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Distributed Generation
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ABSTRACT
This paper describes the performance of the network of a typical future residential
concept area, as has been studied in the Intelligent E-Transportation Management
project. Several scenarios have been elaborated by load flow simulations. The study
investigated what level of introduction of electric vehicles, heat pumps, photovoltaic
systems and micro- combined heat and power plants is feasible in this network. Possible
overload situations are examined and the opportunities of demand side management for
the power grid are investigated. In general load-flow simulations show that transformer
overloads will occur when electric heat pumps and electric vehicles are introduced
together in this specific grid. In that case extension of the grid or of the transformer
capacity is necessary. Alternatively, demand side management can be applied
successfully to mitigate the overload.
1. INTRODUCTION
The ITM-project (Intelligent E-transportation Management) aims at developing network
management concepts and specifications for controling the increasing power fluctuations
in the electricity network. Fluctuations are introduced into the grid by largescale
introduction of electric vehicles (EVs), electric heat pumps (HPs), photovoltaic (PV)
systems and micro-combined heat and power plants (μCHP). On the one hand PV
systems and μCHP plants impact the power generation. Especially the supply by PV
systems is intermittent: depending on weather conditions and day-night profile. On the
other hand EVs and HPs demand significant amounts of extra electricity. Interestingly
this power demand can be externally managed. Charging of EVs can be arranged during
the night when the car is connected to the grid. The power demand of HPs can be
controled since the heat capacity of the buildings can serve as a heat buffer. The ITM
project examines the possibilities to use demand side management (DSM) of EVs and
HPs for increased power balance in the electricity grid.
2. BACKGROUND
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Intelligent E-Transportation Management
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25 x B 10 x B
25 x C 10 x C
Shop
12 x C
5xA
5xB
60 x F
20 x A
MV/LV
40x G
5xA
5xE 10 x E
10 x E 60x H
School
The Meekspolder consists of single houses, apartments buildings, a shopping center and
a school. The area was designed for various studies of future electric grids and the ITM
project uses this model to allow comparison of results from different projects. The
distribution network of the Meekspolder is well defined and prepared for future situations.
Details of the Meekspolder area and its basic electricity demand are given in Table 1.
The total annual electricity demand of the Meekspolder is 1604 MWh, providing there are
no electric cars, no electric heat pumps, no photovoltaic generation nor micro-combined
heat and power plants.
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Table 2 summarises the heat demand of the Meekspolder for central heating and tap
water heating. In the case of central heating there is a distinction between residences
with moderate thermal insulation and with good thermal insulation. The heat demand of
the school and the shopping center for central heating and tap water heating is not taken
into account in this study.
Table 2 Heat demand for central heating and tap water heating for residences with
moderate and with good thermal insulation
The total annual heat demand of the Meekspolder is 2651 MWh in case of residences
with good insulation and 3382 MWh in case of residences with moderate insulation.
Traditionally, this heat demand is supplied by gas. In addition, this study examines
several cases in which heating is supplied by an electric heat pump.
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Table 3 Electricity for heat demand of residences with moderate and good thermal
insulation supplied by electric heat pumps assuming a Coefficient of Performance of 4
electric vehicles
total power
total energy demand during
percentage number demand/yr charging
[MWh/yr] [kW]
20% 105 268 245
40% 210 537 489
50% 263 671 613
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PV
annual
energy
PV system generation
[kWp] [MWh/yr]
houses 366 -256
shop/school 250 -175
Table 6 Electricity generation by mCHP for residences with moderate and good thermal
insulation
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3. RESULTS
This chapter describes the results of the load flow simulations. All numeric data are listed
in Table 8.
