French Phase (1635-1648)

Fearing any unification in the Germany's, France

joined with the protestant forces and brought an
end to the conflict.; This demonstrated that
religion was now a secondary consideration
compared to politics. Germany was destroyed by
the years of war. 1/3 of the population of
Germany perished.

Peace of Westphalia (1648)

The division of Germany was complete. Princes

had independent authority and France and
intervened at will in German affairs. The
Habsburg's Holy Roman Empire would never
recover and the Habsburgs would refocus their
attention on their empire of Bohemia, the
Hereditary Provinces (Austria) and Hungary.

The Great European Witch Hunt

Religious struggle raised the belief in evil

witches. In a male dominated society, misogyny
was a problem.

Montainge

Advanced the idea of skepticism. Wrote Essays

and promoted open-mindedness and tolerance.

Baroque

A style of art and music promoted by the Catholic church as part of their
counter-reformation. Art was emotional, exuberant and intended to appeal to
the senses and rekindle faith. Painting depicted dramatic events in larger
than life scale. Also, there was the dramatic use of light and dark. In
architecture, Baroque was represesnted by sweeping and swirling motion
with lots of ins and outs. Music also demonstrated dramatic movement up
and down the scale with many in and out moments.

Absolutism

Sovereignty resides in the kings. Kings were the

ultimate authority. This was supported by the
Divine Right of Kings theory which promoted the
idea that kings were responsible only to God.
Absolute kings regulated everything and sought
always to dominate the nobility and clergy.

Cardinal Richelieu

Regent the Louis XIII. Subordinated all groups

and institutions to the monarchy. Crushed the
Huguenot Revolt of 1625 and destroyed fortified
cities and defeated the private armies of nobility.
Joined with Sweden during the final phase of the
Thirty Years' War.

French Finances

Always the weakest part of the government.

Kings continued to refused to tax the nobility.

Mazarin

Regent to Louis XIV. Continued the centralizing

policies of Richelieu and put down and
aristocratic uprising called the fronde.

Louis XIV

The Grand Monarch or Sun King. Longest sitting king in

history. Divine rightist who revoked the Edict of Nantes
because it required toleration of heretics. Built up the court
at Versailles and eventually moved the entire government
there in order to overall weaken his opponents. Ruled the
use of intendants who represented him to the people.

French Classicalism

A return to the classical styles of Greece and

Rome. Many mythological themes.

The War of Devolution

One of Louis' wars. Fought over the control of the Spanish

Netherlands. Luis assumed that since he was married to the
sister of the king of Spain, that he would inherit the
Netherlands. He couldn't wait fot eh death of Charles II and
marched troops into what is now Belgium. He was opposed
by William II of Orange, Stadtholder to Holland.

The Dutch War

One of Louis' wars. Opposed by and alliance of

several states led by William III, Louis conquest
was limited to Alsace and the Frache-Compte by
the Treaty of Nijmegen.

The Chambres d' Reunion

Louis marched into several western German

areas and claimed their return to France even
thought they had never belonged. The
Germanies were distracted by the invasion of
Austria by the Turks and offered no resistance.

The War of the League of Augsburg

A powerful alliance faced Louis attacks along the

Rhine and this war of 11 years ended with no
gains or loses for either side.

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713)

Charles II of Spain died, leaving a will naming the grandson of Louis as heir
to the throne of Spain. Louis accepted the will and war broke out. The Grand
Alliance of England, Holland, Prussia, and Austria faced France, Spain and
Bavaria. The Treaty of Utrecht ended this war with victory fir the Grand
Alliance. Britain was the big winner. They gained Gibraltar, Minorca, Nova
Scotia, Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay territory. Austria gained the
Spanish Netherlands, and the territories in Northern Italy. The war ended the
French Expansionism and left France practically bankrupt and on the verge
of revolt.

