
P. K. Jain*
Abstract
In this paper findings of long term full scale comparative performance of SBS modified and conventional bituminous mixes under overloading conditions
with high pavement temperature are reported. The laboratory results show that the performance of SBS modified bitumen is superior to conventional 60/70
bitumen. The resistance to rutting, and moisture sensitivity of bituminous concrete with PMB-40 (SBS modified) is observed better than conventional
60/70 (VG-30) bitumen. The values of stiffness modulus of bituminous mixes with PMB-40 (SBS modified) are observed higher than conventional 60/70
bitumen. Paper also deals with structural evaluation (By Deflection Test) and functional evaluation (By Roughness Test) of the selected road sections with
SBS modified and conventional bitumen in Bituminous Concrete (BC) wearing coat, periodically for 60 months at an interval of about six months. The
study includes the assessment of the performance of the test sections based upon the time series pavement performance data (Deflection, Roughness and
Distresses).The progression of roughness in SBS modified surface is found less compared to surface laid with conventional 60/70 bitumen. The deflection
of pavement is also marginally less in case of surface laid with SBS modified bitumen. The rut depth of sections is also observed less than 8 mm in case of
SBS modified bitumen as compared to 10-12 mm in 60/70 bitumen sections, supporting laboratory test data of rut depth studies done using wheel tracking
machine. The results indicated delayed pavement deterioration, besides higher service life of wearing course, when SBS modified bitumen is used in 40
mm thick BC surface on a portion of National Highway. The estimated extension in life is 50-75%.
Introduction
Flexible pavements with bituminous surfacing are

widely used in India for construction of roads and
runways. The increased volume of traffic, overloading
of axles in excess of permissible limits[1] and higher
tyre pressure, have caused widespread problems with
the performance of these pavements[2]. The statistics
of various performance studies indicate that useful life
of bituminous surfacing has declined from average
value of 6-8 years in past to about 4-6 years in recent
years. It is well known that under the prevailing
heavy traffic, overloading and extreme environmental
conditions, conventional bituminous overlay, in
general, are not meeting the durability requirement.
The accelerated deterioration of bituminous overlay
burdens the maintenance budget, which in turn affects
the availability of funds for new developments. It
is a global view[3] that the quality and longevity of
pavements, must, be ensured in order to reduce cost of
maintenance.
Conventional/unmodified bituminous binders[4] such

as VG-10 (80/100), VG-20 (60/70) or VG-30 (50/60)
grade, in general perform well in many situations on
majority of the roads. However, in a given specific
location/situation, performance of these bituminous
binders falls below the acceptable level, such as on
roads subjected to heavy traffic loads and volumes as
well as due to the ever increasing expectations from
the road users, in terms of improved performance
by way of better rideability and comfort level. The
higher volume of commercial vehicles (trucks) as well
as the overloading of axles, especially at road sites
experiencing extreme climate such as cold as well as
hot climatic condition causes higher stresses onto the
pavement, eventually resulting into the development
of pre-mature distress[2] (fracture or deformation). To
meet such growing demands and challenges, highway
engineers have the option to select and use high
performance bituminous binders from a wide range
of modified binders, made with different types of
modifiers (polymer modification). The use of modified
* Chief Scientist (Head, Flexible Pavement) and Coordinator (A csir), CSIR-Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi 110 025
E-mail: pramodj.crri@nic.in
22
Jain on
bituminous binders[3] offer a good solution for such

situations and assists in (i) reducing the frequency of
maintenance required at particular locations, and (ii)
providing a much longer service life of the maintenance
treatments applied[5].
The degree of improvement in the pavement
performance and type of modification required[6]
varies, which eventually depends upon the needs
of a specific site with respect to the traffic volume,
axle loading and pavement temperatures. To prevent
deterioration process of flexible pavement under
overloading and extreme temperature conditions,
several types of measures may be adopted effectively
such as improved design, use of high performance
materials and use of effective construction
technologies[7]. Adequate findings for specific site
conditions in India on performance of different
types of modified bitumens are not available to
profession to take scientific decision to choose types
of modification. Therefore, a study was undertaken
to monitor full scale periodic performance for
observation of pavement deterioration trends, using
elastomers (SBS) modified bitumen.
2 Literature Survey
Despite the large number of polymer products,
there are relatively few types, which are suitable for
bitumen modification and are incorporated in the
specifications [8-9]. To achieve the goal of improving
bitumen properties, a selected polymer or blend of
polymers also create a secondary network or new
balance system with bitumen as binder is needed.
The degree of modification depends on the properties
of the polymer, polymer content and nature of the
bitumen. Vanbeem and Brassier[10] reported findings
of study on bituminous binders of improved quality
containing SBS thermoplastic rubber. Subsequently,
a number of laboratory studies[11-30] were conducted
on modification of bitumen using SBS block
copolymer. Isaacson and Lu[11] investigated properties
of modified binders and showed that elastomeric
binders increase both rut resistance and fatigue
life of bituminous mixes. Jain and Coworkers [12-15]
conducted extensive laboratory studies to investigate

laboratory performance of SBS modified bitumen.
Audery etal[16] investigated the influence of polymer
modification, moisture conditioning and long term
aging on bond strength of binders was measured by
means of modified pull off test. Recently, Somna
and Coworkers[17] investigated efficacy of modified
bitumen in terms of suitability of various commercially
available modified binders. Shivani and Veeragavan[18]
investigated fatigue behavior of (SBS) modified
bituminous concrete mixture. An increase of 2 to 2.5
times in value of resilient modulus is also reported.
The fatigue life of SBS modified mix was observed 2.1
to 2.4 times compared to 60/70 bitumen. Bouldin and
Collins[19] investigated effect of rheology on rutting
resistance of SBS modified bitumen. The findings
suggest a need for different calibration factor in
PMB mixes due to enhanced performance for use
in rutting and fatigue cracking prediction equations.
Srivastava etal[20] investigated implication of materials
characteristics of SBS modified bitumen on thickness
of overlays. Jain and Coworkers[15] investigated
relationship between rheological properties of SBS
modified binders and mechanical properties of their
mixes. Polymer modified bitumen especially those
prepared with elastomers are commonly used in
US for flexible pavements carrying high volume of
traffic. Von Quintus and Coworkers [21] conducted
extensive study on SBS modified bitumen, and
reported 50-100 percent extension in service life
further supported by mechanistic empirical distress
prediction model, which confirmed findings of studies
done by CRRI[12-15]. A number of laboratory studies
have been conducted on elastomeric modification and
beneficiation accrued[22-33]. Studies for specific site
conditions such as overloading and high temperature
are to select type of modification felt essential. This
paper deals with findings of full scale performance
study on SBS modified bitumen in bituminous
concrete conforming to Indian standards[8-9].
3 Experimental
Experimental work of the study was carried out in two
phases viz laboratory investigations and field studies.
Full Scale Field Performance Study on SBS Modified and Conventional Bitumen in Bituminous
Concrete Surface Subjected to Heavy Traffic
The description of experimental work is given as
under:
Laboratory Investigations
Materials: PMB-40 conforming to IS: 15462[8-9]
and 60/70 bitumen conforming[4] to IS: 73-1992
were used in this study. The properties of PMB-40
23
and 60/70 grade bitumen are given in Table 1 and

2. Rheological properties[15] of PMB-40 and 60/70
penetration grade bitumen are given in Table 3. The
properties of aggregates and grading of aggregates
used for preparation of mixes are presented in Table
4 and 5. The rheological properties of bitumen and
modified bitumen were investigated as reported
earlier[15].
Table 1 Properties of SBS Modified PMB - 40

PMB-40-E
Value
Limit
Penetration at 25C, 100 g, 5 sec., 0.1 mm
33
30-50
Softening point, (R&B), C
64
60 (min)
Elastic recovery of half thread in ductilometer at 15C, %
76
75 (min)
Separation, difference in softening point, R&B, C
2
3 (max)
Viscosity at 150C, Poise
7.7
3-9
Test on Residue of Thin Film Oven Test
Loss in weight, %
0.1
1.0 (max)
Increase in softening point, C
2
5 (max)
Reduction in penetration of residue, at 25C, %
21
35 (max)
Elastic recovery of half thread in ductilometer at 25C, %
51
50 (min)
*PMB - 40 (SBS modified bitumen)
Properties
Test Method
IS:1203
IS:1205
IS:15462
IS:15462
IS:1206
IS:9382
IS:1205
IS:1203
IS: 15462
Table 2 Properties of 60/70 Penetration Grade Bitumen

Designation
Test
Values
Limits as per IS: 73
Test Method
Penetration at 25C, 0.1 mm, 100 gm, 5 sec
66
60-70
IS: 1203
Softening point, (R and B), C
46
Min. 45
IS: 1205
Ductility at 27C, cm
75
Min. 75
IS: 1208
Viscosity @ 60C in Poise
2600
Min. 2400
IS: 1206
Viscosity at 135C, cSt
310
Min. 300
IS: 1206
Table 3 Rheological Properties of PMB-40 and 60/70 Penetration Grade Bitumen[15]

Binder Type
G* at 60C, kPa
Sin , at 60C
G* Sin at
60C, kPa
G*/ Sin at
60C, kPa
Temperature (C)
for 1.0 kPa value
of G*/Sin
PMB-40 (E)
6859
0.981
6735
6.98
77
60/70 (M)*
1920
0.996
1921
1.92
64
*60/70 grade bitumen from Mathura Refinery

