Migrant Languages in a Multi-Ethnic Scenario: Brazilian Portuguese-Speakers in London

Author(s): Ana Souza

Source: Portuguese Studies, Vol. 26, No. 1, The Portuguese-Speaking Diaspora in Great Britain
and Ireland (2010), pp. 79-93
Published by: Modern Humanities Research Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/41105332
Accessed: 29-03-2015 18:18 UTC
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MigrantLanguagesin a Multi-EthnicScenario:
in London
BrazilianPortuguese-Speakers
Ana Souza
Introduction
The focusof thispaper is the use of the Portugueselanguagein identification
practicesby a smallgroup of Brazilianslivingin the Braziliancommunityof
aim to providea generalaccountof the mainpolitical,social,
London.1I firstly
theseBrazilianmigrants,
demographic,culturaland linguisticfactorsaffecting
examiningin particularthe links between language and identityfromthe
of a groupof motherswho taketheirchildrento Portugueselessons.
perspective
I thenfocuson threeof the offspring
to assesshow theyare affectedby their
mothers'self-identification.
Hence, thispaper seeks to provideinsighton the
of identityof a groupof mothersof
importanceof languagein the construction
Brazilianheritagein England,and how theirpositioningaffects
theirchildren's
and linguisticpractices.
identification
Theoretical Background
The relationshipbetween language and ethnic identity(definedhere as an
individuallevel of identification
with a culturalgroup)2is a recurrent
topic in
academic treatises,
but the evaluationof its importancein different
contexts
variesbetweenscholars.Khemlani-David,forexample,highlights
the apparent
lack of any correlationbetween language use and identitymarkingby the
Sindhisin Malaysia,who appearto be shifting
to theEnglishlanguagebut who
continueto maintaintheirethniccustoms,culture,and religion.3On the other
Group diversityregardingreasonsforimmigration,the time of arrival,the type of lifestyle
and perceived statusin the new country,can renderthe labelling of such a group as a single
communitywith uniformcharacteristicsratherdifficult;see, for example, Maxine Margolis,
LittleBrazil: An Ethnography
in New YorkCity (Princeton,NJ: Princeton
ofBrazilianImmigrants
UniversityPress,1994), PP 18-19. However, I adopt the definitionof communityas elaborated
by Anderson and delineated in this issue by Beswick and Pozo-Gutirrez, see Benedict
on the Originsand Spreadof Nationalism,rev. edn
Anderson, ImaginedCommunities:
Reflection
(London and New York: Verso, 1991), and also Paul Taylor,John Richardson, Alan Yeo and
Ian Marsh, Sociologyin Focus(Ormskirk,Lanes: Causeway Press, 1995), p. 387.
ed. byJohn Hutchinson
JohnHutchinson and AnthonySmith,'Introduction',in Ethnicity,
and AnthonySmith (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1996), pp. 3-14 (p. 5).
Maya Khemlani-David, 'Language Shift,Cultural Maintenance, and Ethnic Identity:A
Study of a Minority Community.The Sindhis of Malaysia', International
JournalofSociologyof
Language,130 (1998), 67-76 (pp. 75-76).
Studies
vol. 26 no. 1 (2010),79-93
Portuguese
ModernHumanities
ResearchAssociation
2010

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8o

Ana Souza

hand,Liebkindbelievesthatlanguage can become the mostimportantsymbol

of ethnicidentity',4
and thatthe associationbetweenlanguageand identityis
dependenton the social contextof particulargroups.
In orderto exploretheperspectives
of Brazilianwomen and of theirchildren
the
between
and identityin a migrantcontext,
language
regarding relationship
thisstudydrawson Tajfel,who has designed'one ofthemostnotabletheoriesof
social identity'.5
into threetypes:thosewho wish to
Tajfelcategorizesmigrants
and thusassumemanycharacteristics
assimilate,6
(language,culture,socialnorms,
of
the
those
who
and
totallyoppose assimilation
amongothers)
receptorsociety;
of theirautochthonousgroup;and those
thusretainmostof the characteristics
of the receptorsocietybut retainothersfrom
who adopt certaincharacteristics
theirown group.7Using thiscategorizationto examinethe mothers'collective
whichrepresent
goalsin relationto thereceptorsocietyand thetypesofmigrants
is a usefulstarting
for
therelationship
theirsenseof identity
point understanding
betweenlanguageand identityin thiscase. Indeed, the emotionalsignificance
of groupidentityseemsto be the main reasonforthe use of Portugueseby this
This emotionalimportanceof
groupofmotherswithintheBraziliancommunity.
who
describes
is
used
socialidentityas:
by Tajfel,
groupself-concept
whichderives
fromtheirknowledge
thatpartofan individual's
self-concept
withthevaluesandemotional
ina socialgrouptogether
oftheirmembership
to thatmembership.
attached
significance
Social identityis also a resultof the comparisonsindividualsmake between
theirgroups with other groups. Tajfel argues that the search for a positive
image at the centreof the constructionof social identityleads individualsto
caused by their
tryto interactwith the receptorgroup freeof the constraints
diverseethnic backgrounds.9In other words, individualstry to integratein
different
degrees into the receptorsociety.Bauman, however,argues that
because the processof gainingcultural
can neverbe fullysuccessful
assimilation
4 Karmela
ed. by
Liebkind, 'Social Psychology',in HandbookofLanguageand EthnicIdentity,
JoshuaA. Fishman (Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress, 1999), pp. 140-51 (p. 143).
5
JetteHansen and Jun Liu, 'Social Identityand Language: Theoretical and Methodological
Issues', TESOL Quarterly,
31, 3 (1997), 567-76 (p. 567).
The wish to assimilatecould reflecta need imposed on migrantsby the receptorsociety,
as discussedby Ien Ang, On Not SpeakingChinese:LivingBetweenAsia and the West(London:
Routledge, 2001), pp. 27 and 65. I use the term 'assimilation'here as it is employed in the
original work of the authors mentioned in the text, but I am aware that it fails to reflect
the migrant'swillingness (agency) to participate in the receptor society. Focusing on the
relationshipbetween language and identity,this willingnessrelatesto learning a language in
order to become a member of the group thatspeaks it (Bernard Spolsky,'Second-Language
ed. byJoshuaA. Fishman(Oxford: Oxford
Learning',HandbookofLanguageand EthnicIdentity,
Press,
181-92
189)).
1999),
(p.
University
7 Henri
ofMinorities(London: MinorityRights Group, 1978).
Tajfel, Tlie Social Psychology
Henri Tajfel, Human Groups & Social Categories:Studiesin Social Psychology
(Cambridge:
Cambridge UniversityPress, 1981), p. 255.
9
p. 14.
ofMinorities,
Tajfel,Social Psychology