Constitutionalism

Limitation of the state by law. The state much be

governed by law and not royal decree.
Constitutions may be written or not but must be
respected by governments. Constitutional
governments may be either republics or
monarchies.

James I of England

(James VI of Scotland) First of the Stuart Kings

who succeeded Elizabeth but was viewed as a
foreigner by his English subjects. Divine Rightist
and a poor manager of money. Possibly a secret
Catholic.

Puritans

English Calvinists who opposed even the

appearance of Catholicism. Hard working and
thrifty, they dominated parliament.

Charles I

Tried to bring absolutism to England by attempts

to control parliament. His quarrels with
parliament led to civil war. His attempts to bring
foreign help to his side would lead to his
execution after his defeat.

Archbishop Laud

Attempted to force the Common Book of Prayer

on Scotland, leading to a revolt there. His
pro-Catholic appearance made him an enemy of
parliament.

Oliver Cromwell

Puritan leader of parliament. Led the forces of

parliament in a successful civil war against the
crown. Ruled England under the government
name of "the Protectorate" which was actually a
military dictatorship. Known as Lord Protector of
England.

Instrument of Government

England's only written constitution.

The Commonwealth

A government without a king with power resting

in Parliament.

The Restoration (1660)

With the death of Cromwell, parliament invited

the return of the Stuart kings. Charles II, a
brother to Charles I, was careful not to provoke
parliament.

Test Act

Required all who held government office to be

members of the Anglican Church.

Cabal

A council of five men who served as advisors to

the king and members of parliament. The
forerunner of the modern cabinet system.

James II

Was a Catholic and ignored the test act by

appointing Catholics to office. Defeated at the
Battle of the River Boyne, James fled again to
France. Mary Stuart ot Mary II (James' daughter,
but a protestant) was invited along with her
husband. William III of Orange to replace her
father. Later died of smallpox.

William III of Orange

Stadholder of Holland and husband to Mary

Stuart. Accepted the invitation to become king of
England and become William I of England.

Glorious Revolution

Event including the ousting of James II and the

installation of William and Mary as monarchs of
England. Established parliament as the
undisputed head of government in England.

The Bill of Rights of 1689

Guaranteed the rights of parliament to make

laws for England.

John Locke

Governments are established to protect the

natural rights of citizens. He identified these
rights as "life, liberty, and property."

Sefdom

Hereditary subjection. Serfs belonged to the land

on which they labored and could not leave. Serfs
were bought and sold with the land.

Robot

Days of labor during which serfs could be

required to work without pay.

Suleman the Magnificent

Sultan of the Ottoman Turls who fought Austria

for control of Hangay. Besieged Vienna but was
defeated. This started the decline of the Ottoman
Empire.

Prince Eugene of Savoy

A French international who reformed and

modernized the armies of Austria. The father of
modern Austria who broke the Turkish seige of
Vienna.

Pragmatic Sanction

A declaration that the various possessions of

Austria never be divided.

Maygyar

The ethnic identity of the Hungarians.

Hohenzollern Family

Royal family of Brandonburg and later of Prussia.

Frederick William (The Great Elector)

Buolt Brandenburg/Prussia into a strone stae.

Frederick I

Built up the military of Prussia unto the finwst

army in Europe. Developed the Junkers into a
military rule.

Frederick William I

The Soldiers King. Doubled the size of Prussia's

army and modernized it. Built up a reserve of
money to be used in the event of war. Harsh and
cruel father but beloved by his army. Carefully
kept his trops out of combat.

Junkers

Prussian Nobility

Mongols

Nomadic tribesmen from Asia who gained control

of the Russians in the thirteenth century. Ruled
Russia by using Russian nobility to do their tax
collections.

Princes of Moscow

Servants of the Mongols who used their wealth

to strengthen their positions.

Ivan III (The Great)

Broke with the Mongols.

Tsar

Means Caesar and is the word for the leader of

Russia.

Boyar

Russian Nobility

Ivan the Terrible

Expanded Muscovy and weakened the boyar.