24
Jain on
Table 4 Properties of Aggregates (Quartzite)
Properties
Test Value
MoRTH Limits
Method
Impact Value, %
18
Max 30
IS:2386 (P-4)
Water absorption, %
0.9
Max 2
IS: 2386 (P-6)
Stripping, %
5.0
Max 5
IS: 6241
Combined Flakiness and Elongation

Indices,
29
Max 30
IS: 2386 (P-1)
Table 5 Grading of Aggregates in Bituminous Concrete (MoRTH Specification Clause 509)

IS Sieve (mm)
Grading, % passing
MoRTH Limits (Gr. II)
19.0
100
100
13.2
91
79-100
9.5
79
70-88
4.75
61
53-71
2.36
49
42-58
1.18
40
34-48
0.600
32
26-38
0.300
33
18-28
0.150
16
12-20
0.075
4-10
Binder Content, %
5.2
5-7
Preparation of bituminous mixes: The binder was

heated to produce kinematic viscosity of 170 cSt and
280 cSt for determination of the laboratory mixing
and compaction temperature. Mixing temperature can
be taken as the temperature that produces a uniform
and sufficient coating on coarse aggregates. Mixing
temperatures of 180C and a compaction temperature
of 160C were selected for SBS modified bitumen mix.
These mixes were designed by Marshall method as
reported earlier[34].
Methodology for Testing
The prepared specimens were subjected to determination
of performance properties through established test

methods. The details of tests are given below.
Retained Stability
Retained Stability is the measure of moisture induced
striping in the mix and subsequent loss of stability
due to weakened bond between aggregate and binder.
The test was conducted using the normal Marshall
samples. Samples placed in water bath at 60C for
half an hour as well as for 24 hour were used and
their stability was determined. This test is conducted
to know whether the mix is greatly susceptible to
moisture damage or not.
25
T2= Average Tensile strength of conditioned specimen

The minimum value of Retained Stability of bituminous
mixes is 75%.
Indirect Tensile Strength (Its)
This test method measures the splitting tensile strength
by the application of a diametric compressive force
on both unconditioned (dry) and conditioned (wet)
cylindrical bituminous mix specimens placed with its
axis horizontal between the plates of a compressive
testing machine. Tensile strength ratio is determined
according to AASHTO T283, which is the ratio of wet
tensile strength to the dry tensile strength of Marshall
Specimens. The test was conducted at 25C temperature
on the samples conditioned for 24 h at 60C and the
load at which the specimen fails is taken as failure load
of the bituminous mixture.
Indirect tensile strength of the specimen is calculated
as follows:
Where,
T = Indirect tensile strength in kg/sq.cm
P = Load at which failure of sample occurred in kg
t = Thickness of sample in cm
d = Diameter of sample in cm
The tensile strength ratio (TSR) is calculated as
follows:
Where,
T1= Average Tensile strength of unconditioned
specimen
Wheel Tracking Test

Rutting is caused by the permanent deformation of
pavement under wheel path. The susceptibility of
bituminous mixtures to permanent deformation is
measured by Wheel Tracking Device (WTD). The
WTD is destructive test and it involves direct contact
between the loaded wheel and the rectangular test
specimens. The test was conducted on the prepared
slab specimen of 300X300X50 mm at optimum binder
content containing fly ash and stone dust. The test was
conducted as per BS: 598-1998. The total numbers of
20,000 passes were applied at 45C and resulting rut
depth was measured.
Resilient Modulus Test
Resilient Modulus is an important parameter to
determine the performance of pavement, to analyze
the pavement response to repeated traffic loading. The
test was done by measuring the indirect tensile strength
in repeated loading using Universal Testing Machine
consisting of Control and Data Acquisition System
(CDAS), personal computer and related integrated
software. The test follows the ASTM Designation
D 4123-82. Specimens at their optimum bitumen
content were prepared and loaded by diametrical force
in pulse loading. Test parameters were ; condition pulse
count 5, condition pulse period 3000 ms, test pulse
period 2000 ms, rise time 50 ms, peak loading force
1000 N and poisons ratio 0.35. Resilient modulus tests
were conducted on all samples to evaluate mixture
temperature susceptibility and for use as a reference
to earlier testing. Though it was once believed that
stiffer pavements had greater resistance to permanent
deformation, it has been concluded that resilient modulus
at low temperatures is somewhat related to cracking, as
stiffer mixes (higher MR) at low temperatures tend to
crack earlier than softer mixtures.
Properties of designed bituminous concrete mixes are
given in Table 6, 7 and 8. The summary of data analysis
is given in Table 9.
26
Jain on
Table 6 Properties of Designed Bituminous Concrete Mixes
Binder Type
Stability, kg,
60C
Flow, mm,
60C
Marshall
Quotient
kg/m
Retained
Stability, Kg.
24 hrs, 60C
Retained
Stability %,
60C
Retained
ITS, %
PMB-40 (E)
1560
3.6
433
1451
93
86
60/70
1203
3.2
376
1058
88
82
Table 7 Properties of Designed Bituminous Concrete Mixes

Binder Type
Indirect Tensile
Strength, kg/m2
25C
Indirect Tensile
Strength, Retained
%
Stiffness Modulus,
at 35C, MPa
Rut depth, mm,

at 45C
PMB-40 (E)
10.6
86
2070
6.2
60/70 (M)
8.4
82
1597
12.1
Table 8 Results of Resilient Modulus for BC Mixes

Binder Type
Resilient Modulus, MPa

25C
35C
45C
PMB 40 (E)
5218
2070
952
PMB 60/70
3828
1597
682
Table 9 Summary of Findings from Data Analysis

Binder Type
Rut depth, mm
Fail temperatureC by DSR
PMB- 40 (E)
76
PMB-60/70
12
64
Field Investigations
Construction of test sections: Construction of
experimental sections was done as per guidelines laid
down in MoRTH specifications[36]. The particulars of
test sections are given in Table 10. These test sections

were constructed during December 2005-Macrh 2006
after conducting pavement evaluation and needed
strengthening.
Table 10 Particulars of Test Sections at NH-1 (Outer Ring Road)

Test Section Number
Carriageway
Chainage (km)
Binder Type
1A
Delhi-Karnal (LHS)
9.750-9.950
Modified (SBS)
2A
Delhi-Karnal(LHS)
10.000-10.200
Modified (SBS)
3A
Delhi-Karnal(LHS)
11.500-11.700
Neat(60/70)
4A
Delhi-Karnal(LHS)
13.000-13.200
Neat(60/70)
5A
Delhi-Karnal(LHS)
14.400-14.600
Modified(SBS)
6A
Delhi-Karnal(LHS)
15.000-15.200
Modified (SBS)
1B
Karnal-Delhi(RHS)
9.750-9.950
Modified(SBS)
2B
Karnal-Delhi(RHS)
10.000-10.200
Modified(SBS)
3B
Karnal-Delhi(RHS)
11.500-11.700
Neat (60/70)
4B
Karnal-Delhi(RHS)
13.000-13.200
Neat (60/70)
5B
Karnal-Delhi(RHS)
14.400-14.600
Modified (SBS)
6B
Karnal-Delhi(RHS)
15.000-15.200
Modified(SBS)
27
Performance Observation: The experimental sections

constructed, as indicated in Table 10, were monitored
periodically after every six months for a period of five
years (2006 to 2011) for their performance. The key
parameters related to performance, measured on the
test sections periodically, are described below:
plying on the road is necessary to evaluate the actual

quantum of traffic stresses in the form of MSA as per
IRC: 37-2001. VDF was estimated on the basis of the
earlier studies[36]. The tyre pressure of vehicles was in
the range of 5.6 to 6.6 kg/cm2. Progression of MSA
with passage of time is illustrated in Fig.1.
I
Traffic and Axle Load Studies: Performance
of surfacing is always influenced by traffic intensity as
well as loading of vehicles plying on the road. Hence,
the traffic survey is very vital to study performance of
roads and thus the survey was conducted at one location.
The survey was conducted for 48 hours round the clock
by engaging skilled enumerators, separately for up and
down carriageway covering all types of commercial
vehicles thrice during the study. The information on
actual damaging effects of the commercial vehicles
II Measurement of Pavement Surface Distress:

Surface distress is the physical manifestation of internal
damage within a pavement structure and is developed
on the pavement surface with passage of time due
to a variety of influencing factors such as traffic and
climate. The pavement surface distress is one of the
important indicator of the pavements functional
as well as structural condition and eventually the
performance of specifications/treatments. Surface
distress was measured to find out their type, extent
and severity. For taking measurements and recording
data of different types of distress, each test section
was divided into subsections of 50 m each with clearly
marking the start and end points. The each subsection
was further divided into two equal longitudinal
strips (left and right). The different type of distresses
(cracking, pothole, raveling, shoving, settlement/
depression, bleeding and patchwork) were marked and
carefully measured and recorded separately. In case of
Fig. 1 MSA Progression with passage of time
28
Jain on
longitudinal and transverse cracks, the affected area

is taken as the product of actual length of crack and
0.3 m width of strip. Progressions of surface distresses
with passage of time are plotted in Figs. 2 to 5. The
data of Pavement Condition Rating (PCR) on 100 point
scale (Annexure A & B) for all the test sections, at the
interval of 6 months for 10 observations were collected
and plots are given in Figs. 4 and 5.
Fig. 5 Relationship between performance and duration
(RHS carriageway) (One performance observation
is taken at the end of 6 months interval)
Fig. 2 Progression of distresses with passage of time in