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Brazilian Portuguese-Speakers in London

traitswhich are inheritedby the receptorcommunitydoes not allow members

of the minoritygroup to be exactlylike receptormembers.10In contrastto
not only acceptsassimilationas one of
Bauman, Berry,a social psychologist,
the possibleways membersof minoritygroupsrelateto the receptorgroup,
- the relationship
between
but adds anotherscenario,thatof marginalization
of
the
where
both
the
cultures
are
the
members
minority
rejectedby
groups
contact
As a result,Berrypresentsa fourfoldtheorywhereintergroup
group.11
can resultin integration(keeping some culturalfeatureswhile participating
in the receptorsociety),assimilation(originalculturalfeaturesare replacedby
the receptorones), separation(only the minorityculturalfeaturesare valued),
or marginalization
(neitherthe receptornor the minorityfeaturesare valued).
In spite of frequently
fourfoldtheoriesas
being used in social psychology,
advocatedby Berryhave been criticizedby a numberof researchers
such as
Rudmin. Rudmin'scriticisms
are based on the factthat'definingacculturation
two identities,or two languagesdoes not
typesby two cultures,two attitudes,
resultin fourpossibletypesbut sixteen'.12Using logic, the numberof possible
typesincreasesto 256 in cases wherethe types'are definedby choices of three
cultures[...] or definedby choices of two culturesand by whetherthe choices
are freelymade versusimposed'.13
Anothercriticism
ofsocialpsychology
is thatthetheoriesofacculturation
tend
to presentthe typesof intergroup
relationsas fixed.The intergroup
approachto
secondlanguageacquisition(SLA) describedby Giles and Byrne,14
forexample,
has alreadybeen criticizedforportraying
which
identityas unitaryand fixed,15
does not represent
the realityof the multilingual
individualsexperiencinglifein
ThereforeI relate
timesof globalization.
Tajfelsthreetypesof minoritiesto
the typesof identification
members
of migrantgroupsas described
adoptedby
Block
as:
(1) going 'native',(2) becoming(early/expatriate)
by
'cosmopolitans',
and (3) remaining'tourists'.17
My contentionis thatthesetypesof identification
are partof a continuum,wheremigrantgroupmemberswho rejectany direct
in thereceptorsociety(the'tourists')and thosewho seekand desire
involvement
10
Ang, p. 5. See also ZygmuntBauman, 'The Social Manipulation of Morality: Moralizing
Actors,Diaphorizing Action', Tlieory,Cultureand Society,8 (1991), 137-51.
Karmela Liebkind, d. U2.
12
Floyd Rudmin, 'Critical History of the Acculturation Psychology of Assimilation,
7, 1 (2003), 3-37
Separation,Integration,and Marginalization',Reviewof GeneralPsychology,

3)
(P
s

Rudmin, p. 25.
* Howard Giles and

JaneByrne,'An IntergroupApproach to Second Language Acquisition',

and Multicultural
JournalofMultilingual
3, 1 (1982), 17-40.
Development,
15
Bonny Norton, Identityand LanguageLearning:Gender,Ethnicityand EducationalChange
(London: Longman, 2000).
inMultilingual
Contexts,ed. by Aneta Pavlenko and AdrianBlackledge
Negotiation
ofIdentities
(Clevedon: MultilingualMatters,2004.), p. s.
17David
Block, 'Destabilized Identitiesand Cosmopolitanism across Language and Cultural
Borders: Two Case Studies', Hong KongJournalofAppliedLinguistics,
7, 2 (2002), 1-11.

