Course Overview

Introduction to Machine Condition Monitoring

and Condition Based Maintenance

Machine Condition Monitoring

Basics of Mechanical Vibrations

and

Vibration Transducers

Fault Diagnostics

Vibration Signal Measurement and Display

Machine Vibration Standards and Acceptance
Limits (Condition Monitoring)

Chris K Mechefske

Vibration Signal Frequency Analysis (FFT)

January 5, 2006

Page 1

January 5, 2006

Page 2

Course Overview

Current Topic

Machinery Vibration Trouble Shooting

Introduction to Machine Condition Monitoring

and Condition Based Maintenance

Fault Diagnostics Based on Forcing Functions

Fault Diagnostics Based on Specific Machine
Components

Basics of Mechanical Vibrations

Fault Diagnostics Based on Specific Machine Type

Vibration Signal Measurement and Display

Automatic Diagnostic Techniques

Machine Vibration Standards and Acceptance

Limits (Condition Monitoring)

Vibration Transducers

Non-Vibration Based Machine Condition Monitoring

and Fault Diagnosis Methods
January 5, 2006

Page 3

Vibration Signal Frequency Analysis (FFT)

January 5, 2006

Basics of Mechanical Vibration

Classification of Vibration
By Motion:

Definition
The variation with time of the magnitude of a
quantity, which is descriptive of the motion or position
of a mechanical system, when the magnitude is
alternately greater and smaller than the average
value or reference.
Basically an object oscillates back and forth about
an equilibrium point.

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Page 5

Simple Harmonic Motion

The simplest form of vibration.
Exact position is predictable from the equation of
motion.
Mathematical description:

x(t ) = A sin(t + )
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Simple Harmonic Motion

Simple Harmonic Motion

x(t ) = A sin(t + )
Terms:

x (t ) - instantaneous displacement (m)

- maximum amplitude (m)

- angular velocity (Radians/Second)

- phase angle (Radians)

= 2 f

f = frequency,

Graphical description of simple harmonic motion

T = cycle/period, T = 1 / f
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January 5, 2006

Periodic Motion

Random Motion

Motion repeats itself in equal time periods.

Includes harmonic motion, pulses, etc.

Motion is not deterministic (That is, not repeatable).

Statistics of motion history may be well defined, but
exact location as a function of time is not obtainable.

1
0.8
0.6

Vibration signal contains all frequencies in a given

band.

0.4
Amplitude

Page 8

0.2
0

Often generated by machine looseness.

-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1

10

20

30

40

50
60
Time (ms)

70

80

90

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January 5, 2006

Random Motion

Page 10

Chaotic Motion

1
0.8
0.6

Combination of random and periodic motion.

Amplitude

0.4

Random and repeatable characteristics combined

in a non-linear fashion.

0.2
0
-0.2

Vibration signal contains all frequencies in a given

band but not in equal proportions.

-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1

10

20

30

40

50
Time (ms)

60

70

80

90

Graphical description of Random Motion.

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Transient Motion

Classification of Vibration by Excitation

Free vibration:
Oscillation occurs at natural frequency after an
initial force input has disappeared.

Any motion other than the above.

Impulsive in nature, but not regularly repeated.

Forced vibration:
Oscillation occurs at the frequency of a driving
force input.
Self-induced vibration:
Vibration of a system resulting from conversion of
energy within system.
Non-oscillatory energy to oscillatory excitation.

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January 5, 2006

Basic Theory of Vibration

Basic Theory of Vibration

The equation of motion comes from the force
balance equation,

Single Degree-of-Freedom System Model

F(t)

M&x&(t ) + Cx& (t ) + Kx (t ) = F (t )

x(t)

Mass M

Page 14

The total solution to the equation of motion has

two parts. The transient solution (x1) and the
steady state part (x2). We are usually more
interested in the steady state solution, but will
consider both here for completeness.

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January 5, 2006

Basic Theory of Vibration

Page 16

Basic Theory of Vibration

Solution to equation of motion.

Transient state solution ( F (t ) = 0 ).

x1 (t ) = Ae

s1t

+ Be

There are three special cases of transient vibration.

