INNOVATIVE VOLT/VAR MANAGEMENT PROVIDES PAYBACK

by
Mark Dixon
Manager of Market & Project Development for Control Products & Systems, Beckwith Electric Co., Inc.
ABSTRACT
Distribution system losses can be significantly
reduced by efficient and effective automated
management of VArs through coordinated,
intelligent, adaptive control of capacitor controls,
transformer LTC controls and regulator controls.
The reduction in IR and IX losses, tap change
operations and maintenance all significantly
impact system efficiency and performance, as well
as reducing operating costsall of which increase
utility revenue and can defer capital expenditure.
An intelligent, automatically-adaptive solution
utilizes an innovative method of achieving these
objectives with virtually no human intervention.
Typical field performance data has shown that
voltage profiles from the substation to the end of
radial feeders remain flat and that variations are
reduced to within 1.5 volts or better, and that
power factors average between .98 lead and .98 lag
consistently. Tap operations are also reduced on
the magnitude of 10:1 after implementation.
I. INTRODUCTION
In the dynamic utility company environment in the
United States today, the inevitability of
deregulation has placed an emphasis on system
efficiencies, costs reductions, power quality, and
overall profitability. Mergers and acquisitions
abound, and due to the climate of the industry as a
whole, many utility companies are performing
economic evaluations and studies to see where
changes can be made to achieve these goals. Very
often, volt/VAr management and distribution
system automation are becoming hot topics.
The focal point for volt/VAr management and
control tends to be at the distribution level, and
generally contains some sort of automation. At the
distribution level, there are several major system
components that can affect the management of
volts and VArs. These components are: LTC (load
tap changing) transformers, LTC (load tap
changing) line regulators and capacitor bank
controls (pole-top and substation step-bank), all of

which can lend themselves to automation. In any

good evaluation of a volt/VAr management
system, all of these components must be
considered individually, as well as collectively, to
ascertain the most efficient, viable method of
control.
Substation capacitor banks, both at transmission
substations, as well as at distribution substations,
handle base load requirements. The discussions
herein will therefore be confined to switched poletop capacitor bank applications and their controls,
which are used to offset the varying VAr
requirements on a daily basis.
A. Capacitor Banks
Capacitor banks are certainly the most effective
way to offset system load VAr requirements and
reduce current throughout the system. Fixed and
switched capacitors banks are used as a means to
solve the age-old problem of supplying leading
VArs, and offsetting lagging VArs in the
distribution system. Capacitor banks are located on
distribution feeders, distribution substation busses,
and transmission substation busses, all in an effort
to thwart this problem.
The switching control of these banks varies from
numerous localized controls that operate based on
voltage, current, time, temperature, VArs, or any
combination thereof, to manual/remote control via
SCADA or radio, or even to automatic/remote
control via SCADA or radio. Application
methodology varies from simplistic to intricately
complex. Each operating philosophy has
advantages and disadvantages to evaluate for
optimization of system performance, and each
technology has its associated costs.
Having the ability to add or remove capacitance at
the point in the circuit closest to the reactive load
requirement seems to make the most sense and
therefore, pole-top capacitor banks tend to be the
preferred mechanism. Being able to automate this
function also seems to be a natural progression but

being able to do both cost-effectively using

traditional methods seems to be impossible. The
underlying truth is that none of the present
solutions actually perform the task efficiently
without being nearly cost-prohibitive.

algorithms has resulted in: reduced system losses,

reduced number of tap change operations, and the
ability to increase equipment loading by reducing
currents and voltage variations in the lines and
transformers.

B. Load Tap Changer (LTC) Transformers

and Line Regulators
LTC transformers are typically used to control the
secondary voltage coming out of a substation (in
our example, the distribution substation). Tap
changer line regulators are typically used to
regulate the voltage further down the feeder with
respect to the theoretical load center, but have also
been used in conjunction with fixed transformers at
the substation in place of a LTC transformer. The
tap changer controls for both LTC transformers
and line regulators have run the spectrum of the
control worldfrom analog to digital, with or
without communications, and all combinations in
between. Generally, these types of controls are set
at a desired voltage level with an allowable
variance. If the voltage goes outside the allowable
variance (also referred to as bandwidth), a
correction to the voltage is made after some set
time delay (typically 15 to 60 seconds) through the
LTC mechanism.

III. OPERATION EXAMPLE

Probably the best way to explain the interaction
amongst the components in the autodaptive
systems approach is by example. Refer to Fig. 1,
Typical
System
Configuration.
In
this
configuration, the model utility has integrated a
full autodaptive volt/VAr management system. An
ATC (Autodaptive Transformer Control) utilizing
VAr Bias has been installed at the substation, and
ACCs (Autodaptive Capacitor Controls) have
replaced older controls on the feeder circuits
associated with the substation transformer. Line
regulators, located along the feeders, have had
ARCs (Autodaptive Regulator Controls) retrofitted
and, this utility even has dispersed generation at
the end of one feeder. This is a broad spectrum, but
typical.