LHS carriageway (One performance observation is taken
at the end of 6 months interval)
Fig. 3 Progression of distresses with passage of time in RHS

carriageway (One performance observation is taken
Fig. 4 Relationship between performance rating and duration of

service (LHS carriageway) (One performance observation is taken
III Roughness Measurements: Serviceability in

terms of road users comfort and vehicle operation cost
are directly influenced by the roughness offered by a
pavement surface. The roughness measurements on the
test sections were taken at two wheel paths viz. left,
and right with a calibrated towed Fifth Wheel Bump
Integrator. The left and right wheel paths were identified
at a distance of 1.5 m from the edges. The vehicle,
towing the bump integrator, was run at a constant speed
of 32+1 kmph between the start and end points of
each section, on each wheel path for at least three times,
to get the consistent value. The tyre pressure of towing
vehicle and fifth wheel was maintained at 2.0 kg/cm2
and the oil in dashpot was maintained at the required
level. The calibration of BI unit was carried out with
Dipstick. For calibration purpose, a number of road
sections with a wide range of roughness values were
covered to make the exercise meaningful. Sections of
100 m long were selected for the purpose. Wheel path
and start/end points of the sections were marked with
paint. Progression of roughness with passage of time
are plotted is Figs. 6 to 9.
Fig. 6 Relationship between progression of roughness

and passage of time (LHS) (One performance observation
IV Measurements of Pavements Deflection:
Structural condition of test sections has been evaluated
by the pavement response in terms of deflection under
a standard rear axle load of 8170 kg by a loaded
truck, having a tyre pressure of 5.6 kg/cm2. Deflection
measurement were taken at 11 points in a 200 m long
section, in a staggered manner. The measurements
were done as per CGRA procedure, laid down in
IRC: 81-1997[24], by taking three consistent readings
at each measurement atmospheric and pavement
temperatures were also measured and recorded at the
start and end of deflection measurements. Necessary
corrections for temperature and moisture were applied
to get the corrected rebound deflections as per the
factors suggested in IRC: 81-1997. Data are plotted in
Figs. 10 and 11.
29
Fig. 9 Relationship between progress of roughness

and passage of time (RHS)
Fig. 10 Change in deflection with passage of time (LHS) (One

performance observation is taken at the end of 6 months interval)
Fig. 7 Relationship between progression of roughness and

passage of time (LHS) (One performance observation
Fig. 11 Change in deflection with passage of time (RHS) (One

performance observation is taken at the end of 6 months interval)
Discussion of Results
Fig. 8 Relationship between progression of roughness

and passage of time (RHS) (One performance observation
Properties of bituminous mixtures: Data of designed

mixes given in Tables 6, 7, 8 and 9 indicate superior
properties of SBS modified bituminous mixes as
compared to mixes of 60/70 bitumen. It can be seen
from the data, values of Marshall Stability are 30
30
Jain on
percent higher for PMB-40 mix as compared to mix

of 60/70 grade bitumen. Similarly, values of Marshall
Quotient are also 15% higher for PMB-40 mix over
conventional mix. The values of Marshall Quotient
(Stability in lbs flow in 0.01 inch units) are observed
two times of prevailing tyre pressure of commercial
vehicles. The higher value of retained Marshall Stability
(>90 percent) and indirect tensile strength (>85),
indicate better resistance of PMB mixture to stripping
and moisture damage. Improved resistance to cracking
using PMB-40 as binder is expected on account of
higher value of indirect tensile strength of PMB-40
mixes, which is 26 percent higher than conventional
mixes. Resilient modulus is an important parameter,
and its values at different temperature are significant
from pavement design point of view. The thickness
of layers of bituminous mixes depends upon values
of resilient modulus at 35C. The value of resilient
modulus is 40% higher for SBS modified bitumen at
45C. The value of resilient modulus at 35C is 30%
higher over conventional mixture of 60/70 bitumen.
The data of rutting given in Table 7 indicate that SBS
modified mixes are highly resistance to rutting and
deformation at higher temperature. It can be seen from
Table 8 that rutting of SBS modified mix after 20,000
cycles is 6 mm as compared to 12 mm in the mix of
60/70 bitumen. Therefore, SBS modified mix is highly
resistant to damage of surface due to higher tyre pressure
and effects of overloading at higher temperature.
Performance Observation of Test Sections
Measurements of surface distress and roughness are the
basic parameters to evaluate functional condition of a
pavement, while the pavement deflection is an indicator
of its structural condition. Development of distress

on the pavement surface is a time based progressive
mechanism with increasing traffic loads. Failure of
bituminous surface as well as the pavement occurs
in several modes such as deformation (rutting and
formation of pot holes), which eventually contribute
to progression of roughness with passage of traffic.
The overloading of axle further contributes to faster
progression of distress on road surface. The increase
in MSA with passage of time is shown in Fig. 1. It can
be seen that about 80 MSA traffic is passed on RHS
carriageway (Delhi bound) while 50 MSA has been
passed in 5 years on LHS (Karnal bound carriageway).
Therefore, faster deterioration of surface is expected on
Delhi bound carriageway. Data plotted in Figs. 2 and 3
indicate development of more distress on Delhi bound
carriageway as compared to Karnal bound carriageway.
Further, it can be seen that distress progression
(Figs. 2 and 3) is higher for sections of 60/70 grade
bitumen compared to SBS modified bitumen. In
majority of test sections of unmodified bitumen distress
is in the range of 4 to 8 percent. However, distress is in
the range of 2 to 4 % at the end of 60th month for SBS
modified bitumen. The major distress is in the form of
cracking and ravelling. Plots of Pavement Condition
Rating (PCR) on 100 point scale (Annexure A and B)
are given in Figs. 4 and 5. It can be seen that decrease
in PCR is faster in case of unmodified bitumen sections
as compared to modified bitumen sections. The
decrease in PCR is observed higher on Delhi bound
carriageway due to passing of higher number of MSA.
The value is above 75 (very good) for modified bitumen
sections as compared to 60-74 (good) for unmodified
bitumen sections at the end of 5th years of service 10th
observation.
Table 11 Pavement Serviceability Index (PSI) Concept

Parameters
PSI
PCR
Cracking, %
Total Surface
Distress, %
Roughness
(mm/km)
Deflection,
mm
Excellent
10
90-100
<1
Very Good
8
75-89
<3
Good
6
60-74
3-7
Fair
4
50-59
8-12
Poor
3
40-49
13-20
Very Poor
2
30-39
21-25
Failed
1
<30
>25
<1
<5
5-10
11-15
16-25
26-30
>30
<1500
1501-2000
2001-2500
2501-3000
3001-3500
3501-4000
>4000
<0.50
0.50-0.60
0.61-0.75
0.76-1.00
1.00-1.25
1.26-2.00
>2.0
Table 11 indicate Pavement Serviceable Index (PSI)
concept adopted for analysis of data. If performance
of test sections evaluated on the basis of this concept
(Table 11), SBS modified bitumen sections falls in
the category of very good with 6-7 PSI (very good)
after lapse of 60 months. However, sections with
unmodified bitumen fall in the category of 4-5 PSI
(fair to good). The PSI of unmodified bitumen is in the
range of 6-7 after 30-36 months service. Therefore, 2-3
years extension in service life of bituminous surface is
observed using SBS modified bitumen in a bituminous
surfacing of flexible pavement subjected to overloading
and seven days average highest pavement temperature
(64C). The plot of PSI vs MSA is shown in Fig. 12. A
fair to good condition of PSI i.e. 5 may be considered
as life of surfacing. In the present case, stage of 5 PSI
is observed after passage of 60 msa, for 60/70 bitumen.
The stage of 5 PSI is expected after 100 msa in SBS
modified bitumen section. Therefore, surface of SBS
modified bitumen can take 90% higher loads.
The rate of roughness progression is a vital factor for
assessment of performance of a road surfacing. It can
be seen from the Figs. 6 to 9 that the roughness level
was around 1500 mm/km for all the test sections of
modified and unmodified bituminous surfacing when
the first observation of the performance study was
made. The roughness of modified bitumen sections was
slightly higher at the time of first observation. The PSI
of modified bitumen sections was in the range of 8 to
9 at the beginning. It is observed from the roughness
progression trends (Figs. 6-9) with time that there is
only about 25 percent increase in roughness for all the
test sections except sections of unmodified surfacing.
Majority of test sections of unmodified bituminous
surfacing shows higher roughness compared to modified
bituminous surfacing. It is clear from the trend that
progression of roughness is slow in case of modified
test sections as compared to sections of unmodified
bituminous surfacing.
It can be seen from
rebound pavement
0.4-0.5 mm for all
observation of the
the Figs. 10 and 11 that observed

deflection were in the range of
the test sections during the first
study, indicating the structurally
31
sound condition of the pavement after construction of

test sections. The thickness of overlay was designed by
Benkelman Beam methods before construction of test
sections. The values of deflection observed and less for
modified bitumen section, which may be attributed to
higher values of resilient modulus (Table 9). It has been
observed during the study that the pavement deflection
values are higher in post monsoon performance
observation in comparison to pre-monsoon observation.
The pavement deflection of all the test sections increased
with respect to increase in traffic and reached in the
range of 0.8-1.1 mm at the time of last observation. The
values for modified bitumen sections observed in the
range of 0.8 to 0.9 mm as compared to 0.9 to 1.1, for
unmodified bitumen sections.
Fig. 12 Relationship PSI vs MSA (One performance

observation is taken at the end of 6 months interval)
Conclusions
i)
Rheological properties of SBS modified

bitumen (SHRP parameters) indicate higher
pavement fail temperature as compared to
conventional 60/70 bitumen. PMB-40 (SBS
modified) qualifies as PG-76 grade indicating
its suitability for a pavement subjected to
highest pavement temperature of 76C which
is maximum temperature in India.
ii)
Properties of mixes (strength parameters)

like Marshall stability, Marshall Quotient,
Indirect tensile strength of SBS modified
mixes are higher than conventional bitumen
mixes Resistant modulus of SBS modified
mixes at different temperatures is 1.25
32
Jain on
to 1.75 times higher compared to 60/70
bitumen.
of Asphalt Concrete Mixes, Proceedings of