1. Underdamped <1

s2 t

2. Critically Damped

S1, 2 = 2 1 0

=1

3. Overdamped > 1

A, B are initial conditions

0 is the natural frequency, 0 = K M

is the damping ratio, = C (2 M )
0
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Basic Theory of Vibration

Responses of free vibration versus damping

Underdamped <1

Underdamped, =0.15

1.5

S1, 2 = j 1 2 0
x(t)

0.5

x1 (t ) = Ae 0t sin( 1 2 0 t + )

Oscillation with frequency 0

-0.5

Amplitude decays exponentially

January 5, 2006

-1

Page 19

1.5
Time (s)

2.5

January 5, 2006

Basic Theory of Vibration

Critically Damped

0.5

Page 20

Responses of free vibration versus damping

2

=1

Critically damped, =1.0

1.5

x1 (t ) = ( A + Bt )e 0t
x(t)

Quick restoration to equilibrium state

0.5

-0.5

-1

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1.5
Time (s)

2.5

January 5, 2006

Basic Theory of Vibration

Overdamped

0.5

Page 22

Responses of free vibration versus damping

2

>1

Overdamped,

=3.0

1.5

x1 (t ) = Ae s1t + Be s2t

x(t)

s1 , s2 R

0.5

Exponential decaying without oscillation

-0.5

-1

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January 5, 2006

0.5

1.5
Time (s)

2.5

Page 24

Responses of free vibration versus damping

2

Solution to equation of motion.

=0.15
Underdamped,
=1.0
Critically damped,
=3.0
Overdamped,

1.5

Basic Theory of Vibration

Steady state solution ( F (t ) = F0 sin(t ) ).

x(t)

x 2 (t ) =

0.5

Total solution to equation of motion.

-0.5

-1

F0
sin( t )
C + (K 2 M )

x ( t ) = x1 ( t ) + x 2 ( t )
0

0.5

1.5
Time (s)

2.5

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Relationship between Displacement,

Velocity and Acceleration

Displacement

We are primarily interested in the Steady State

response of a system due to some continuous
forcing function input.

Velocity

Velocity (m/s)
- The rate of change of displacement with time

v ( t ) = x& ( t ) = A sin( t + +

Recall that the equation that describes simple

harmonic motion is:

)
2

x(t ) = A sin(t + )
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Velocity

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Relationship between Displacement,

Velocity and Acceleration

Acceleration

Acceleration (m/s2)

0.25

- The rate of change of velocity with time

0.2
0.15

Amplitude

0.1

a (t ) = &x&(t ) = 2 A sin(t + + )

0.05
0
-0.05
-0.1
-0.15
displacement
velocity
acceleration

-0.2
-0.25

January 5, 2006

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January 5, 2006

10

15

20
Time (ms)

25

30

35

40

Page 30

Descriptors of Vibration Signals

Descriptors of Vibration Signals

Mean

Average

Indicates the DC level in the signal and should

be subtracted first.

Indicates average vibration level of the signal.

Definition:

x =

1
T

Definition:

x ( t ) dt

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x av =

Page 31

1
T

x(t ) dt

January 5, 2006

Vibration Descriptors

Page 32

Descriptors of Vibration Signals

Peak Value (zero-to-peak)
Indicates peak vibration level of the signal.

Amplitude

Definition:

xav

x p = max [x (t ) x ]

Mean
time

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January 5, 2006

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Descriptors of Vibration Signals

Vibration Descriptors

Peak-to-Peak
Indicates total fluctuation in the vibration signal.

Amplitude

xp

Definition:

x p p = max [x (t )] min[x (t )]

Mean
time

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January 5, 2006

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Vibration Descriptors

Descriptors of Vibration Signals

RMS (root mean square)
Value proportional to the energy in the vibration
signal.

Amplitude

xp p

Definition:

Mean

xRMS =

time

January 5, 2006

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1
[x(t )]2 dt
T

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Vibration Descriptors

Vibration Descriptors

Amplitude

Amplitude

xp

xRMS

xav

Mean

xRMS

xp p

Mean
time

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time

January 5, 2006

Descriptors of Vibration Signals

Descriptors of Vibration Signals

With respect to A in the original equation of

simple harmonic motion:

Note that equations on the last slide are true for

simple harmonic motion only. If the vibration
signal has a different character the simplification
below does not hold.

x(t ) = A sin(t + )

xRMS 0.707 A

x RMS = 0.707A
xp = A

But rather, the RMS value must be calculated

from...