Although the latest technology in the newer digital

controls calculates and communicates Watt and
VAr information, decisions of tap change time and
levels are not affected by these quantities except as
they impact line drop compensation (LDC).
II. INNOVATION VS.
TRADITIONAL PRACTICE
The system operation example below describes an
Autodaptive Volt/VAr Management System
(AVVMS) that innovatively forms a cooperative
interaction between pole-top capacitor bank
controls and the voltage regulation controls on the
LTC transformer or tap changer line regulator in
the distribution system. All of the controls
mentioned below, forming the system, use patented
automatically-adaptive algorithms, and are not
dependent upon external communications to
achieve efficient and effective switching of
capacitor banks. Using controls with adaptive

System operation is normal and the feeders are

running fine with normal cyclical load profiles that
are as anticipatedfor example: daytime peak load
and nighttime low load.
Refer to Fig. 2, Historical Data File. NOTE: The
details in the following operation example are
referenced at or around the vertical analytical
cursor positioned near the 04/14 date in Fig. 2.
The figure shows a four-week segment of recorded
field data downloaded from the ATC at a regularly
monitored site.
Evening time cooling and reduced commercial and
residential load begin to effect the load profile. The
substation secondary bus VArs begin to go leading
and the voltage at the bus, as well as on the
feeders, continues to slowly increase. As the VArs
begin to inch toward leading and the secondary
voltage at the substation begins to rise, the LTC
transformer, seeing this voltage increase, wants to
make a LOWER tap change to bring the voltage
back into bandwidth.

Fig. 1. Typical System Configuration

At the same time, out on the individual feeders,

the ACCs are slowly timing towards an OPEN
switch operation in an effort to switch capacitor
banks off-line and reduce the site voltage. The
ACCs have a slower time constant than the ATC
at the substation, and subsequently, havent
operated yet.
The ATC, as mentioned earlier, has a feature
called VAr Bias, (represented by the bottom
data lines in Fig. 2) which is actively measuring
the quadrature current magnitude (the VAr
level). When the VAr Bias measuring circuit
sees the VArs go excessively leading (based on
magnitude above a programmed band edge), it
gives a command (VAr Bias RAISE signal) to
the ATC control which raises the band center by,
effectively, one bandwidth. The ATC executes
the Var Bias RAISE command in accordance
with its configuration and its algorithm.

The ATC, now having a new operating

parameter (a higher band center), no longer
wants to initiate a LOWER tap change operation
to lower the voltage because all parameters are
within the new bandwidth, and it continues,
allowing the line voltage to slowly increase. As
the line voltage increases, the voltage setpoint
and the associated bandwidth of the ACCs is
being exceeded by an even larger voltage
difference which speeds the rate of timing
toward an OPEN switch operation. The ACCs
that were nearing an OPEN on their own, but
having been biased into operation, now take
capacitor banks out of the system to reduce the
measured voltage and they do so according to
their algorithm.
With the voltage reduced, the VAr requirement
of the circuit becomes satisfied once again and
the VAr Bias signal is removed from the ATC.

With the VAr Bias signal removed, the ATC

band center is returned to the normal setpoint.
In this particular historical data file, the VArs do
come back within acceptable limits as a result of
the removal of the capacitor banks out on the

feeder. However, the voltage continues to be

slightly out of the 1 V bandwidth, and the
tapchanger control (ATC) does indeed take a tap
change down. Nonetheless, as can be seen by the
data, tap change operations are at a minimum
(averaging less than 2 tap changes per week).

Fig. 2. Historical Data File

IV. VAR BIAS TIMING

Refer to Fig. 3 and Fig. 4 for the following
discussion on VAr Bias.

Where: VAr Lower Band edge = (-3/4 C size)

and,
VAr Upper Band edge = (+3/4 C size).

The VAr Biass controlling variable is the

measured quadrature load current. The VAr Bias
works to maintain an overall lower VAr load on
the transformer by influencing the capacitor
controls to operate in advance of when they would
have normally operated, had they been stand-alone
controls. The key is the timing.

Outside these band edges, the control increases the

integrating timer G by an integrating square-law
function based on the capacitor size, and it does
this every 100 msec.

Any time that the measured quadrature load

current deviates from the band center, the
integrating timer (designated G) is counting,
slower within the bandwidth of operation and
much faster outside the band edges. The
integrating timer G is counting in an effort to
match the value in a register (designated G ).