Cossacks

Those who fled to the countryside to get away

from Ivan. Over time proved troublesome to the
Tsars of Russia.

Time of Troubles (1598-1613)

With no heir to the throne, civil war broke out,

Poland and Sweden invaded, and Cossack's
slaughtered the rural nobility.

Michael Romanov

Elected by the nobility and restored tsarists

autocracy.

Old Believers

Opposed changes in the Bible and opposed and

increasing control in the state had over the
Russian Orthodox church

Peter the Great

Forced the westernization of Russia. Sought to

expand westward at the expense of Sweden.
Modernized the Russian army and navy and
gained access to the Baltic Sea and began
construction of a great city (St. Petersburg) on
the Baltic.

Royal Cities

Rulers throughout Europe built or rebuilt cities in

the Baroque style. This included broad, straight
boulevards, houses built in uniform style and
lone, parks, canals and streetlights with each
separate social group assigned to live in
difference sections of the city.

Aristotelian-Medieval view of teh universe

Geocentric with the planets and stars fixed to ten

crystalline orbs. Beyond the spheres was
heaven.

Copernican hypothesis

Heliocentric or centered.

Tycho Brahe

Built and observatory and collected vast amounts

of data.

John Kepler

Formulated the laws of planetary motion by

eliminating the idea of crystal orbs and
explaining the elliptical orbits of the planets.

Galileo

Used the experimental method to formulate the

laws of motion. Used the telescope to discover
the mass and form of the planets and sin.
Charged by the Inquisition of heresy, he
recanted his views on the universe.

Newton

Used mathematical laws to integrate the

astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the
physics of Galileo. Theory of universal
gravitation.

The Enlightenment

The fifty year period preceding the French Revolution in

which new ideas linked the scientific revolution a a new
view of the world. New ideas included: Natural science and
reason can explain all aspects of life. The scientific method
can explain the laws of human society. Progress--the
creation of better societies and better people--is possible.

Fontenelle

Stressed the idea of progress and doubted

absolute truth as represented by organized
religion.

Bayle

Wrote, "Thoughts on Comets" and other essays

demonstrating the tendency of people to over
believe.

Essay Concerning Human Understanding

John Locke insisted that all ideas drive from

experience and humans at birth are like a clank
tablet (tabula rosa)

Philisophes

Publicized the thoughts of the enlightenment for

the benefit of the common man. Ideas centered
on the carious aspects of Liberty.

Montesquieu

A philosopher with the idea of separation of

powers.

Voltaire

Philosopher. Opposed intolerance of any kind

and suggested that eh chief proponent of
intolerance was organized religion. Promoted
that idea of freedom of thought as expressed in
the arts and letters. Most popular of French
philosophers because of his wit and sarcasm.

Diderot and d'Alembert

Edited Edited the Encyclopedia, in an attempt to

examine all human knowledge.

Rousseau

Of lower class origin, he attacked rationalism and

civilization. Argued the children must develop
naturally, and in the Social Contract, argued the
general will of the people is sacred and absolute.

Literacy Explosion

People sought to become literate in order to

keep up with all of the new learning of the period.
Emphasis on individual and private reading.

Salons

Clubs formed for the purpose of sharting the new

ideas of the day. Often presided over by women.

Enlightenment and Absolutism

Many philosophers felt the change must come

from above. A general distrust of the masses.

Enlightened Despots

Leaders of nations who sought to reform their

nations in offer to further strengthen them.
Differed from earlier rulers in attitude and tempo.

Frederick II (The Great)

Seized Silesia from Austria in the War of the Austrian

Succession (1740-1748) and defended Prussia from
Austria, France and Russia in the 7 years' war.
(1756-1763). Promoted religious toleration, promoted
education, legal reform and economic growth but made no
attempt to reform Prussia's social structure which provided
the army with officers from the junker class and infantry.