Case 0
In Case 0 there are no heat pumps (HP), no electric vehicles (EV), no photovoltaic
generation (PV) and no micro-combined heat and power generation (μCHP). Only the
basic electricity demand of the Meekspolder is considered. The external energy supply
equals 1632 MWh per year for this base scenario. This is only 30% of the maximum
transformer loading available (5534 MWh), indicating that the transformer has more than
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Case 0: no HP, no
Scenario EV,
0: No HP,no EV no mCHP
NoPV,
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Case 1
In Case 1 every residence has a heat pump (HP), but there are no electric vehicles (EV),
no photovoltaic generation (PV) and no micro-combined heat and power generation
(μCHP). In this case the total annual electricity demand of the Meekspolder is 2263 MWh
in case of residences with good insulation and 2450 MWh in case of residences with
moderate insulation (see Table 8). Figure 3 shows the transformer loading per hour
during one week in each season for Case 1 with houses with moderate thermal
insulation. The maximum transformer loading per hour (i.e. peak load) increased up to
81% for houses with moderate insulation. This means that Demand Side Management is
not necessary for Case 1 in which every residence has a HP.
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Figure 3 Transformer loading per hour during one week in each season, Case 1: houses
with moderate thermal insulation
Case 2
In Case 2 every residence has a heat pump (HP) and a fraction of the cars in the
Meekspolder is electric vehicle (EV). There is no photovoltaic generation (PV) and no
micro-combined heat and power generation (μCHP). Figure 4 shows the transformer
loading per hour during one week in winter for Case 2 with houses with moderate thermal
insulation as function of percentage EV.
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Transformer Loading (%)
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40 50% EV
40% EV
20 20% EV
No EV
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Figure 4 Transformer loading per hour during one week in winter, Case 2: houses with
moderate thermal insulation, with different amounts of EVs. The curve ‘No EV’ is the
same as in Case 1.
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In this case several problems can be identified in the grid (see Table 8). In all sub-cases
(20, 40, 50% EV) there is a transformer overload in winter both for residences with
moderate and good thermal insulation, as can be seen in Table 8. That is because the
charging of EVs happens in the evening on top of the maximum load in winter. In addition
the maximum cable loading is above 100% in the case of 50% EV for residences both
with moderate and good thermal insulation. This results in 2 feeders with overloads per
year. It is noteworthy that in this study the difference in thermal insulation hardly influence
the simulation results.
DSM has been applied to mitigate the overload. The hourly transformer is set at a limiting
value of 100%. Numeric simulation results are presented in Table 8. Figure 5 shows the
results for Case 2 with houses with moderate thermal insulation, with 50% EVs, with and
without DMS. Indeed, DSM solves the grid problems by shifting the overloads to loading
valleys.
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Transformer load (%)
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Figure 5 Transformer loading per hour during one week in winter, Case 2: 50% of EVs,
residences with moderate thermal insulation, with and without DSM.
Case 3
In Case 3 every residence has a HP, a fraction of the cars is EV and there is no μCHP.
Moreover, each house has a photovoltaic generation (PV) of 2 kWp and the school and
shops have a total PV output of 250 kWp. The total decentralized generation by the PV
systems in the Meekspolder equals 436 MWh/year. However, the number of overloads in
Case 2 (without PV) and Case 3 (with PV) are equal since the peak demand does not
coincide with the PV generation profile: the maximum peak demand occurs in winter
evenings when the sun does not shine. This can be seen in Figure 6 showing the
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transformer loading per hour during one week in winter for Case 3 for houses with
moderate thermal insulation and 50% of EVs. Figure 6 also shows that DSM can be
applied to balance the overloads.
150 Case
Case 43 PV
Case
Case 11 No EV,no
no EV, NoPVPV
Transformer Loading (%)
Case 43 PV
Case PV with
withDSM
DSM
Solar PV
Solar
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Figure 6 Transformer loading per hour during one week in winter, Case 3: 50% of EVs,
residences with moderate thermal insulation, with and without DSM.
Depending on PV power generation every now and then the generation in the
Meekspolder is larger than the demand, so power is fed back to the external 10 kV grid.
This occurs mainly in summer, occasionally in spring and in autumn and is shown in
Figure 7. It would be good to store this extra energy in the Meekspolder. However, this
cannot be done in the electric vehicles because it is assumed that all cars are out of the
Meekspolder during the day.