Association of Asphalt Paving Technologies,
Vol. 57, (1998) pp. 116.
iii)
Rutting of SBS modified mix is half (6.2 mm) as

compared to conventional 60/70 grade bitumen
mix (12.1 mm).
6.
iv)
Progression of roughness and distress is less in

case of SBS modified bitumen as compared to
60/70 bitumen.
Button, J.W., Summary of Asphalt Additives

Performance at Selected Sites TRR 1342
(1992), pp. 67-75.
7.
v)
Deflection of SBS modified bitumen pavement

is less as compared to conventional bitumen.
Shuler, T.S., Collins, J.H. and Kirkpatrick, J.P.,

Polymer Modified Asphalt Properties related
to Asphalt Concrete Performance, ASTM,
STP 941, (1987) pp. 179.
vi)
Pavement Serviceability Index values of SBS

modified bitumen after 5 years and conventional
bitumen after 3 years are same, indicating
2-3 years extension in life of surfacing under
heavy traffic and high pavement temperature
conditions.
8.
IS: 15462-2004, Polymer and Rubber Modified

Bitumen Specification.
9.
IRC: SP-53-2002, Guidelines on Use of

Polymer and Rubber Modified Bitumens in
Road Construction, Indian Roads Congress,
New Delhi.
Acknowledgments
10.
Author is thankful to Dr. S. Gangopadhyaya, Director

(Central Road Research Institute) for kind permission
to publish this paper. Thanks are due to Sh. Y. V. Rao
for help in collection of roughness data.
Vanbeem, E.J. and Brassier, P., Bituminous

Binders of Improved Quality Containing
Cariflex Thermoplastic Rubber Journal of the
Institute of Petroleum, Vol. 59. (1973).
11.
Isacsson, U. and Lu, X., Laboratory

Investigation of Polymer Modified Bitumen,
Proceedings of Association of Asphalt Paving
Technologists, Vol. 68, (1999) pp. 35.
12.
Shukla, R.S. and Jain, P.K., Improvement of

Waxy Bitumen by the Addition of Synthetic
Rubbers, Polymers and Resins , Highway
Research Bulletin No. 38, (1984) p. 17.
13.
Bose, S. and Jain, P.K., Laboratory Study

on Use of Organic Polymers in Improvement
of Bituminous Road Surfacing, Highway
Research Bulletin, Vol. 38, (1989), pp. 63-79.
14.
Jain, P.K., Sangita, Bose, S. and Arya, I.R.,

Characterization of Polymer Modified Asphalt
Binders for Roads and Airfields, ASTM STP
1108 (1192), pp. 341-355.
References
1.
2.
3.
Kandhal, P.S. and Dhir, M.P., Use of

Modified Bituminous Binders in India-Current
Imperatives, Journal of the Indian Roads
Congress, Vol., 72-3, (2011), pp 175-189.
Sikdar, P.K., Jain, S.S., Bose, Kumar, S.,
Premature Cracking of Flexible Pavements
Journal of Indian Roads Congress, Vol. 63-3,
(1993), pp. 355-398.
Isacsson U. and Lu. X, Testing and Appraisal
of Polymer Modified Road Bitumens, RILEM
Report No. 17(1998), pp. 13-38.
4.
IS: 73-1992 Specification-Paving Bitumen
5.
Goodrich, J. L. Asphalt and Polymer Modified

Asphalt Properties Related to the Performance
15.
16.
17.
Jain, P.K., Sikdar, P.K., Kumar, Shanta and

Kamraj C., Studies on Correlation of Rheology
and Performance Characteristics of Mixes of
Modified Binder for Roads in High Temperature
Areas, Highway Research Bulletin, Indian
Roads Congress No. 3, November (2006).
Copeland, Audrey R., Youtcheff, Jack and
Shenoy, Aroon, Moisture Sensitivity of
Modified Asphalt Binder Factors Influencing
Bond Strength, Journal of the Transportation
Research Board, No. 1998 (2007) pp. 18-28.
Nishal, Somna, Sangita, Sharma B.M. and
Sengupta, J. B. A Laboratory Study on
Etticacy of Conventional and Modified
Bituminous Binder in Construction of Roads,
Indian Highways, Vol. 40, No 1, (2012),
pp. 13-21.
18.
Gupta, Shivani and Veeraragavan, Dr. A.

Fatigue Behaviour of Polymer Modified
Bituminous Concrete Mixture Journal of
the Indian Roads Congress (2009), Vol. 70-1,
pp. 55-64.
19.
Boulden, M. G. and Collins J. H., Influence of

Binder Rheology on Rut Resistance of Polymer
Modified and Unmodified Hot Mixes, ASTM
STP 1108 (1992), pp. 60-61.
20.
Srivastava A., Hopman, Piet C., Molenaar,

Andre A. SBS Polymer Modified Asphalt
Binder and its Implications on overlay Design,
ASTM STP 1108 (1992), pp. 309-329.
21.
Quintus, Von, Malleha, H.J. and Buncher, M.S.

Quantification of Effect of Polymer Modified
Asphalt on Flexible Pavement Performance,
(2007) TRR 2001.
22.
Goodrich, J.K. Asphalt and Polymer Modified

Asphalt Properties Related to the Performance
of Asphalt Concrete Mixes. Proceedings
Association of Asphalt paving technologists
Vol 57 (1998) p. 116.
33
23.
Shuler, T.S., Collins, J.H. and Kirkpatrick, J.P.,

Polymer Modified Asphalt Properties Related
to Asphalt Concrete Performance, ASTM,
STP 941, pp. 179, (1987).
24.
King, Gayle, King, H., Pavlovich, R.D, Epps,

A.L. and Kandhal, P.S., Additives in Asphalt,
Journal of Association of Asphalt Paving
Technologies, Vol. 68A (1999).
25.
Chen, J.C., Liao, M. and Shiah, M. Asphalt

Modified by Styrene - Butadiene - Styrene
Triblock Copolymer Morphology and Model,
J. Material, Civil. Engg., Vol. 14, No. 3, (2002),
pp. 224.
26.
Maria, C.C.L., Sandra, A.S. and Jorge, B.S.,

Characterization and Thermal Behavior of
Polymer Modified Asphalt, Mat. Research
Vol. 7, No. 4, (2004), pp. 529.
27.
Collins, J.H., Boulain, M.G., Gelles, R. and

Barker, A. Improved Performance of Paving
Asphalt by Polymer Modification Proc Asphalt
Pav. Tech., Vol. 60 (1991) pp. 43-79.
28.
Performance of Modified Bitumen on NH-2,

CSIR-Central Road Research Institute,
Technical Report (2000), pp. 1-200.
29.
Mehndiratta,
H.C.,
Kumar,
Praveen,
Borapureddy, A. Durga Prasad, and Singh, K.
Lakshman, Relation step between Rheological
and Conventional Properties of Bitumen,
Highway Research Krulleliy.
30.
Collins, J.H., Bouldin, M.C., Gelles, R. and

Berker, A., Improved Performance of Paving
Asphalt by Polymer Modification, Proceedings
of Association of Asphalt Paving Technologists,
Vol. 60, pp. 43 (1991).
31.
Palit, S.K., Reddy, K.S. and Pandey, B.B.,

Performance Evaluation of Crumb Rubber
Modified Asphalt Mixes. J. Materials, Civil
Engg., Vol. 11, No. 6 (2002), pp. 527.
34
32.
Jain on
Panda, M. and Mazumdar, M., Engineering
Properties of EVA Modified Bitumen Binder
for Paving Mixes, J. Materials, Civil Engg.
Vol. 11, No. 2 (1999), p. 131.
33.
Panda, M. and Mazumdar, M., Utilization of

Reclaimed Polyethylene in Bituminous Paving
Mixes, J. Materials, Civil Engg., Vol. 14,
No. 6 (2002), p. 527.
34.
Jain, P.K., Kumar, Shanta, Sengupta, J.B.,

Mitigation of Rutting in Bituminous Roads by
Use of Waste Polymeric Packaging Materials,