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82

Ana Souza

fullintegration
into the receptorsocietyrepresentthe limitcases,while those
of the receptorgroup,whilst
who are willingto adopt certaincharacteristics
takea middle
othersfromtheirown ethnicgroup(the'cosmopolitans'),
retaining
are
line. The use of such a continuumalso recognizesthattheseidentifications
but can movealongbetweenthetwo extremes.In other
not staticand invariable,
words,peoples identification
mayvaryaccordingto social context.
The Context: Brazilians in London
The politicaland economic situationof Brazil in the 1980s forcedBrazilian
abroad.In herbook about
nationalsto migratein searchof workopportunities
on the change of genderrolesin Brazilianfamilies
the effectsof immigration
livingin the United States,Debiaggi describesthissituationin theseterms:
At the individuallevelit mightbe said thatthepush factorsforBraziliansto
leave the countryare linkedto economics.In fact,the emigrationfloodgates
opened at the time that the Cruzado Plan, the governmentsattemptto
failedin 1986.Brazilat thattimewas facedwiththesaying
controlinflation,
'it has to work', but it did not. 'The new generationgets desperatewith
the lack of opportunitiesin Brazil and searchesfor alternatives( povo
in
da diaspora', 8 July 1991). Moreover,many middle-classprofessionals
Brazil were eitherunable to finda job in the fieldof theirtrainingor even
if employed,receivedsalariesso low theywere forcedto hold two or three
jobs in orderto meet theirneeds.A middle-classstandardof livingwas, and
to sustain.The searchfora betterfuture
difficult
continuesto be, increasingly
for the next generationconstitutesanothermotivationalfactorlinked to
of providinggood quality
economics.Braziliansno longersee the possibility
educationfortheirchildrenin theirown country.A good educationmeans
havingone's childrenin privateschools,whichpresenthighercostseach year
continueto apply.18
('Aumentaxodo', 11April 1990). These circumstances

The numberof Braziliansin the US in 2000 was estimatedto be over 800,000,

on
destination.19
However,thesevererestrictions
makingit theirmainmigratory
of
Brazilians
the
number
affected
have
are
now
the
US
that
to
greatly
imposed
entry
migratingthere.In Europe, the UK has become one of the most significant
forthem.Accordingto officialestimatesthereare now
European destinations
about 150,000Braziliansin theUK;20 however,informal
figures
place thenumber
between
at
alone
in
London
of Brazilianscurrently
30,000 and
anywhere
living
2I
from
are
descended
to
the
UK
Brazilians
of
the
European
200,000. Many
coming
18
Familiesin theUS (New York:
Sylvia Debiaggi, ChangingGenderRoles: BrazilianImmigrant

LFB Scholarly,
2002).
19IBGE
forNationalStatistics)
2004,onlineat <www.ibge.gov.br/home/
(BrazilianInstitute
[accessed8 October2009].
estatistica/populacao/censo200o/atlas/pag02i.pdf>
20See online at
<http://sistemas.mre.gov.br/kitweb/datafiles/BRMundo/pt-br/file/
no Mundo-Estimativas.pd>
Brasileiros
[accessed8 October2009].
21Saulo
andMigration
Studies,
27, 1 (2001),
Cwerner,'Timesof Migration',
ofEthnic
Journal
JonMay,Father
CathyMcllwaine,
7-36; YaraEvans,JaneWills,KavitaDatta,JoannaHerbert,

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Brazilian Portuguese-Speakers in London

83

familieswho migratedto Brazil in the nineteenthand twentiethcenturies,

the
forsocio-economicandpoliticalreasons,suchas takingup workafter
primarily
As a consequence,
in Brazil,or to escapethetwoworldwars.22
abolitionofslavery
freeto entertheUK.
manyBrazilianshold Europeanpassportsand are therefore
However,the manyBraziliannationalslivingin London do not constitutea
close-knitgroup;instead,Braziliansarespreadall overthecity.This characteristic
fromotherethnicgroupsin London
alone makesthe Braziliangroupdifferent
which tend to be concentratedin one area, such as Punjabis in Southall,
their
Jamaicansin Harlesdenor Bangladeshisin Tower Hamlets.Nevertheless,
culturalimpacthas been great.In London manyservices,fromtarotreadingto
legal aid, are offeredin Portugueseby Braziliannationals.It is also possibleto
attendreligiousservicesin BrazilianPortuguesein both Catholicand Protestant
churches,and thereare also celebrationsof otherreligionswhich were mainly
cults.The Brazilian
developedin Brazil,such as Kardecismand Afro-Brazilian
in
international
interest
Brazilian
cultureand has
has
also
government
exploited
cultural
events
in
London.
These
take
theyear,
promotedmany
place throughout
involve
artists
who
come
from
butespeciallyduringthesummermonths.23
They
as wellas groupsbasedin theUK and othercountries.
Brazilspeciallyto perform,
In additionto theculturalpresenceofBrazilin London,thegrowingnumber
of Brazilianmigrantshas also led to the developmentof organizations,
such as
ABRAS (BrazilianAssociation)and ABRIR (BrazilianAssociationof Educational Projectsin the UK).24 This latterassociationresultedfromthe interest
shownby Braziliansin maintaining
theirlanguagethroughthe organizationof
Brazilian
as
of a groupwhich
mothers, well as the participation
by
playgroups
offersliteracyclassesin Portuguese.As the descriptionabove indicates,it is
possibleforBraziliansto live in London and use Portugueseformost of the
activities
in theirdailylives.However,the factthatPortugueseis a standardized
fromEnglishin having
languageand followstheRoman alphabet,onlydiffering
threefewerlettersand the use of accents,facilitates
the learningof Englishby
Portuguesespeakersand vice versa.
However,in the studyon which thispaper is based I do not focuson the
communicativecompetenceof Brazilian immigrantsin the Portugueselanthe language
guage.25Instead,I examinethe possiblesocial factorsinfluencing
inLondon:
A Report
JosOsvaldode Arajo,AnaCarlaFranaandAnaPaulaFrana,Brazilians
intotheCitizens'Campaign
ofGeography,
(London:Department
forthe'Strangers
Queen Mary,
ofLondon,2007).
University
22See onlineat
fora summary
of thehistory
of
<www.ibge.gov.br/brasil500/index2.htn1l>
to Brazilbetween1500and 2000 [accessed8 October2009].
immigration
Besidesbeingadvertised
bythevenueswheretheeventstakeplace,theyarealsofoundon
theBrazilianEmbassywebpage,<http://www.brazil.org.uk>.
4 See theassociations'
websites
onlineat www.abras.org.uk
andwww.abrir.org.uk
forfurther
information.
25AnaBeatrizBarbosade Souza. *"ShouldI
or English?"
Ethnicandsocial
speakPortuguese
in thelanguagechoicesof Brazilianmothersand theirmixed-heritage
construction
identity