G = G + [(quadrature load current

C size x 256) / 50 mA]2

The calculation is expressed in its simplest form

as:

Within the band edges, the control decreases the

integrating timer G by a factor of 1024, again,
every 100 msec.
Expressed as:

The band edges of the VAr Bias operating

bandwidth are determined by the maximum
capacitor bank size on the line.

G = G (G

/ 1024)

Where: G = the targeted value in the register that

G must accumulate in order to cause the band
center to shift.

Square Law
Integrating
(Incrementing)

Square Law
Integrating
(Incrementing)

Integrating
Linear
Decrementing

-Error VAr
(accumulating
values of G)

Integrating
Linear
Decrementing

BandCenter

+ Error VAr
(accumulating
values of G)

Fig. 3 Time Characteristic Curve

Threshold
Values of G'

Upper Bandedge
+3/4 C size

Lower Bandedge
-3/4 C size

Integrating timer
G increases

VAR Upper
Bandedge

Bandcenter

VAR Lower
Bandedge

Integrating timer
G is cleared and
VAR Bias is
removed

Fig. 4. VAr Bias Characteristic

NOTE: If at any time the measured quadrature

load current crosses over the VAr Bias band center
and goes beyond the opposite band edge, the
integrating timer G is cleared and the VAr Bias is
removed.
Everything up to this point involving the ATC and
its VAr Bias signal development, is for the sole
purpose of biasing the operation of the circuit
ACCs. VAr bias influences the operation of the
ACCs such that, by switching capacitor banks
earlier to fine-tune the feeder voltage, we have
flattened the voltage profile, provided VAr
regulation, and reduced the overall number of tap
change operations at the substation control as well.
V. AUTODAPTIVE CAPACITOR CONTROLS
ACCs adapt their operation automatically, to three
inter-dependent parameters: the average voltage at
the site, the bandwidth of the control, and capacitor
bank switching frequency.
A. Average Voltage
The first parameter to which the ACC adapts itself
is the average voltage at the site. The ACC has two
modes of operation, the averaging mode and the
fixed voltage setpoint mode.

Average Mode
In the averaging mode, the internal average
voltage tracks toward the measured voltage. After
the first switching operation, (a CLOSE), the
average voltage becomes the known reference
voltage. From this point on, the control uses this
reference voltage for the basis of all calculations.
The ACC calculates its average voltage over a
weeks time period to use as its band center
reference voltage for comparison to the measured
voltage.
Fixed Voltage Setpoint Mode
If the control has been programmed with a fixed
voltage setpoint (which overrides voltage
averaging) for operation, the ACC does not seek
out, or perform, the calculation for the average
voltage at the site. Instead, the fixed voltage
setpoint becomes the controls permanent
reference voltage from which all calculations are
made. The fixed voltage setpoint is extremely
useful if the feeder circuit to which the ACC is
being applied does not have sufficient capacitance
to achieve unity power factor. An independent
control in the average mode will flatten the voltage
profile at the site but, because of the lack of
sufficient capacitance, the voltage profile will be
below unity. Using the fixed voltage setpoint can
force the capacitor banks on more than just 50% of

the time, optimizing their use, and bringing the

voltage profile closer to unity.
B. Bandwidth
The fundamental operation of the ACC is
predicated on a bandwidth (using traditional terms)
operating around the reference voltage. Developing
this bandwidth requires a measurement of the delta
V (based on the impedance at the site and the size
of the capacitor bank) when the capacitor bank
switches. Due to the fact that switched capacitor
banks take varying times to operate, the ACC reads
the voltage just prior to a switch, makes the switch,
waits 15 seconds, and then measures the voltage
again. The 15-second wait time is to allow
sufficient time for the line voltage to ring out. In
this manner, an accurate measurement of the delta
V is made. It is this measured delta V that sets up
the effective bandwidth for control operation. To
ensure consistency in the bandwidth, a recursive
average of the last eight switch operations is
performed.
C. Switching Frequency
The third criteria to which the ACC adapts is the
capacitor bank switching frequency. The control
monitors and stores historical data. One bit of
information it looks at is the number of times the
control operated in a 24-hour period. It references
this information, comparing it to a truth table of
sorts, and using its conclusions there, makes
adjustments to the internal threshold for timing. In
other words, if the ACC switches between 1 and 4
times in its 24-hour reference period, the timing
threshold is not adjusted, because the control is
operating the way it is intended. If the ACC
switches more than 4 times, it adjusts its timing
threshold upward in an attempt to reduce the
number of daily switch operations. Likewise, if the
ACC switches less than 1 time per 24-hour
reference period, it adjusts its timing threshold
downward in an attempt to switch more often.
VI. ACC NORMAL OPERATION
The reference voltage of the control tracks the
measured voltage. When a switch operation occurs,