Indian Journal of Engineering & Material
Science, No 6, Vol. 18 (2011).
35.
Jain, P.K., Rongali, Uma Devi, Chourasiya,

Anita and Mittal, Abhishek, Studies on
Performance of Warm Polymer Modified
Bituminous
Mixes,
Indian
Journal
of Engineering & Material Science
(Communicated).
36.
Specifications for Road and Bridge Works

(Ministry of Road Transport and Highways) 4th
Revision, 2004.
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Author. For any query, the author may be contacted at: E-mail: pramodj.crri@nic.in
Annexure A
CENTRAL ROAD RESEARCH INSTITUTE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DIVISION
Name of the Road:_____________________________
Carriageway Width (m):____________________
Category of the Road:___________________________
Date of Observation:_____________________
Chainage of Test-Section: Km_________ to Km______________
Weather Condition:_______________________
Type of Wearing Course________________________________
Area of the Section:______________________
FACTORS
MAXIMUM
POINTS
SPECIFICATION
DATE OF LAYING
LOCATION
SURFACE
APPEARANCE
10
Satisfactory
7
Highly Dry/Slightly Rich
5
Dry/Rich
3
Very Dry/Very Rich
CRACKING
No Cracks
20
Fine hair cracks
16
Local Cracks
12
Scattered
8
Extensive
4
REVELLING
None
20
Few
15
Some
10
Extensive
5
PERFORMANCE POINTS AWARDED
0-25 m
25-50
50-75
75-100
100-125 125-150 150-175 175-200
POTHOLES/PATCHES
None
Few
Some
Extensive
SURFACE
UNEVENNESS
None
Few
Some
Extensive
TOTAL
REMARKS
Grading
Very Good/Good/Fair
Fair/Very/Poor
35
40
30
20
10
10
7
5
3
100
Annexure B
CENTRAL ROAD RESEARCH INSTITUTE
FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT DIVISION
Name of the Road:_____________________________
Carriageway Width (m):____________________
Category of the Road:___________________________
Date of Observation:_____________________
Chainage of Test-Section: Km_________ to Km______________
Weather Condition:_______________________
Type of Wearing Course________________________________
Area of the Section:______________________
Chainage of
sub section
Cracking
Patch
work
Potholes
Depression/
Settlement
Type Area % Area % Area % Area
Ravelling
Area
Bledding
Area
0-25 Left
Right
25-50 Left
Right
50-75 Left
Right
75-100 Left
Right
100-125Left
Right
125-150 Left
Right
Shoving
Total
Distress
Area % Area %
Jain on
36
150-175 Left
Right
175-200 Left
Right
Total
Remarks
Checked by-Name:__________________
Recorded by Name:_____________
Signature:_________________________
Signature:_____________________
Paper No. 589
Guidelines for Design & Construction of MEGA

Coastal Sea-links in the Arabian Gulf
& Similar Surrounds
V.K. Raina*
1
INTRODUCTORY CAUTIONS
- The Arabian Gulf waters are very highly
charged with the attacking chlorides, sulphates
and moluscs the tripple killers of structure
durability.
- The Sea-link alignment may have to provide
for navigation channels.
for their alignments, location, design

and construction in keeping with zero
environmental impact.
2
CONSTRANTS
2.1
Heavy Concentration of Sulphates

Chlorides:
- The Arabian Gulf is a nearly 1000 km. long

rather narrow finger of Arabian Sea, going all
the way west to Kuwait.
- Effect of associated dredging and the location

and extent of islandembankments on the
following may have to be studied :

the unobstructed migration

spawning of shrimps, and
minimum disturbance to the under-sea

fresh water acquifers in certain areas,
These may be
challenges to meet.
only
some
of
and
- These high concentrations of Sulphates &

Chlorides badly ATTACK concrete and steel
eventually under the prevalent high humidity
& Temperature.
2.2
Since Moluscs (living marine organisms in

these waters) are known to have bored (and
eaten away) upto 150 mm. deep, 25 mm. dia.
holes in limestone aggregates, it is essential
to use Gabro aggregates in foundations and
substructure upto 2-3 m above splash-level
which the Moluscs do not seem to relish.
2.3
Possible damage to subterranean Natural Water

AQUIFERS (where they exist) in case the deep
bridge foundations puncture these aquifers.
the
- Hence evolving and fixing the various

requirements and parameters for these
structures call for unstinted clinical attention
- Thus, not being an open sea, this body of

water is relatively still and remains relatively
unchurned
the delicate balancing of water and

salt exchange across the causeway for
zero environmental effect on the life
and living of the protected species of
Dugongs (marine cows) Turtles, and
other marine life
and
Director (Technical) ITNL (IL&FS Group), Professor Emeritus, CoEP, E-mail: rainavk@gmail.com
38
Raina on
2.4
any disturbance to free exchange of water

and salts (across the causeway) owing to
obstructions caused by bridgesubstructure,
by dredging of seabed channels, and by
the embankments, can be disastrous to the
living-cycle of DUGONGS, Turtles and other
protected marine life in the effected areas.
2.6
2.5
These obstructions can also play havoc with

the migratory routes and spawning grounds of
SHRIMPS if they abound in the area.
BASIC CONSTRUCTION-MATERIALS & THEIR SUPPLY SOURCES
Driver Fatigue..the alignment and

vertical and horizontal Profiles of the
causeway have to be such as to cause minimal
fatigue-effect from driving in the monotony
of water continuum, made worse by sunglare.
NOTE: Transversely placed culverts can be made in

some of the embankments to improve free exchange
of water and salt and to benefit shrimp spawning and
migration.
Material
Potential Source
Stone fill
Sand fill, offshore1)
Sand fill, onshore2)
Geotextile
UAE, Iran, Oman

Locally dredged material
Local sources
Europe, Far East, USA
Structural concrete
- Coarse aggregates from UAE and Saudi Arabia, Fine aggregates

either locally dredged sea sand or desert sand from Saudi Arabia,
- Cement from Qatar, Europe, Far East or USA.
Reinforcement
Cable stay tendons and
Prestressing Steel
Structural steel
Road Base materials
Asphalt
Europe, Far East, USA, Saudi Arabia, Qatar

Crash Barriers & Railings
Building work
Landscaping
Miscellaneous sources
1)
2)

UAE, Oman, Saudi Arabia
Coarse aggregates from UAE, Oman Saudi Arabia, Bitumen from sources
in the Gulf Area
Local sources
Sand fill in embankments, rest areas and protection islands

Sand fill/imported fill in embankments for interchanges & link roads in on-shore portions.
BRIEF
SUMMARY
OF
WORK
REQUIRED TO BE DONE INITIALLY
a)
Planning Study: review of the existing and

planned land use and drawing up Conceptual
Local Area Plans for the areas adjacent to the
Causeway landing points.
b)
Traffic Study: detailing of the Traffic Study

for the selected alignment. The traffic forecast
for the average daily traffic in various years,
eventually reaching ?? in 2050.
c)
Topographic Survey: Detailed survey of

atleast a 300 m wide corridor around the onshore
Guidelines for Design & Construction of MEGA Coastal Sea-links in the Arabian Gulf & Similar Surrounds
39
part of the alignment to create a digital terrain

model, and staking of the selected alignment.
d)
Utility Survey: on existing and planned

services.
e)
Bathymetric and Geophysical Surveys: Close

grid Bathymetric and Geophysical Surveys
around and along the selected alignment.
f)
Geotechnical Investigations and Evaluation:

onshore boreholes, trial pits and offshore
boreholes along with laboratory testing.
These are used as basis for a geotechnical

evaluation to establish feasible foundations for
bridges and embankments.
g)
Marine and Environmental Impact Studies:

marine surveys and measurements and the
numerical hydraulic modelling for concluding
on the Zero Environmental Impact on
free exchange of water and salt across the
causeway.
CONCEPTUAL DESIGN, TIME

COST STUDY
~ Embankments and Dredging:
Aggregate of about ?? Length of the

Causeway will be made as embankment
using dredged fill as core material with
stone bunds and armour slope protection at
the sides.
Extended embankments at ?? locations to

provide rest and turn-around facilities for
the Causeway users.
and
Conceptual Design:
Required for the following components
of the project:
~ Tolling and Border Facilities:
~ Alignment
.generally using the concept of Long precast units for foundations, substructure as
well as superstructures made onshore and
placed by heavy marine lifting equipment).
.. see items #8 to #13 ahead for details.
horizontal
alignment
and
vertical
profile, including for the interchanges
onshore.
Tolling facilities may be located onshore

along with the Causeway Operation &
Maintenance complex.
~ Bridges
Aggregate bridge length ??, with ?? main

navigation span bridges, made as ?? (e.g.
cable stayed), with main spans of ?? .
All other bridges to be low level and

elevated viaduct bridges
40
Raina on
~ Utilities and Services
(ii)
Cost of Land Acquisition and

compensations for proprietary rights.
(iii)
Land for work sites and the area required

for the Causeway.
(iv)
Allowance for Contingencies covering

Extra works and Unforeseen Conditions
during the construction period (normal
and prudent practice for any construction
work subject to uncertainties).
(v)
Costs of Design-Review, Construction

Supervision and
ConstructionManagement
by
the
Clients
organisation and the Consultant steering
the project.
Utilities and Services required for the Causeway

itself in addition to space provision for possible
future additions.
Construction Time
(vi)
The expected construction period of ??