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84

Ana Souza

choices of familieswho are partof the literacyschool organizedby a groupof

to thereceptor
Brazilianmothers,suchas theinfluenceof exogamy,theattitudes
thepatterns
to
the
the
intention
to
and minority
homeland,
return,
groups,trips
of languageuse and the senseof ethnicidentity.
The ParticipantFamilies
is recognizedas one of the main causes of minoritygroup
Since intermarriage
I
languageloss,26 explorelanguageissuesin familieswherethemotheris Brazilian
Nine familieswhich fitthis criterion
and the fatheris of anothernationality.
Brazilian
attend
a
whose
children
and
communitylanguageschool in London
in
this
to
wereinvited participate
project.The childrenwerefiveto twelveyears
threedifferent
from
the
old and were selected
Portugueseclasseswhich the

for
children
school ran at the time:stage
aged fiveto eight,focusingon the
2
developmentof oral skills;stage forchildrenalso aged fiveto eightwho, now
havingoralskills,would developliteracyskills;and stage3 forchildrenaged eight
to twelve,to developtheirliteracyskillseven further.
A generalprofileof these familiescan be presentedby drawingon certain
social,culturaland linguisticfactorsthatwere identified
by the mothersin their
interviewsforthisstudy.With regardsto social factors,the familiestakingpart
havean averageof two children,and althoughtheirlevelof educationvaries,the
degree.Most of themothers
majorityof theparentshavecompleteda university
some workingwith otherBraziliansresidentin London (in
are self-employed,
the cateringindustryand translation
services,forexample),and some withthe
for
Brazilianswho visitLondon fora shortperiodof time(in thetravelindustry,
services).All the fatherswork and most
example,and providinginterpretation
sector.The familiesdo not live in one particular
of themare in the professional
to be middleclass.
zone of London, and would considerthemselves
With regardsto culturalfactors,these familiesconfirmthat they make
considerableeffortsto maintainlinks with Brazil: they do this not only by
visitingthe countryon a regularbasis,but also by buildingsocial networkties
to Brazilianpolitical
with otherBraziliansin London, such as being affiliated
Brazilianculturaleventsand beinginvolvedwiththe Brazilian
parties,attending
community
languageschool theirchildrenattend.
With regardto linguisticfactors,the principalservicesectorused by these
familieswhich employsPortugueseas the main languageof businessis related
bakeries
to the sale of ethnicconsumables,such as groceryshops,restaurants,
travel
use
and coffeehouses.However,thesefamiliesalso
agenciesand
specialist
PhD thesis,
at homeand in a community
children,
languageschoolin theUK' (unpublished
ofSouthampton,
2006).
University
2
JamesNazroo,PattenSmith,SatnamVirdee
TariqModood, RichardBethoud,JaneLakly,
and Saron Beishon, Ethnic Minoritiesin Britain: Diversityand Disadvantage(London: PSI,
1997).

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Brazilian Portuguese-Speakers in London

85

consulateservices,in which Portugueseis again the main languageof business.