the reference voltage changes by the bandwidth

value and in the same direction as the voltage
change. In other words, the ACC monitors the line
voltage and by virtue of what the voltage is doing,
sees that the line requires more capacitance to
support lagging VArs. When the switch operation
does occur, the reference voltage changes by the
established bandwidth (typically less than 2 volts)
in the upward direction, to mimic the CLOSE (add
more capacitance) command, and raise the voltage.
A. Upper and Lower Voltage Limits
The ACC has programmable upper and lower
voltage limits. The limits are factory defaulted at
114 Vac and 126 Vac, based on a 120 Vac factorydefaulted center voltage. These limits may be set at
any levels by the customerprovided there is a
minimum of 6 Vac difference between the two
limits.
The reference voltage tracks the measured voltage
until a switch operation occurs. When a switch
occurs, the reference voltage changes by the entire
bandwidth value and in the same direction as the
voltage change. Should the measured voltage reach
the upper voltage limit (UVL) and the bank is
closed, the ACC will open the bank in one second.
Should the measured voltage reach the lower
voltage limit (LVL) and the bank is open, the ACC
will close the bank in one second. Reference Fig.
5.
To further explain autodaptive operation, when the
measured line voltage is below the internal
reference voltage, the ACC is timing towards a
CLOSE output, provided the capacitor bank is
open. If the capacitor bank is already closed, no
timing will take place. When the measured line
voltage is above the internal reference voltage, the
ACC is timing towards an OPEN output, provided
the capacitor bank is closed. If the capacitor bank
is already open, no timing will take place.
Since the prior discussions have broached the
subject of timing, a more thorough discussion of
the timing algorithms must be addressed.

UVL = +5%
above reference
voltage

Bandwidth =
Av. change in
Meas. Voltage,
last 8 switch
operations

LVL = -5% below

reference voltage

Fig. 5. Bandwidth Characteristic and Voltage Limits

B. ACC Timing
In the paragraphs above, we have mentioned the
progression of time towards a switch operation.
The timing circuit of the ACC is, in essence, a nonlinear integrating timer that adjusts the progression
of time towards a switch operation based on a
comparison of the difference between the
measured line voltage and the internal reference
voltage. The larger the difference between the two
quantities, the faster the timing progresses to a
switch operation. Likewise, the smaller the
difference between the two quantities, the slower
the progression of time to a switch operation.
Throughout normal operation, the ACC timing
circuit is continually counting. The timing circuit
of the ACC is looking to match an accumulated
value of this counter (designated H) to an adapted
threshold value (designated H ). H and H are
actually data value locations within the
microprocessors RAM and are utilized as part of
the timing circuitry and are effected according to
the associated algorithm. Fundamentally, when the
values in both data locations match, a switch
operation is initiated.
The algorithm for timing is given in the following
example:

The default setting from the factory for H is 800.

If the measured line voltage was 122 Vac, and the
internal reference voltage was 120 Vac, the ACC
would be timing towards an OPEN switch
operation. The ACCs progression of time towards
a switch operation is based on the equation:
H = [ 128 x (measured V reference V) /
(ULV reference V)]2
Where: ULV = Upper Limit Voltage
Therefore, substituting the aforementioned values,
we have,
800 = [ 128 x (122-120) / (126-120)]2
Thus: 800 = 1.22 minutes
When timing to a CLOSE switch operation, the
associated equation is similarsubstituting the
UVL with the LVL value:
H = [ 128 x (reference V measured V) /
(reference V LLV)]2
Where: LLV = Lower Limit Voltage

Bandcenter,
Average or Fixed Voltage
Customer Set
Lower Voltage
Limit

Customer Set
Upper Voltage
Limit

Band Edge

Band Edge

Timing
Rate

Timing
Rate
g
tin
en ting
em ra g
cr g in
in inte im
t

- Delta V

decrementing
linear
timing

decrementing
linear
timing

g
tin
en ing
em at
cr egr ing
n
i nt m
i ti

Bandwidth

+ Delta V

Fig. 6. ACC Time Characteristic Curve

The calculations for timing are performed every

cycle. The timing characteristic is graphically
depicted in Fig. 6.
VII. CONCLUSION
By themselves, the pieces of an autodaptive system
(ACCs, ATCs, and ARCs) are as selfsubstantiating as they are efficient, effective
system controls. Applied correctly as an overall
volt/VAr management system, they can
dramatically improve performance and power
delivery to the end customer. In doing so, voltage,

VAr and power factor profiles are improved. By

improving these profiles, current is reduced and
subsequently, losses throughout the distribution
system are saved in real dollars or as added system
capacity which may even defer capital expenditure
for expansion. Because the Autodaptive Volt/VAr
Management System requires no human
intervention, operating costs are reduced as well as
engineering costs. Additionally, maintenance costs
are saved due to the dramatic reduction in the
number of tap changer operations.