months as a realistic, albiet tight construction
programme.
Cost of funding arrangements, as

appropriate (i/c any commitment
charges), and
(vii)
Cost of environmental monitoring

from the start of the project up to a
certain period after completion of the
causeway.
b)
The CAPITAL (i.e. initial) COST includes

all the expenses related to the INITIAL
construction of the Causeway.
This will include:
Construction Cost
Refer to Item # 17 ahead: - nearly US$3,700/sq.m

of o/a length (i/c embankments) and 30 m width
as in Bahrain-Qatar Causeway (year: 2012).
but this cost figure will be higher if the length of
embankments reduces and those of Bridges increases
NOTE !!!
a)
Cost estimate for the off-shore part of the

Causeway including services and all onshore
facilities and interchanges, -including say 10%
per year escalation of price, with rates and costs
based on ?? (date) values and best guesses
of Contractors Direct Costs, but perhaps
excluding items such as:
(i)
Financing cost: as this will require

a cash flow analysis, which may be
premature at this stage of the project due
to the fact that funding arrangements
may not have yet been defined.
- Planning & Feasibility Studies

- Conceptual and Detailed DESIGN, Drgs.,
Documentation
- Construction, including Materials, Equipment
and Labour
- Supervision and management of construction
- Project financing cost
- Insurance and taxes and duties during
construction
- The profiles should:
- Clients general Overhead costs

- Equipment and Furnishings required but NOT
included under the contract(s)
- Inspection and Testing

The OPERATION and MAINTENANCE

COST in subsequent years, over the Causeway
life cycle, includes the following expenses:
- Operating staff
- Labour and Materials for Maintenance and
Repairs
avoid wave loads and severe salt water

spray on superstructures AND:
ensure free vertical clearances as

required for the bridges
INSTALLATIONS and SERVICES

- Provision of power, water and sanitary systems
at Border Stations and Rest Areas.
- Road lighting system all along the Causeway.
- Insurance and taxes
- Illumination
of
bridge
structures
and
embankments.
- Illumination and marking of navigation spans
- Utilities
- Clients other expenses
of bridges.
- Traffic Monitoring and Surveillance System
NOTE:
ii)
- Periodic renovations
- Financing costs
i)
41
ACTUAL COSTS quoted by contractors

will NOT always follow straight scientific
principles, because there can be NOT-soSCIENTIFIC Compulsions of Strategy and
Tactics in given circumstances of prevailing
Market Forces and Competition !!!
See item # 17 ahead for Approx. Tender Price
weightages.
6 ALIGNMENT & LAYOUT

- Large radii horizontal curves in the
Alignment assure a view to the oncoming
parts of a long Causeway, variation in the
view and avoidance of SUNs GLARE over
longer distances.
- This also assures a free view over the sea
area and other Causeway elements along the
causeway.
(TMSS) to secure safe and efficient use of the

Causeway facilities.
- Electroinic Payment Systems for collection
of toll and transfer of information to banking
systems and administrative systems at the
Causeway Authority.
- SCADA: Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition System for collection of all
measurement data and information on the status
of Causeway systems.
- Communication systems :
for
internal
and external communication by the Causeway

Authority and communication by
travellers.
the
42
8
Raina on
Design Basics Born Out Of Existing Restrictive COnditions: .i.e. The
Conceptual .
(in a flow-chart format)
43
44
Raina on
10 Hence SOME KEY GUIDE-LINES for
ACHIEVING A RATIONAL DESIGN in
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE (WHICH
YIELDS A COST- EFFICIENT AND
MORE DURABLE STRUCTURE) are:
a)
Relatively short span lengths: this is the

economical best solution for relatively shallow
foundations for the stated substrata conditions
b)
Prefabrication in a precast yard onshore:

maximum work on-shore/and minimum work
at sea is the best solution both for economy
and durability.
c)
Prestressed Concrete: this material preferred

in achieving specified design requirements and
durability with low maintenance cost
d)
Repetition in Prefabrication: results in a

rational and cost effective solution
e)
Large Prefabricated Elements: shortens

construction time and reduces cost but limits
weights to 1000 to 1600 T (..because of
limitation on available DRAUGHT).
f)
Minimum DRAUGHT required for the

barges mounted with cranes to carry heavy
(500T to 1600T) P/c elements:
-
The average 5 to 6 m deep stretches

along the alignment will allow just about
enough draught for these barges to carry
about 1000 to 1600 T P/c elements after
allowing for waves and clearance under
keel for a weather-independent and safe
construction progress.
This sets the weight limit if these

stretches do not have to be dredged
generally.
Bridge to be replaced by Embankment in

shallower stretches but this curtaining
can adversely effect free exchange of
water and salt across the causeway &
45
hence it may be necessary to resort

to dredging and provide Bridge cf.
Embankment.
g)
The selection of a limiting LIFTING CAPACITY

of 1000 to 1600 ALLOWS the construction to
be carried out with lifting equipment that has
been tried successfully and that can be obtained
in the construction market albeit at cost !
.Reference: King Fahad Causeway ((26 km.
long Saudi-Bahrain Sea-link)
Such cost becomes necessary for meeting

requirements of Construction for respecting
Durability and fast track completion of work.
h)
Longer spans, requiring heavier lifts, would

increase the required draught, and hence
the water depth, and hence the dredging
requirement. !!!
This would require additional dredging in

localised areas and for deeper dredging for
the entire length some Bridges.
Due consideration has to be given before the

idea of heavier lifts is given-up.
i)
For an oceanic structure, a relatively short span

of 50 m. may be considered adequate in view of
relatively shallow depth of foundations but the
cost difference between 50 m span and longer
spans up to 65 m is within a few percent. This
can be looked into in the detailed design.
j)
Infact even the span articulation of 50 m spans

with 8 m cantilever arms and 34 m drop
spans, as in the King Fahad Causeway (KFC),
could also be looked into in detailed design
stage, yielding a determinate structural system
too provided the water depth is atleast 7 m to
provide ample effective Draught.
11
Conceptual Design
a)
The conceptual design for the Viaduct

Bridges may have span lengths of about
46
Raina on
50 m (o/a deck width nearly 30 m all

bridges) with superstructure consisting
of two independent precast prestressed
concrete box girders (each carrying two
lanes a footpath and part of the central
verge).
b)
p.s.c Box-Girders may be prefabricated

generally in SPAN-LONG butterfly
modules (centre of span to centre of span)
and installed from barge or crane, with
about 25 m outstanding arms.
c)
350 m distance between successive

Expansion Joints for majority length of the
viaducts (18+25+6 @50+7= 350 m semicontinuous units). At Abutment-ends:

(18+6@50+10= ) 328 m semi-continuous
units.
Viaduct Bridge
Installations and Services
Cross Section
47
Viaduct Bridge
Installations and Services
Section and Plan
48
Raina on
d)
A halving-joint articulation at a distance of

7 m from piersupport may be chosen as the
structural detail at Expansion Joints.
e)
A prestressed halving joint is considered

complicated to construct but functions well
when analysed, designed, detailed, laboratorytested and then constructed professionally
as was successfully done for the King Fahad
Causeway (Sea-link).
longer delays during installation of numerous

such foundations in the open sea.
f)
g)
Externally installed continuity cables in the

supersturcture may be placed to facilitate easier
erection and to accommodate discrete angular
changes at in-situ stitches without introducing
kinks in the post-tensioning.
12
CONSTRUCTION AND ERECTION

CONCEPT
a)
Adjoining cantilever tips of successive butterfly

units in a semi-continuous unit are stitched
together by c.i.s. stitches and continuity cables
threaded and stressed.
The conceptual study suggests adoption of large

prefabricated prestressed concrete elements
for foundations, for substructure as well as for
superstructure.
b)
For Superstructure:
Conceptual Substructure Configuration
- The (drilled) pile foundation working is

less prone to adverse weather conditions in
comparison with open and caisson foundation
working, with the benefit of an almost
uninterrupted construction cycle.
Typical p.s.c. box units may be

fabricated in span-long (or longer)
lengths.
These very long p.c. psc box units

(50 m. or longer) may be constructed as
being balanced cantilevers about mid
length point and placed as such on piers
(their internal double cantilever posttensioning cables installed and stressed
in the precast yard).
- INTERUPTIONS are likely to be more

problematic for the open and caisson foundation
where adverse weather conditions will cause

After their erection at site as double

cantilever butterflies, the external
continuity cables may be installed and
stressed after concreting/grouting of
in-situ stitches between successive
elements.
49
Precast prestressed elements are carried

by crane or barge to the location of
installation and then lifted into their final
positions.
50
Raina on
The elements are erected with utmost care

as balanced double cantilevers with the pier
support at the centre of gravity for each p/c psc
double-cantilever butterfly element.
- The pre-cast p.s.c. tubular piles, varying in length