Catherine II (The Great)

Wanted to introduce enlightened reforms to

Russia but reversed this trend because of the
great serf uprising lead by Pugachev. Following
her victory, she clamped down on serfdom as
never before. Embarked on a program of
territorial expansion and, along with Austria and
Prussia, divided up Poland.

Maria Theresa

Launched the Seven Years' War against Prussia in an

attempt to regain Silesia. Ruled wisely through a carefully
selected bureaucracy, reduced the power of the church,
revised the tax system, and reduced the power of the
aristocracy over the serfs. Never promoted the idea of
religious toleration and therefore fell short of the definition of
enlightened despot.

Joseph II

Son of Maria Theresa. Was the definition of an enlightened

despot. Ordered absolute toleration of all religions, taxed all
equally, demanded equality in the judicial system, reduced
the severity of punishment for crimes, taxed the church and
built schools and hospitals with the money, allowed freedom
of the press, and created a secret police force to insure that
his reforms were enacted. Was opposed by all for his
reforms and they did not last past his death.

Parlement of Paris

Like a supreme court, the Parlement claimed the

right to declare the king's edicts legal or not.
Gained much power during the reign of Louis
XV.

Maupeou Parlement

Chief minister to Louis XV. Abolished the

Parliament of Paris and reorganized it with
reduced powers.

Louis XV

Great Grandson of Louis XIV. Saw the return to

power of the nobility but made efforts thought
Maupeou to reduce them. Foresaw the revolution
with his comment, "After me, the deluge!" Died of
smallpox.

Open field system

Medieval farming system with fields divided into

long, narrow rows.

Fallow Fields

Portions of the open fields allowed to go to

weeks in order to rejuvenate the soil.

Common lands

Fields set aside for community use.

Crop rotation

By alternating certain crops that replaced nitrogen into the

soil, the fallow fields could be put into production. This
increased crop production by about 1/3. This meant more
food for people and fodder for animals which increased the
supplt of animal fertilizer and the number of animals
available for work on the farms.

Enclosure

Crop rotation required that the fields be fenced or

enclosed. The common lands were also
enclosed at this time. The process was slow but
the result was increased yield per acre and a
significant increase in the food supply.

Low countries

Name often given to the Netherlands and

Belgium, leaders in intensive agriculture and land
reclamation.

Vermuyden

Dutch reclamation engineer who helped England

drain swamps and marshes.

Townsend

Advocated the cultivation of turnips as a means

to rejuvenate the soil while providing nutrition for
a growing population.

Jethro Tull

Advocate for the use of horses and see drills.

Population Explosion

A dramatic reduction in the death rate do to the

disappearance of the plague and an increase in
the amount of food led to a sharp increase in
population.

Cottage Industry

The rural poor took to manufacturing in order to

supplement income. They worked in the home
and produced items for sale.

Putting out system

Early cottage industry system that called for an

entrepreneur or enterprising businessman to
invest in several looms and numerous spinning
wheels to take our to the cottages and set up a
manufacturing operation. He would supply the
raw materials and pick up the finished products.
This system worked best in cloth manufacturing.

"Holy Monday"

Workers in the putting out system usually took

Monday off and worked hard and fast the rest of
the week to meet their quota.

Mercantilism

Economic regulations aimed at increasing the

power of the state, particularly by creating a
favorable balance of trade. Export more than you
import, especially finished products. Import only
the raw materials that you must. Collect colonies
to provide captive sources of resources and
captive markets.

Navigation Acts

Required that all goods traded with England be

carried on British ships. Aimed particularly at the
Dutch, who's chief economy was ocean
transport.

Adam Smith

Scottish professor who founded modern

economics through his general idea of freedom
of enterprise in foreign trade. Opposed
mercantilism. Promoted the idea that the pursuit
of self interest would benefit all in the system,
even workers and the poor.