x p p = 2 A

xRMS =

x av = 0.637A
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Page 41

January 5, 2006

1
[x(t )]2 dt
T
Page 42

Time and Frequency Domains

Time and Frequency Domains

Amplitude

Frequency

F2

F2
F1

F1

Time

January 5, 2006

Page 43

January 5, 2006

Time and Frequency Domains

Page 44

Time and Frequency Domains

Amplitude

Amplitude

Time

January 5, 2006

F1

Page 45

Frequency F2

January 5, 2006

Decibel (dB) units

Page 46

Decibel (dB) units

Definition (Mechanical and Acoustics)

A measure of vibration amplitude

A
dB = 20 log10 rms
Aref

Logarithmic scale
With respect to a reference value
Effective in displaying small values together
with very large values.

Arms - RMS value of a parameter

Aref

- Reference value of the parameter

Double amplitude corresponds to an increase of 6 dB

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January 5, 2006

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Decibel (dB) units

Decibel (dB) units

Linear Scale

1 10

Standardised reference values (ISO standard)

100

1000

Logarithmic Scale

10

Parameter

Reference

100

Displacement

1 10 6 g

1 10

Page 49

12

1 10 m

or
1 10 6 m

s2

January 5, 2006

Page 50

Decibel (dB) units

Decibel (dB) units

Linear Multiplication

6
10
20
30
40
50
60
70

x2
x3
x 10
x 30
x 100
x 300
x 1000
x 3000

January 5, 2006

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January 5, 2006

What is Mechanical Vibration?

y(t) - output

How mechanical systems respond to forcing

function inputs?
Consider an everyday example the motor vehicle.

Mass M

Page 52

Mechanical Vibration is:

Using the Single Degree-of-Freedom System Model

A wide range of different inputs can cause

vibrations in motor vehicles.
K
x(t) - input

F(t)
January 5, 2006

Acceleration

1000

January 5, 2006

dB increase

Velocity

Page 53

Wind

Engine Combustion

Road surface

Mechanical Imbalance

Engine Fan

Misalignment

January 5, 2006

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Mechanical Vibration

Mechanical Vibration

All vibrations experienced by the driver and other

occupants are the result of mechanical dissipation
of energy in response to some forcing function
input.

Using the single Degree-of-Freedom System

model for the suspension system

Mass of
vehicle, M

Consider only one source of potential forcing

function input the road surface.
Also consider the vehicles suspension system as
a linear single degree-of-freedom system.

y(t) output
(vehicle vibration)

C shock damping

K spring stiffness
x(t) input
(road surface)
F(t)

January 5, 2006

Page 55

January 5, 2006

Mechanical Vibration

Response to System Inputs

Assume unsprung mass (wheel) is small (but not

negligible) compared to that of the vehicle.

Road Input

K is the spring stiffness (linear). Spring stores energy

when stretched or compressed and acts to oppose
motion proportional to position. Unstretched or
uncompressed spring no force.
C is the damping coefficient of the shock absorber,
which is modeled as a viscous damper. The shock
absorber dissipates energy rather than storing it and
opposes motion proportional to velocity. Zero velocity
zero force.
January 5, 2006

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Ampl.

Vehicle Output
Ampl.

Time

Time

Evaluation of these plots reveals two important

quantities gain and phase shift.
January 5, 2006

Mechanical Vibration

Page 58

Response to System Inputs

Gain is the change in amplitude (often an

increase) from input to output (often expressed in
decibels).
Gain = Output Amplitude
Input Amplitude

Road Input

Time

Gain

Time
Phase Shift

The frequency of the output does not change

relative to the input.
Page 59

Vehicle Output

Ampl.

Ampl.

The phase shift is the change in the position of the

output vibration signal relative to the input
vibration signal.

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10

Mechanical Vibration

Mechanical Vibration

Consider now the gain and phase shift of a system

over a range of frequencies.
In order to do this we need to introduce what is
know as the Transfer Function (TF).
Gain
(dB)

When considered together the gain and the phase

shift plots represent the Transfer Function of a
particular mechanical system.
Gain
(dB)

Phase
(degrees)

The Gain and Phase Shift at

any particular frequency are
found from these plots.

Freq.