(with a maximum weight of approximately
400 T after assembly) will be transported to the
yards port by the large travelling gantry crane.
Positioning the lifting points is of paramount

importance as also the presence of fair weather
and wind.
- There the pile will be taken over by a special

pile barge. Once at the site, the pile will be
lifted up above the casing by 1000 T floating
derrick and lowered into the bore hole.
It is necessary to erect these double-cantilever

elements on temporary jacks with the capacity
to adjust the final positioning in both vertical
and horizontal directions.
- Finally the annular space between the outside

surface of the pile and the surface of bore hole
will be filled shut with cement grout.
Once the double cantilever girder is located

correctly the permanent Bearings are built
into the structure.
The next step in the erection scheme will then

be to construct the in-situ stitch between the
adjoining cantilever tips of successive girders
(between the Halving Joints) thereby making
the unit between the Expansion Joints semi
continuous.
At the prescribed cured age of the in-situ stitch,

the external continuity tendons can be installed
and tensioned.
The temporary post-tensioning bars can then be

released and removed.
Rate of drilling for the nearly 4.75 m dia. pile

holes can be between 1.0 to 1.5 m per hour in
rock ...Imagine CHEWING through so much
rock so fast !!!
On an average, 4 to 4.5 Piles (i.e. FOUR-anda-HALF Foundations based on one such Pile
per Foundation) can be placed in position per
week ( perhaps nothing can be faster !! )
Placing p/c p.s.c. tube pile in a pre-drilled hole
c) For Substructure and Foundation:

- Boring (drilling) large dia. vertical holes
for piles
- Two jack-up platforms may be used for drilling the
large dia. Holes in the sea bed for p.c. p.s.c. tubular
piles. Two adjacent positions could be drilled by
using two drilling rigs from each platform.
- After installation of the steel casing by crane
from the jack-up platform, the drill is lowered
in and drilling into the hard layers is carried out
to the required founding levels.
for Viaduct Bridges
- The substructure could comprise of p.c. p.s.c.

tubular single (or double) pile (depending on
height of deck) and single p/c p.s.c. tubular pier
shaft unit.
- The steel casing, mentioned earlier, supports
the surrounding soil while drilling and while
installing the prefabricated pile unit.
have to be done for each pile (at its exact final

location during construction) for deciding its
exact length.
- Despite all this, where the founding level

may, at the last minute, require to be taken
slightly deeper still, suitable concrete
pedestal can be cast underwater in the
pre-drilled hole and then the already
prefabricated psc pile installed on it.
- The steel casing is withdrawn while grouting

the annular space between soil and pile.
- Installation of pile casings, bottom seal
concreting and grouting are carried out from
the jack-up platform:

working for two

simultaneously.
adjacent
piers
- To allow for the variation in pier and pile

length due to variable elevation of roadway
and pile tip, a large number of differentlength precast pier and pile units has to be
considered.
- A selection of pile adjustment-sections in
intervals of 0.3 m should allow for any late
decision of final pile tip elevation.
- The adjustment-sections can be added
to the bottom of the pile at the last minute
before it is prestressed and transported for
installation.
- Confirmatory
Geotechnical
investigations
51
Assembling a precast pile, then prestressing it
52
Raina on
13
PREFABRICATION YARDS
a)
One or more prefabrication yards will need to

be established on-shore at a location where a
temporary harbour facility, with 5-7 m water
depth, can be constructed.
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
maximising
c)
On the other hand, multiple contracts will

require more interface management from the
Clients organisation.
The fabrication yard provides areas for steel

fixing, pre-casting of units, pre-assembly,
prestressing, storage, concrete batching
facilities, offices and stores, workshops, etc.
The contract packaging could perhaps be

divided into the following contracts:
l Contract
No 1: The Off-shore portion
The temporary harbour is to be protected by

breakwaters and has load-out facilities for
the prefabricated elements and quays for
unloading of concrete aggregates, cement,
reinforcement, etc., and berthing and service of
marine construction plant.
l Contract
No 2: The on-shore portions
d)
The offshore part of the Works could perhaps

be done on Design-and-Build basis, while
the on-shore works need not necessarily be
of a Design-and-Build nature could be done
as traditional ITEM-RATE construction
contracts.
The characteristics and scope of each contract

will determine the party responsible for the
design of the Works.
e)
Under a DESIGN+BUILD contract, the

DESIGN RESPONSIBILITY is assigned
to the Contractor.
Obviously he is likely to economise in terms

of his costs, which may be at the expense of
quality.
HENCE,
it is considered essential that
the EMPLOYER has the appropriate
TECHNICAL EXPERTISE on HIS side in
order to ensure that his requirements are
ELABORATED in the tender documents
AND ..are ACHIEVED in practice !!!
A single construction yard for fabrication of

all p.c. elements may be the most cost efficient
arrangement.
Should it be decided of establish more
fabrication yards, each facility should be
dedicated to fabrication of one type of elements
e.g. piers or deck units, to reap the benefit of
repetition in production at same site.
In a long causeway, a second fabrication
yard with a parallel production would be an
advantage because this provides a full backup.
The prefabrication yard is arranged such that pile

units, pier units and deck units are constructed
between the tracks of a 1000t gantry crane.
14
PROJECT MAGNITUDE
a)
For a large project, a decision on the number

and scope of contracts constituting it may be
critical to the eventual success of the project.
b)
more economical because of

competitive pricing.
Having multiple contracts will give the

Employer more control than under a single
contract for the entire project, and it may be
Under a Design + Build contract :

VARIATIONS should be instructed &

understood as varied requirements with which
the Contractors design MUST COMPLY, and
NOT as a varied design as if INSTRUCTED
by the Employer (- NO !!), and

the consequences of such variations and costrepercussions should be agreed to in advance,

so as to minimise any disputes later.
Although Design-Build may appear somewhat

inflexible in the sense of the employer having a
limited involvement in the detailed design, but
it does enable him to have the BENEFITS of:
i) lump-sum pricing,
Employers Representatives should act in a

spirit of mutual trust and cooperation.
c)
The
sound
PRINCIPLE
OF
RISK
ALLOCATION is to ALLOCATE the
RESPONSIBILITY for the RISK to the party
which had the BEST OPPORTUNITY to
FORESEE & MANAGE the RISK.
d)
Many clients want to allocate ALL RISKS to

the CONTRACTOR, without realising that in
doing so they inevitably will pay a high price
for such risk- allocation.
e)
A professional Contractor will carefully

evaluate all risks associated with a contract
and then factor them in and PRICE it
ACCORDINGLY.
f)
Risk identification
The following hazards are the possible causes

of risk:
ii) the Contractors undivided liability for the

works (including for design), and
iii) the potential saving (in cost and time) due to a
degree of overlap of the Contractors design
and construction Activities because both
are his own and he must adjust them to suit his
WORK !!!
iv) the potential saving (in COST and TIME) due
to the fact that the contractors design can
be geared towards construction methods &
principles & details for which he has just the
right Experience and Resources.

The effect of overlap of HIS OWN design

and construction activities can lead to a
SHORTER contract PERIOD than
in
an Employer-DESIGNED contract (where
entire design must be completed first and only
then the Documents put together and Tenders
invited only thereafter).
15 RISKS AND EXTERNAL INFLUENCES:

a)
b)
The Causeway Project can be exposed to

RISKS BOTH during Construction AND
Operation, which could potentially lead to a
DELAY in costruction, an economic loss, a
negative impact on the environment and/or
loss of life !!!
In the allocation of risks, the foremost principle
is that the Employer, the Contractor and the
53
- Unforeseen ground conditions (always a risk)

- Major currency fluctuations.
- Inflation.
- Extreme weather and sea conditions.
- Accidental impact with fresh water aquifers if
encountered.
- Accidental impact to third party installations,
pipelines, etc.
- Traffic accidents
vehicles
involving
construction
- Impact
on
navigation
and
fisheries
from marine construction-activities
- Impact of increased amount of silt in the water
from dredging and embankment construction
54
Raina on
Risk Allocation
g)
and approach spans to the main bridges:
- The Contractor may allocate the risk of currency

fluctuations and inflation to the Employer, and
typically some such adjustments to the tender
price could be made during the contract period
under Escalation clause.
b)
Construction of Embankments, Road works,

Buildings and Toll stations is not critical
for the overall construction time and can be
carried out simultaneously with the off-shore
work.
- The CONTRACTOR should be responsible

for and carry the risk of CONTROLLING
the Planning, the Design (if his), the
Construction, and the Safety.
c)
The Construction Programme is divided into

following MAIN ACTIVITIES:
i)
Mobilisation & site installation
ii)
Design
iii)
Soil investigations
iv)
Procurement
v)
Temporary works
vi)
Embankment construction
vii)
Pre-fabrication
viii)
Viaduct bridges
ix)
Main bridges (over navigation spans, if

any)
x)
Road works on embankments
xi)
Interchanges and Road works
xii)
Buildings and Toll stations
xiii)
M&E installations
xiv)
Landscaping and finishing
xv)
Commissioning
d)
A description of the OVERLAPPING main

elements of work in the programme is
indicated below:
- The risk towards the unforeseen ground

conditions, climatic risks and contamination
of aquifers could be dealt with by setting
predetermined values in the contract.
- The onus of majority of the risks still lies
with the Contractor, AND the fact that such
values have been pre-specified, and as
such have been BID upon, is advantageous
to the Employer even at some additional
BID-cost !!
- It also means that any dispute arising
could be settled better by referring to these
predetermined aspects.
- The risk towards the Environment and for
containing the possible damage there-to should
rest with the Contractor.
for instance: containing dredging and

reclamation of spill within set parameters.
16
Conceptual CONSTRUCTION
Programme
a)
The CONSTRUCTION TIME is governed by