Seven Years' War

France loses all of its possessions in North

America (Canada) and its influence in India. A
blow to France's mercatilist ambitions.

Nuclear Family

When the children marry, they move from the

home of their parents ad form new, independent,
family units. For mutual security reason, the
move was usually not far.

Extended Family

Members of a family stay together under the

same roof even with the marriage rates very
high.

Pre-Enlightenment childhoon

Dangerous due to adult indifference, neglect and

abuse. Infant mortality rates very high.

Infanticide

The killing of children, usually for economic

reasons.

Foundling Hospitals

One remedy for the abandonment of children but

insufficient due to the large numbers involved.
Some hospitals took in as many as 25,000
children. Mortality rates at around 50%.

Reusseau

His call for reform and love and understanding of

children led to revolutionary changes.

Popular Education

Education of all children, regardless of class.

Prussia under Frederick II led the way in
universal education.

Diet and Health

The poor ate mostly grains and vegetables and

therefore ate a more balanced diet than did the
rich. The wealthy ate food that were too rich,
mostly red meats and wine.

Montague and Jenner

Pioneers in the field of immunology. Developed

inoculations for smallpox.

John Wesley

Founded Methodism which rejected

predestination and stressed salvation by faith.

Liberty

In the 18th century, meant human rights and

freedoms and the sovereignty of the people.
Citizen's rights only limited by the rights of
others.

Liberalism

Attractive to the prosperous, wee-educated

elites, was founded in the Enlightenment's
concern for freedom and legal equality. Favored
parliaments and constitutions and economic
policies based on Adam Smith's free-enterprise.

The Old Regime

Reference to the French political system prior to

1789

The Three Estates

Out-dated and unfair social and political division

that led to great dissatisfaction especially among
those without privilege.

The First Estate

100,000 members of the Clergy

The Second Estate

400,000 members of the noble class. Strong

political influence and privileges dating back to
the middle ages.

The Estates General

France's version of a parliament. Last met under the reign

of Henry IV and even then, just long enough to disband.
French kings had ruled as absolute monarchs from that
time. When the Estates General did meet, it had met on the
idea that each of the three estates would vote on issues
with one vote for each state. Since the first and second
estates were closely allied, there was no hope for the third
estate to enact reform.

French Finances

Always the weakness of the French Government.

The monarch's refusal to tax the privileged
classes meant oppressive taxes on the third
estate and a shortfall in revenues.

Assembly of Notables

Along with the Parlement of Paris, opposed

Louis XVI's plan to reform the tax structure and
involve the nobility. Called for a meeting of the
Estates General.

National Assembly

The failure of the three estates to agree on the

constitution of the Estates General led to the
third estate separating and reforming on a
nearby tennis court. The National Assembly
would become the revolutionary government as
they formed a Constituent Assembly to write a
constitution.

The Oath of the Tennis Court

A vow by the delegates of the third estate to

never disband until a constitution had been
written and a constitutional monarchy had been
established.

Financial Crisis of 1788-1789

Inflation caused the price of break and all other

commodities to rise, causing severe hardship on
the poor. A bad harvest and business depression
added to the crisis. The government was unable
to provide any relief due to its bankrupt position.

The Great Fear

Bands of desperate person roamed the

countryside looking for food. They caused much
concern and fear in the villages and towns,
causing the populous to seek weapons for self
defense.

The Storming of the Bastille July 14th, 1789

Angry Parisions stormed the Bastille in search of

weapons to defend themselves from lawless
elements and from possibly the kings army. This
mass uprising save the National Convention.

March on Versailles

A mob of mostly women marched to Versailles

and forced the royal family to move to Paris.
Along with the monarchy, the National Assembly
relocated to the city.

Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen

Declared equality before the law and

representative government.

The Night of August 4th

The nobility was abolished as a separate legal

order.

Reforms of the National Assembly

All lawmaking power in the hands of the National

Assembly, provinces replaced by 83
departments, metric system introduced.