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TELEVISION AND VIDEO ENGINEERING
UNIT-1
FUNDAMENTALS OF TELEVISION
SYLLABUS
scanning process
video signals
characteristics of human eye
brightness perception and Photometric qualities
Aspect ratio and Rectangular scanning
persistence of vision and flicker
vertical resolution
Kell factor
Horizontal Resolution and video bandwidth
Interlaced scanning
Camera tubes
camera lenses
auto focus systems
camera pick-up devices
Image orthicon
vidicon
plumbicon
silicon diode array vidicon
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Television System and scanning Principles: Sound and picture transmission
CCDsolid state image scanners
Comparison of Camera tubes
camera tube deflection unit
color television signals and systems
1.1 TELEVISION SYSTEM AND SCANNING PRINCIPLES

A television system is a Canadian term for a group of television stations which
share common ownership, branding, and programming, but are not legally considered a
full television network. Systems may be informally referred to as networks by some
people, but are not true networks under current Canadian broadcasting regulations.
Systems are differentiated from networks primarily by their less extensive service area
while a network will serve most Canadian broadcast markets in some form, a system will
typically serve only a few markets. As well, a system may or may not offer some classes
of programming, such as a national newscast, which are typically provided by a network.
Television systems should not be confused with twinsticks, although some individual
stations might be part of both types of operations simultaneously.
1.2 SCANNING PROCESS
video processing of camera signals
Fig: 1.1
The scanning technique is simillar to reading and writing information on a page,

starting at top left and processing to end at right bottom.
The scanning is done by line by line.
Horizontal scanning from left to right at fast rate and vertically from top to bottom
at slow rate.
The retrace and trace period obtained during scanning of lines.
The retrace of beam is very fast compared to forward scan by cutting off the beam
during horizontal and vertical flyback intervals.
1.3 VIDEO SIGNALS
Camera signal corresponding to picture or scene is transmitted.
Blanking pulses to make horizontal and vertical retrace as invisible.
Sync pulses to synchronize the transmitter and receiver scanning system.
Information about some color signal and some sample of color sub-carrier frequency.
Fig: 1.2
1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN EYE
Formulating therequirements of camera tube scanning and reproducing system, this

must considered.
Characteristics are
1. Visual activity-resolving fine details in picture

2. Persistence of vision
3. Brightness and color sensation.
Fig: 1.3
Fig:1.4
1.5 BRIGHTNESS PERCEPTION AND PHOTOMETRIC
brightness - the apparent luminance of a patch in an image.
Lightness - apparent reflectance of a perceived surface. the perceived light level of a

patch relative to other patches in the same image.
1.5.1 Photometric Measurements

Quantitative determinations of the values of quantities characterizing optical radiation
OR such optical properties of materials as transparency and reflectivity. Photometric
measurements can be made with instruments that contain optical detectors. In the simplest
cases in the visible light range, the human eye is used as a detector in evaluating photometric
quantities.
Table 1. Principal photometric qualities
Quantity
Symbol Defining
Unit
equation
Luminous flux
Luminous energy
Luminous intensity (of a light l
Name
Symbol
lumen
lm
Q = vdt
lumen-second
lm-s
l=d v/d
candela
cd
K = v/e
lumen per watt
lm/w
source in some direction) .

Luminous
efficacy
of
radiant K
power
QUALITIES
Table 1. Principal photometric qualities
Quantity
Symbol Defining
Unit
equation
Symbol
Luminance (at a given point and in L
candela per square meter cd/m2
a given direction)
(formerly, nit) lux
Illuminance (at a point of a E
E = dv/dA
lux
lx
M=dv/dA
lumen per square meter
lm/m2
surface).
Luminous exitance
Exposure
(quantity
of H
illumination).
lx-s
dt
Luminous pulse remittance
Spectral
H=dQ/dA = E lux-second
concentration
of
a X
=ldt
candale-section
cd-s
X = dx/d
photometric quantity
1.6 ASPECT RATIO AND RECTANGULAR SCANNING