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Case43 PV
PV
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Case11 No EV no
no EV, NoPV
PV
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Case PV with
DSMDSM
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Figure 7 Transformer loading per hour during one week in summer, Case 3, residences
with moderate thermal insulation, 50% of EV, with and without DSM. During the day, the
PV generation is higher than the total demand, so power is flowing back from the
Meekspolder into the external grid.
Case 4
In Case 4 every residence has a micro-combined heat and power generation system
(mCHP). There is no HP or PV. A fraction of the cars consists of EV. The total energy
demand is lower than in Case 2 due to the absence of HP. The total decentralized
generation by the mCHP systems in Meekspolder equals 675 MWh/year for residences
with moderate thermal insulation and 530 MWh/year for residences with good thermal
insulation. Consequently, the external energy supply is much less than in Case 2.
Because of the lower demand and the mCHP generation the grid is less vulnerable than
in Case 2. Still some transformer overloads occur with 40 and 50% Evs (see Table 8).
These overloads can be mitigated with DSM as is shown in Figure 8.
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Transformer Loading (%)
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Case mCHP, no DSM
Case55:uCHP
80 EV, EV, no mCHP, all HP
No2:uCHP
Case
Case mCHP w/DSM
Case55:uCHP with DSM
60 mCHP
u-CHP
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Figure 8 Transformer loading per hour during one week in winter, Case 4, with 50% of
EVs, residences with moderate thermal insulatution, with and without DSM.
The surplus of decentrally generated power by the mCHP generation is fed back to the
10 kV grid through the transformer. Since this generation peak is in the night the surplus
can be used for EV battery charging.
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Nowadays, existing electricity networks encounter problems with large scale integration
of electric heat pumps. In future the electricity networks also have to accomodate large
scale implementation of electric vehicles, photovoltaic systems and micro-combined heat
and power plants. This means that the electricity grid has to be adapted to match future
demand and supply.
In the ITM project, a future residential area, called the Meekspolder is considered. Load
flow simulations show that the grid-design of the Meekspolder is stronger than existing
networks. Even when all residences are provided with an electric heat pump no
overloads are observed. However, additional penetration of electric vehicles can not be
accommodated by the grid. Even when only 20% of all available cars are electric vehicles
overloads are observed. The main problem is in the transformer; the cables and feeders
are less vulnerable. This accounts both for residences with good and moderate thermal
insulation.
Distributed generation by photovoltaic systems can not balance the electricity demand of
electric vehicles because the demand and generation do not coincide in time. That
explains why the amount of overloads in Case 2 (all HP; EV and no PV) and Case 3 (all
HP; EV and PV) is identical. The generation by micro-combined heat and power plants is
mainly in the evening when electric vehicles are being charged. Therefore, there are far
less overloads in Case 5 (no HP; EV and all mCHP) compared to Case 2 (all HP; EV and
no mCHP). Evidently the combination of micro-combined heat and power plants with
electric vehicles is more appropriate than that of photovoltaic systems and electric
vehicles.
The load flow simulations in Case 2, 3 and 5 show that the electricity grid has to be
strengthened when electric heat pumps and electric vehicles or micro-combined heat and
power plants and electric vehicles are introduced on large scales. Alternatively, it has
been demonstrated that demand side management can solve the transformer overloads.
The simulations show that demand side management stabilises the grid by limiting the
hourly transformer load to 100%. This less expensive solution can be applied for electric
heat pumps because of heat storage in the residence itself. Additionally, demand side
management can be applied for charging of electric vehicles because charging can be
spread out during the night.
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Again it is emphasized that the electricity grid design of the Meekspolder is not
representative for currently existing sub-urban grids. The results of this ITM project based
on the Meekspolder give an indication of requirements for the electricity grid in the future
when
electric vehicles, electric heat pumps, photovoltaic systems and micro-combined heat
and power plants are largely implemented in the grid.
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