The mothershavealso established
a friendship
networkin London,and themain
of
communication
between
members
is Portuguese.Most mothers
language
also reportusingonlyPortugueseat home withtheirchildrenand indicatethat
as illustrated
languageis essentialto the maintenanceof theirgroupidentity,
by
theresponsesbelow.
Sou brasileira,
no nasciaqui.Minhacultura
brasileira.
Porisso,portugus
importante
issotudo.27
parameusfilhosentenderem
I wasnotbornhere.My culture
is Brazilian.
So, Portuguese
[I amBrazilian,
is important
formychildren
to understand
allofthis.]
a minhalngua.E meusfilhosso metadebrasileiros.
Entoeu
Portugus
achohorrvel
maselesnosabem
quandoalgumfala'minhame brasileira'
falarumapalavra
de portugus.
Issoreflte
emmim.Morrode vergonha!2
is mylanguage.
Andmychildren
arehalf-Brazilian.
So, I findit
[Portuguese
terrible
whensomeonesays'My mother
is Brazilian'
buttheycannotsaya
wordin Portuguese.
It reflects
on me.I feelso embarrassed!]
no
Voc
brasileiro
se no sabe falarportugus
[...]. No faz o menor
sentido
a mefalarportugus
e os filhosno.29
ifyoucannotspeakPortuguese
[YouarenotBrazilian
[...].It makesno sense
atallforthemother
to speakPortuguese
andthechildren
notto.]
These statements
showthatthesemothers'senseof ethnicidentity
can be related
to theirlinguisticand culturalbackgroundand/orto theirfeelingsof belonging
to thatethnicity.
the mothersalso reportthattheyhave practical
Nevertheless,
reasonsforensuringthattheirchildrenlearn Portuguese.Firstly,
thereare the
mothers'concernsregarding
theirchildren'sprofessional
futureand the option
of livingand workingin Brazil.Secondly,thereis the pragmaticneed to speak
Portugueseto relatives
livingin Brazil.
The childrenseem to be consciousof the interactional
necessityto be able to
communicatein both Portugueseand English.Two mothersreportedthattheir
childrenhad gone througha period in which theywould speak one language
(Portuguese)withadultsand another(English)withotherchildren.This example
shows thatthe childrenlook forlinguisticpatternsand feel motivatedto use
different
languagesaccordingto thepracticalneedsof thesituation.The mothers
also reportthatthe choice betweenEnglishand Portugueseis oftenrelatedto
theiremotionalexperiences,forthemselves
and fortheirchildren:
expressing
Mostrominhas
emoesquandofaloportugus.30
can
show
whenI speakPortuguese.]
[I
myemotions
27 Mother 1.
28
Mother 2.
29 Mother
3.
JUMother
4.

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86

Ana Souza
Meusfilhos
falamportugus
comas pessoasque elestmmaisintimidade.31
children
to peopletheyfeelmoreintimate
[My
speakPortuguese
with.]

it becomes apparentthatthesemothersassignedhuge
Throughtheseinterviews
importanceto beingable to conversein Portugueseas faras themaintenanceofa
Brazilianself-identification
is concerned.However,thequestionremains
strategy
as to how thesemothers'self-identification
strategies
impacton theirchildren.
The Children
I now illustrate
theimpactofthemothers'self-identification
on theirchildrenby
discussion
on
the
data
the
three
children
who attended
focusingmy
providedby
school
for
the
the community
of
time:
language
longestperiod
Josefa,Benedito
and Antonio. These children,whose names have been changed to preserve
theiranonymity,
were interviewedindividuallydue to theirdifferent
levelsof
in
and
their
and
differing
personalities ages.Interviewing
competence Portuguese,
as
the childrenindividuallywas also importantin guaranteeingconfidentiality,
well as avoidingpeer pressureon theirrepliesand languagechoices.

Josefa
Josefais six yearsold and was born in London. She travelsto Brazilonce a year
to visitfamily,and is communicatively
competentin Portugueseand English.
Brazilianrelative,which
She and her motherlive with a non-English-speaking
of
the
home. Her fathersees
meansthatPortugueseis thepredominant
language
but speaksto her onlyin English.Accordingto hermother,
herregularly
Josefa
can readand writein bothlanguages,but herliteracyskillsarebetterin English.
She also statesthather daughterspeaksPortugueseto adults,readscomics and
children'sbooks in Portugueseand can recountBraziliannurseryrhymesand
songs.Josefaattendsthe Brazilianculturaleventsorganizedby the community
languageschool once a term.
data.In theinterviewwith
In turn,Josefa(J)herself
presentedsomeinteresting
such
as
of
she
criteria
theresearcher
(R),
place birthand languagespoken
applies
to defineethnicidentity:
R: Como vocsabeque ela brasileira?
brasileiro.
J:Porqueela vivel e ela tempassaporte
[R: How do youknowshe'sBrazilian?
passport.]
J:Becauseshelivesthereandshehasgota Brazilian
namorado.
Tenho
J:
ou ingls?
R: Ele brasileiro
J:Ingls.
R: Como vocsabeque ele ingls?
J:Porqueele no falabrasileiro.
31Mother
5.

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Brazilian Portuguese-Speakers in London