TWO CRITICAL PERIODS of ACTIVITY ,
viz :
- Mobilisation and construction of temporary
works:
- Fabrication and installation of viaduct bridges
I Mobilisation and Site Installation

- Mobilisation and site installation includes land
surveys, purchases, permits, recruitment and
movement and the establishment of camps and
major work sites for prefabrication of large
concrete units.
- It includes design and construction of camps
and living quarters for staff and workmen.
II
Design

III

Iv
VII
- Generally, Prefabrication is planned to be

carried out on two production lines - one for
pier and the other for deck units, respectively.
Soil Investigations
Supplementary
Detailed
geotechnical
investigations are carried out in parallel with
the design.
- Allowing for LEARNING PERIOD and

DOWN TIME, the AVERAGE OUTPUT can
be upto 4 units per production-line per week.
Procurement
- A phased start up of each production should

allowed for.
and
and
- Fabrication of pre-cast pier and deck units is

time critical to the construction duration.
VIII Viaduct Bridge Construction
- The viaduct bridge elements are erected by
large floating cranes.
Temporary Works

Prefabrication (Precasting)
- This, for a major project, should push for

and enable a theoretical output of two pier
units and two deck units per working day !!!
(ref. KFC).
- It includes design, fabrication, commissioning

of construction plant and a large fleet of
specialist marine equipment.
VI
completion of the Causeway.
Design activities are commenced upon award

of Contract based on the conceptual design
and supplementary geotechnical investigations
made available to the tenderers during the
tender process.
- This activity comprises sourcing

procurement of major materials
subcontracts.
55
- The construction duration is matched with

fabrication of pre-cast units in order to keep the
overall construction time to a minimum, but
this requires considerable and costly resources,
depending on the project size.
Temporary works are extensive, involving the

preparation of work sites, dredged channels
and harbour facilities for the prefabrication
yards and establishment of minor work sites at
landing points on embankments, and include
all the Lifting Equipments, Cranes, Barges, any
Jack-up-Platforms, Drilling Equipment, etc.
- The marine activity is exposed to down time

from wind and waves.
- Erection of viaduct bridges is TIMECRITICAL to the programme.
Embankment Construction
- The required number of the landing points are
assumed strategically located at deep water
for placing and storing of materials.
- If necessary, the work can be accelerated by
allocation of more resources.
- The activity is non-critical for the overall
IX. Main Bridges - if any (...may be cable stayed

or p.s.c. box girders built in free cantilever,
etc.)

These bridges are constructed with a lag

time between them, allowing e.g. the pylon
construction and installation of cable stays to
56
Raina on
be carried out by CONSECUTIVELY using the
SAME resources.
Road Works
- Building and toll stations are not considered

critical activities in the programme.
XIV. M&E Installations
- Laying of sub-base is anticipated to commence

shortly after compaction activities for subgrade
are completed on the embankments.
- This activity may NOT be time critical. Road
base and wearing course will be laid after
substantial completion of the works.
XI
XV.

Interchanges and Road Works

- This activity may NOT be time critical.
- It will however start ahead of the road works on
the fixed link to create a convenient interface.
Interchanges and Road Works
- This activity may NOT be time critical. It is

desirable that the land works start as early as
possible in order to create a more convenient
access to the work site.
- Work on the interchanges can be carried out
concurrently with the road works.
XIII Buildings and Toll Stations
- Buildings and toll stations at the landfall sites can
commence shortly after completion of the design
whereas commencement of building works for
the rest areas must await the reclamation and
compaction activities, as required.
Landscaping and Finishings

Landscaping and finishing will proceed after
substantial completion of the construction
works.
XVI. Commissioning

- Work on the interchanges can be carried out

concurrently with the road works.
XII
M&E installations can commence when

the embankment and bridge construction is
substantially completed or buildings and toll
stations have been constructed at the landfalls.
17
The proper completion and functioning of

the Causeway will be documented generally
through a few months commissioning period
leading to the inauguration.
Approx. Price - Weightages
(excluding items indicated earlier in item #5.)
Assuming aggregate length of off-shore Bridges

to be about 25% more than aggregate length of
off-shore embankments, cost of on-shore work
nearly 20% of off-shore work, water depth
permitting only about 3 m effective depth of
draught (average. Water depth about 5 - 6 m.)
..as in the case of the proposed B-Q
Causeway which has a 40 km. coast to coast
portion 22 km. of Bridges and 18 km. of
Embankments and an aggregate of 12 km. of
flyovers/interchanges in land portions TOTAL
length 52 kms. and width of Bridges nearly
30 m. :
Main Item
Preliminaries
Cost
Weight %
of o/a total
100
18%
General
Temporary Works
14
Site Facilities
38
Major Construction Equipment
33
Miscellaneous
Dredging, Embankment and Excavations
100
Embankments and rest areas
71
Earthworks for bridges
19
Dredging and depositing
10
Structures Bridges (off-shore)
100
Piling and Foundation
25
Piers
Superstructure
50
Major bridge erection / installation works
16
Structures Interchanges (off-shore)
100
Interchanges
80
Overpass bridges on rest areas
20
Road works
100
Road works on embankments (incl. rest areas)
30
Road works on bridges
40
Interchanges and Link roads
30
Terminal areas, toll stations and buildings
100
Border Facilities (Onshore)
63
Rest Areas
23
Tolling Facilities
14
Engineering Installations
16 %
25 %
1.5 %
5%
1.5 %
5%
Contractors Overhead costs
100
Detailed Design and suppl. geo. Surveys
14
21 %
57
Raina on
58 Guidelines for Design & Construction of MEGA Coastal Sea-links in the Arabian Gulf & Similar Surrounds
Bonds and Insurances
Testing, commissioning and defects liability
Staff salary
19
Contractors margin
51
Adjustment for escalation (for one year)
Total estimated tender price1)
1)
7%
100 %
variation expected to be within +/- 20%. * see top of next page
*nearly US$3,700/sq.m of o/a length (i/c embankments and onshore works) and 30 m width ( Bahrain-Qatar Causewayyear 2012) .
BUT this cost figure will be higher if the length of embankments reduces and those of Bridges increases - NOTE !!!
18
OPERATION & MAINTENANCE (O&M)

COSTS
ANNUAL O&M cost during the expected

lifetime of the Causeway is expected to be in
the range of 1-1.5% of the construction cost.
...........Average
annual
BRIDGE
MAINTENANCE cost. is expected to account
for approximately 0.50 - 0.75 % of the original
construction cost.
This is an average figure that covers substantial

timely variation throughout the service life of the
Causeway (little maintenance repair is expected
in the first 15-20 years after inauguration).
....whereas the amount for EMBANKMENT

MAINTENANCE
is expected to be
substantially lower, probably about 0.25% of
the original construction cost.
The O&M cost is listed as an average yearly

cost during the expected lifetime of the Sealink (Causeway).
The views expressed in the paper are personal views of the Author. For any query, the author may be contacted at:E-mail: rainavk@gmail.com
59
NEW/REVISED PUBLICATIONS NOW AVAILABLE ON SALE
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Journal Of The

Indian Roads Congress

New/Revised Publications now Available on Sale

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Published by the Indian Roads Congress

The Rights of Publication and Translation are reserved.

The Indian Roads Congress as a body does not hold

Paper No. 586

The 20th century has witnessed an accelerated

of human settlements which form the vital basis for

To understand the travel pattern in the study

To develop an ANN based choice model.

To understand the influence of the various

To develop a choice model based on regression

Lecturer in Civil Engg. Deptt., L.D. College of Engg., Ahmedabad, E-mail:pinakramanuj@gmail.com

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2013

Ramanuj and Gundaliya on

Srinivasan S.(2007) conducted a detailed study for

Fig. 1 Model of neuron

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2013

The output of the neuron can be expressed

supervised learning algorithm or by an unsupervised

The most popular activation functions are hard limiter

Table 1 Number of Registered Vehicles

i and j is number of neuron in the layers.

Fig. 2 Typical activation function

b) Feed forward networks: In this form of the

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2013

Ramanuj and Gundaliya on

c) Feedback or Recurrent Network: It

Table 1 summarizes number of vehicles registered yearly

Fig. 3 Multiplayer Neural Network

For a given model a training set of input-output pairs,

Increased number of privately owned vehicles and the

Personal characteristics: such as age, sex,

Characteristics of the transport system: Such

Characteristics of trip: Such as purpose, length,

Characteristics of the trip end: Such as home

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2013

A measurable systematic part Vin, which is

A random part in, which reflects the

The utility associated by individual n to alternative i,

Where, VinR is the deterministic or systematic,

n, and Sn is a vector of socio-economical characteristics

Where, is a vector of unknown parameters which are to

The probability that individual n selects alternative i is

P (i\Cn ) = P (Uin > Uin j Cn)

The expression for this will depend on the distribution

Journal of the Indian Roads Congress, January-March 2013

Ramanuj and Gundaliya on

Multilayer feed forward neural network with signal

having 6 nodes. One of the objectives of the present

Optimization of the Network

No. of car in Household Discrete

Household income (Rs) 1-<=2500 ;

Age of traveller in years Discrete

The optimum network for the present problem is the

Distance travel (km)

10 Total travel time in

11 Travel cost (Rs)

The designing of network architecture includes