Phase
(degrees)

Freq.
Gain Plot

Freq.
Phase Plot

January 5, 2006

Freq.
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January 5, 2006

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Mechanical Vibration

Mechanical Vibration

The gain at low

frequencies is one
or close to one.

Gain
(dB)

Gain
(dB)

Freq.

Freq.

The frequency shift

is zero.

Phase
(degrees)

Phase
(degrees)

Freq.

Freq.

January 5, 2006

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Freq.

Page 64

Mechanical Vibration

Above the Natural

Frequency, the
gain decreases at
a constant rate
(usually rapid).

As the frequency increases the gain initially increases (until

natural frequency) and then decreases (after natural
frequency). Note there may be more than one natural
Frequency.
Gain
(dB)

Freq.
Phase
(degrees)

The phase shifts

towards 90 as the
frequency gets close to
the Natural Frequency.

January 5, 2006

Mechanical Vibration

Gain
(dB)

There is little change in

the gain as the frequency
increases, until the
system Natural Frequency
is approached where the
gain quickly increases
with increasing frequency.

The frequency shift

approaches 180.

While low frequency inputs are

passed through the system
(gain equals one), high
frequency inputs are
attenuated.
Such a system is called a low
pass filter.

Phase
(degrees)

Freq.
Freq.
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January 5, 2006

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11

Mechanical Vibration

Mechanical Resonance
An increase in gain and dramatic phase shift
occur at the frequency of mechanical resonance.

All mechanical systems act as low pass filters for

two reasons.
High frequencies require higher speeds to reach
the same amplitudes as lower frequencies

Many system responses or

forcing function frequencies exist
at or close to resonance.

Gain
(dB)

All machines have a maximum velocity (due to

inertia). Once the maximum velocity is reached,
higher frequencies can only be reached by
reducing the amplitude.

It is essential to consider the

existence of these resonances
when designing new machines
and when maintaining existing
machines.

Freq.

Phase
(degrees)
Freq.

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January 5, 2006

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Mechanical Resonance
Note:

System Damping
As noted earlier system damping affects the
response of the system.

The gain remains relatively

constant at low frequencies.
Systems natural frequency
(resonance) occurs when the
phase shift is exactly -90o

Gain
(dB)

The peak gain occurs slightly

below the system resonance due
to damping.

Freq.

Phase
(degrees)

Freq.

For frequencies above resonance

the gain decreases as the phase
shift approaches -180o.

January 5, 2006

Increased damping results in

lower peak gain.

Gain
(dB)

Page 69

Freq.

Increased damping results in

reduced phase shift slope.

Phase
(degrees)

Freq.

Changes in damping result in only minimal changes in

gain and phase shift at low and high frequencies.
January 5, 2006

Page 70

Analysis of Mechanical Vibrations

Non-Linearities

Typically only outputs can be measured, not inputs.

To complicate this a different transfer function
exists from each vibration forcing function input to
the point where the output is measured.

Damping is usually modeled as linear.

Using this model - as velocity slows the
damping force goes to zero.
This is, of course, not true in real systems.

Not all (if any) transfer functions are known due to

their complex nature.
As a result separately analyzing transfer functions
and inputs is extremely challenging.

January 5, 2006

Page 71

Damping
Force

Velocity

In reality, the damping force levels off as velocity

approaches zero.
January 5, 2006

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12

Summary

Summary

Vibration is the mechanical dissipation of energy in

response to a mechanical input.
All mechanical systems act as low pass filters of
vibration inputs.
In a simple linear system, the response to a
sinusoidal input is a sinusoidal output with the
same frequency, but different phase and
amplitude.

January 5, 2006

A system response to vibration input depends on

the frequency of the input.
The change in amplitude and phase shift of the
output relative to the input is slight at low
frequencies, but is dramatic close to the system
natural frequency (resonance) and above.
In vibration analysis it is essential to consider both
the specifics of the input and the system
characteristics (transfer function) such as
resonances and non-linearities.

Page 73

January 5, 2006

Page 74

Next Time
Introduction to Machine Condition Monitoring
and Condition Based Maintenance
Basics of Mechanical Vibrations
Vibration Transducers
Vibration Signal Measurement and Display
Machine Vibration Standards and Acceptance
Limits (Condition Monitoring)
Vibration Signal Frequency Analysis (FFT)
January 5, 2006

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