87

0: I havegota boyfriend.
R: Is he Brazilian
orEnglish?
He's
J:
English.
R: How do youknowhe'sEnglish?
J:Becausehe doesnotspeakBrazilian.]
Accordingto Hoffinan,childrenfromthe age of 2 yearsand 10 monthscan
In otherwords,childrenfromthatyoung
attachlanguageto different
speakers.32
age are awareof which languageto use to which person,as acknowledgedby
Josefain the extractbelow:
R: Vocgostade falarportugus
coma [suaprima]?
com [minhaprima]ela no me
J:Sim,porquese eu nofalarportugus
porqueeu ficomuitocomela,eu faloportugus
coma minha
entende.
maetambm.
to [yourcousin]?
[R: Do youlikespeaking
Portuguese
to [mycousin]shewouldn't
J:Yes,becauseifI didn'tspeakPortuguese
understand
me.AndbecauseI staywithhera lot,I speakPortuguese
to my
mother
as well.]
to the use of both Portugueseand English:
Josefaalso appearsto reactpositively
R: Vocgostade falarportugus?
J:Sim,muito,muito,muito.
R: Vocgostade falaringls?
J:Sim,muitotambm.
R: O que vocfalamais,portugus
ou ingls?
J:Portugus.
[R: Do youlikespeaking
Portuguese?
J:Yes,a lot,a lot,a lot.
R: Do youlikespeaking
English?
J:Yes,a lotas well.
R: Whichone do youspeakmost,Portuguese
orEnglish?
J:Portuguese.]
Althoughshe lives in England, attendsthe local state school, and always
communicatesin Englishwith her father,
Josefareportsthatshe speaksmore
than
One
consider
thatJosefas answerscould have
Portuguese
English.
might
been influencedby the factthatshe is awareof mypreference
forPortuguese.
However,her answerscould also be a consequenceof the factthather mother,
who self-identifies
as a *tourist', chooses to have more and strongerlinks to
otherPortuguesespeakers,
leadingJosefato be moreexposedto Portuguesethan
Englishin her dailylife.
in an activitywhere she was askedto imaginethatshe had to
Nevertheless,
speakto an alien,Josefadescribesherselfas English,whichseemsto be relatedto
thefactthatshe was born in England:
32CharlotteHoffman,
Children',
'LanguageAcquisitionin Two Trilingual
Journal
ofMulti-

6 (1985), 479-95 (p. 483).

lingualand Multicultural
Development,

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Ana Souza

88

de onde voc ?
R: (Da ele pergunta),'Josefa,
J: Sou da Inglaterra.
[R: (Then he asks),'Josefa,whereare you from?'
J: I'm fromEngland.]
Despite being very clear about where she is from,the language factorseems to
confuseJosefain relation to her ethnic identity.In the extractbelow, Josefastarts
to referto the Portuguese language but changes her mind, apparentlyselecting
English since it reflectsher place of birth ratherthan ethnic identity:
R: Josefa,que lnguasvoc fala?
J: (pause) Por... in-ingls.
R: Voc s falaingls?
J: E portugus.
[R: (...asks)Josefa,whichlanguagesdo you speak?
J: (pause) Por... En-English.
R: (...asks)Do you onlyspeakEnglish?
J: And Portuguese.]
Although her mothers self-identitytends towardsthe 'tourist'end of the identity
continuum, the adoption of objective criteria for defining ethnicity seems to
undermine Josefas reported positive attitudes towards speaking Portuguese.
However, these positive attitudestowards Portuguese do seem to influence her
language choice in the interview: when given the choice, Josefainsistedon using
Portuguese with the researcher.
Benedito

Benedito is a six-year-oldboy who was born in London. Accordingto his

mother,he understands,
speaks,readsand writesboth Portugueseand English
and is used to conversingin both at home, where it is common to findother
Braziliansstayingfor extendedperiods. Benedito has friendswith whom he
speaks Portugueseat his mainstreamschool and at the communitylanguage
school he attends,and he playsan activepartin the latters culturalevents.His
motherhas also encouragedhim to read Portugueselanguagecomic books and
and to recountPortugueselanguagenurseryrhymesand songs.
storybooks,
Beneditoappearsto be fluentin Portugueseand statesthathe is happyto speak
it,but subsequentcommentsindicatethatthishas not alwaysbeen the case. He
statesclearlythatas a veryyoungchildhe did not like exchangesin Portuguese
withhis mother:
e no gostava
quando
Quandoeu erapequeno,eu no sabiaportugus
minhamefalavacomigoemportugus.
andI didn'tlikeitwhenmy
[WhenI wassmallI didn'tknowPortuguese
mumspoketo me in Portuguese.]
Benedito suggeststhatthis dislikeof Portuguesewas primarilyrelatedto the
aspectof his competencein Portuguese,since he foundit difficult
performative

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Brazilian Portuguese-Speakers in London

89

to understandthe languageand to respondin it. However,his next comment

indicatesthatthisphase was short-lived;
his improvedabilitiesin the language
increasedhis confidencein itsuse and hence,his attitudetowardsit:
Quandoeu tinhatrsanos,eu gostava
quandominhamefalavaportugus
comigo.
I likeditwhenmymumspokePortuguese
to me.]
[WhenI wasthree,
Despite havingpositivelanguageattitudestowardsspeakingPortuguese,Beneditos ethnicidentity
as an Englishboy has notbeen affected.
He self-identifies
as
in
as
a
result
of
been
born
English
having
England:
R: De ondevoc?
: Sou - esqueci
[R: Whereareyoufrom?
- I forgot]
B: I'm from
R: (asksagainin English)
Whereareyoufrom?
B: England.
R: Como vocsabeque voc ingls?
B: Como eu sei?Porqueeu nascina Inglaterra.
[R: How do youknowyou'reEnglish?
: How do I know?BecauseI wasbornin England.]
Benedito expressespositiveattitudesto both languageswhich are part of
his life as a consequence of being surroundedby supportiveattitudesto his
bilingualism:
R: Mas vocprefere
falarportugus
ou ingls?
: Portugus.
R: Qual vocachamaisfcil?
B: Ingls.Qual vocachamaisfcil?
orEnglish?
[R: Butdo youprefer
speaking
Portuguese
B: Portuguese.
R: Whichone do youfindeasier?
B: English.
Whichone do youfindeasier?]
As mentionedabovebyBeneditohimself,
is notsolelyrelatedto place
identity
of birth.Accordingto him, thereis also a relationship
between identityand
as
Benedito
self-identifies
as
Thus,
languagespoken.
English,he firstmentions
and
then
does
he
refer
to
speakingEnglish
only
beingable to speakPortuguese:
R: Que lnguasvocfala?
: Inglse portugus.
do youspeak?
[R: Whatlanguages
: English
andPortuguese.]
In contrastto Josefa,who does not referto her Portuguesespeakingskillswhen
Benedito mentionsboth languageswhen defining
definingher ethnicidentity,
hisown skills:

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Ana Souza

90

R: Eu achavaque vocerabrasileiro.
: (pause)Faloduaslnguas.
[R: I thought
youwereBrazilian.
: (pause)I speaktwolanguages.]
fortheuse ofPortugueseduringtheinterview;
Beneditoexpressesa preference
s backhowever,thismay have been based on his knowledgeof the researcher
This
also
rather
than
on
other
attitudinal
factor.
choice
any
language
ground
indicatesthatBeneditolinkslanguagesto people. Beneditoknowsme fromthe
Braziliancommunitylanguageschool where only Portugueseis spokento the
Benedito is awarethathe would meet different
adults.Nevertheless,
people in
in
the
same
domain.
the sameplaces,leadinghim to use different
languages
na escola- Ela temuma
Faloportugus
comumameninaportuguesa
tambm.
irmbrasileira
to a Portuguese
girlatschool- She hasa Brazilian
[I speakPortuguese
sister
as well.]
Beneditois communicatively
competentin Portuguese,as shownin hisinterview,and in English,as reportedby his mother.Once again,his bilingualstatus
factors.Firstly,
Beneditos parentsalso
appearsto be a consequenceof different
withtheirson, and secondly,thereis
used theone-parent,one-languagestrategy
need to speakPortugueseto themanyBrazilianswho havelivedin
an instrumental
hishouseand who arepartofhismothers socialnetwork.In addition,Beneditos
motherhas investedin his formaleducationin Portugueseby enrollingher son
in both the European Portugueseand the Brazilian Portuguesecommunity
Portugueseand has
languageschools. His fatheris Englishbut he understands
to Brazilwiththefamilya couple oftimes.This contextualinformation
travelled
offers
a briefinsightintothereasonswhyBeneditomayexpresspositiveattitudes
towardsthe use of the Portugueselanguage.Once again,he claimsto enjoythe
in Portuguese
contacthe has withBraziland Brazilians;he also likesinteracting
schools.
the community
and attending
language
Antonio

Antoniois a nine-year-oldboy who was born and livesin London, althoughhe

did spenda yearlivingin Brazilfromthe age of two,wherehe attendednursery
communicativecompetencein both Portuguese
school. Antonio demonstrates
and Englishand hismotheratteststhathe has soundreadingand writingskillsin
both languages.However,Englishis the onlylanguageused in Antonios home.
His motherhas activelydecided not to raiseher familyin Portuguese,a choice
she claimsis to do with emotionallinksshe has with English.However,she
wantsher son to learnPortugueseand gain an appreciationof Brazilianculture
reasonsto do withheritage,and forthis
foressentialist
and literature,
primarily
reasonAntonioattendsa communitylanguageschool.
Antonio has Brazilianand Portuguesefriendswith whom he conversesin

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Brazilian Portuguese-Speakers in London

91

Portuguese.He attendsculturaleventsorganizedby the communitylanguage

visitshis mothersBrazilianfriends.Antonios motherhas
school and regularly
also ensuredthat he has been exposed to Brazilianculturethroughnursery
storiesand comic books.
music,children's
rhymes,
In his own interview,
Antoniotalksabout a friendof his; he refersto place of
of thisboys identity:
birthand parents'backgroundas important
constructs
R: Mas comoele inglsse a medeleno ?
A: Porqueo pai dele ingls.Ele metadeinglse metadebrasileiro.
ifhismother
isn't?
[R: Buthowis he English
A: Becausehisdadis English.
He's half-English
andhalf-Brazilian.]
Antoniousesthesamecriteriato definehisown ethnicidentity.
In theactivity
wherethe childrenwere askedto imaginetalkingabout themselves
to an alien,
Antoniorefers
to beingbothEnglishandBrazilian,as shownin theextractbelow:
R: se ele teperguntar
quemvoc?
A: Sou Antnio.
Tenho9 anos. gostode esportes.
R: se ele teperguntar
de ondevoc?
A: FalariaInglaterra
e Brasil.
R: Os dois?Como vocpodeserde doislugares
diferentes
ao mesmotempo?
A: Minhamee meupai.Minhame brasileira
e meupai ingls.
[R: Whatifhe askswhoyouare?
A: I'm Antonio.
I'm nineyearsold.AndI likesports.
R: Whataboutifhe askswhereyouarefrom?
A: I wouldsayEnglandandBrazil.
R: Both?How canyoube fromtwodifferent
placesat thesametime?
A: Mymumanddad.My mumis Brazilian
andmydadis English.]
However,languagedoes not appearto be the core value of Antonio'sethnic
He emphasizeshow he has inheritedhis senseof Brazilianculturefrom
identity.
his parents,but he statesthatEnglishis his preferred
languageand the one he
usesmoreoften:
R: O que vocfalaria
se ele teperguntasse
que lnguavocfala?
A: Ingls.
R: S?
A: Faloportugus.
R: Mas vocno contaria
praele?
A: Contaria,
maseu geralmente
faloingls.
[R: Andwhatwouldyousayifhe asksyouwhatlanguage
youspeak?]
A: English.
R: Only?
A: I speakPortuguese.
R: Butyouwouldn't
tellhim?
A: I would,butI usually
speakEnglish.]
This sense of a strongerallegianceto Brazilianculturethanto the language
itselfappearsto be comparableto thatexpressedby his mother.Althoughher

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92

Ana Souza

son demonstrates
a highlevelof communicative
competencein both Portuguese
relatedto findingit
forEnglishappearsto be strongly
and English,hispreference
easier.Englishis also Antonio'schoice of languagein writtenexercises:
R: Voc quer que eu te ajude fazendoperguntas?
A: (pause) Posso escreverem ingls?
R: (nodding)Huh-huh.
[R: Do you wantme to help you [withthistask]by askingyou questions?]
A: (pause) Can I writein English?
R: (nodding)Huh-huh.]

However,Antoniois awareof the influenceof contextwhen choosingwhich

of his languagesto use withina particulardomain. He is awarethatEnglishis
not onlyhishome languagebutthenationallanguageofEngland,butthatat the
community
languageschool the languageof use is Portuguese:
R: Que lnguavocfalaem casa?
A: Ingls.
R: Onde vocfalaportugus?
A: Na escolaaos sbados.
R: S l?
A: Sim.
[R: Whichlanguagedo youspeakat home?
A: English.
R: Wheredo youspeakPortuguese?
A: Attheschoolon Saturdays.
R: Onlythere?
A: Yes.]
Conclusions
Being born in Brazil and speakingBrazilianPortugueseas theirfirstlanguage
as Brazilians.This senseof identityis then
allowsthe mothersto see themselves
when
affectedin different
theymove to England and learn to speak
degrees
in theidentity
continuum
are
mothers'
self-identities
The
onlysignposts
English.
much
how
on
mothers'
self-identification
The
in
this
depends
study.
adopted
of
of
their
the
is affected
their'Brazilianness'
experiences living
'Englishness'
by
times. In other words,the
situationsand at different
in London in different
is multiple,and changeableaccordingto context.
way the mothersself-identify
to theirsocial
the mothers'reportson the importanceof ethnicity
Nevertheless,
identitieswere used as a generalbackgroundto examinehow theirpositioning
impacton theirchildren.
Josefadescribesherselfas English because she was born in England and
she
because she speaksEnglish.In spiteof usingPortuguesein her interview,
to her abilityin speakingthislanguagewhen describingherself.
avoidsreferring
This behaviourseemsto signalherawarenessofthefactthataddingthiscriterion
she selectedto describe
to her descriptionwould go againstthe characteristics

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Brazilian Portuguese-Speakers in London

93

others:place of birthand languagespoken.Tryingto adopt clear-cutcriteriaof

seemsto be an influenceof her mother,who tendsto positionherself
ethnicity
towardsthe 'tourist'end of the identitycontinuum.
Beneditos self-identification
also appearto be influencedby those
strategies
of his mother,who tends towardsthe 'expatriatecosmopolitan'end of the
identitycontinuum.In otherwords,his motheris willingto adopt some of the
characteristics
fromboth the receptor(English)and the minority(Brazilian)
groups.Nonetheless,she claimsto feelBraziliansince she was born thereand
grew up there.In the same way thatshe is attachedto her place of birthand
the languageof her childhood,Benedito appearsattachedto his place of birth
(England)and the languagewhich he firstlearned(English).He feelsEnglish,
and as in the case ofJosefa,thewayhe self-identifies
appearsto be relatedto the
he
finds
uses
more
often
and
of
which
he has betterknowledge.
easier,
language
Benedito
like
his
he
However,
mother, feels comfortablewith
signalsthat,
another
and
other
cultural
adopting
language
experiences.
In contrastto both Josefaand Benedito, Antonio self-identifies
as being
both Englishand Brazilianin spiteof havingbeen born in Englandand having
Englishas the languageof his household.Antoniojustifiesthislabel by adding
hisparents'backgrounds
to thesetof criteriafordetermining
his ethnicidentity.
The way Antonioself-identifies
is an indicationthathis mother(who tendsto
place herselfin the 'earlycosmopolitan'identification
categoryin the identity
as being 'hybrid'but has
continuum)has influencedhim. She self-identifies
stronglinksto Englishsocietyand the Englishlanguage.Despite demonstrating
towardsBraziliancultureand thePortugueselanguage,Antonio
positiveattitudes
also hasstronglinksto hisEnglishidentity.
Antonio'smotherseems
Nevertheless,
to havebeen successful
in highlighting
theimportanceshegivesto bothidentities
in theirlives.
Overall,the discussionin thisarticlesuggeststhatthe way in which migrant
mothersreactto theircontactwith the receptorcommunityinfluencestheir
children's
senseof ethnicity,
and thus,theiremotionaland instrumental
linksto
theircommunity
language.
Goldsmiths, University of London

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