1.6.1 ASPECT RATIO
The aspect ratio of an image is the ratio of the width of the image to its height,
expressed as two numbers separated by a colon. That is, for an x:y aspect ratio, no matter
how big or small the image is, if the width is divided into x units of equal length and the
height is measured using this same length unit, the height will be measured to be y units.
For example, consider a group of images, all with an aspect ratio of 16:9. One image is
Name
16 inches wide and 9 inches high. Another image is 16 centimeters wide and 9
centimeters high. A third is 8 yards wide and 4.5 yards high. Two dimensional sector
scanning which a slow sector scanning section is superimposed on a rapid sector in a
scanning perpendicular direction.
Rectangular or Progressive scanning, as opposed to interlaced, scans the

entire picture line by line every sixteenth of a second. In other words, captured
images are not split into separate fields like in interlaced scanning. Computer
monitors do not need interlace to show the picture on the screen. It puts them
on one line at a time in perfect order i.e. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 etc. so there is
virtually no "flickering" effect. As such, in a surveillance application, it can be
critical in viewing detail within a moving image such as a person running away.
However, a high quality monitor is required to get the best out of this type of
scan.
Example: Capturing moving objects

When a camera captures a moving object, the sharpness of the frozen
image will depend on the technology used. Compare these JPEG images, captured by
three different cameras using progressive scan, 4CIF interlaced scan and 2CIF
respectively.
1.7 PERSISTENCE OF VISION AND FLICKER
1.6.2 RECTANGULAR SCANNING
The rate of 24 pictures/sec in motion pictures and scanning of 25 frames/sec in TV

pictures is enough to cause image continuity.
They are not enough to allow brightness of 1 frame to blend smoothly into next through
the time, when the screen is blanked between suceesive frames.
This results in FLICKER of light that is annoying to observer when the screen is made
This problem is solved in motion pictures by showing a picture twice, so 48 views of

scene are shown per second. Although the same 24 pictures frame per second.
1.9 KELL FACTOR

The Kell factor, named after RCA engineer Raymond D. Kell, is a parameter
used to limit the bandwidth of a sampled image signal to avoid the appearance of beat
frequency patterns when displaying the image in a discrete display devices, usually taken
to be 0.7. The number was first measured in 1934 by Raymond D. Kell and his associates
as 0.64 but has suffered several revisions given that it is based on image perception,
hence subjective, and is not independent of the type of display. It was later revised to
0.85 but can go higher than 0.9, when fixed pixel scanning (e.g., CCD or CMOS) and
fixed pixel displays (e.g., LCD or plasma) are used, or as low as 0.7 for electron gun
scanning.
From a different perspective, the Kell factor defines the effective resolution
of a discrete display device since the full resolution cannot be used without viewing
experience degradation. The actual sampled resolution will depend on the spot size and
intensity distribution. For electron gun scanning systems, the spot usually has a Gaussian
intensity distribution. For CCDs, the distribution is somewhat rectangular, and is also
affected by the sampling grid and inter-pixel spacing.
Kell factor is sometimes incorrectly stated to exist to account for the effects
of interlacing. Interlacing itself does not affect Kell factor, but because interlaced video
alternately bright and dark.
must be low-pass filtered (i.e., blurred) in the vertical dimension to avoid spatio-temporal
aliasing (i.e., flickering effects), the Kell factor of interlaced video is said to be about
70% that of progressive video with the same scan line resolution.
1.10 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION

from left to right across the screen - BUT Counted from Top to Bottom, or Vertically. This
number is set by the NTSC TV 'Standard' .This Vertical Resolution number is static - it doesn't
change. Therefore, the Vertical Resolution is the same for ALL TV's manufactured to meet a
specified Standard.
The horizontal resolution of television, and other video displays, is dependent

upon the quality of the video signal's source. As an example - the horizontal resolution of
VHS tape is (about) 240 lines; broadcast TV (about) 330 lines, laserdisc (about) 420
lines; and DVD (about) 480 lines.
To avoid getting entangled too deeply within the inherent complexities of TV
technology, it's sufficient to note that there are a number of variables contributing to the
'stated' horizontal resolution value. Even the measurement methods are not always consistent.
For instance - how the vertical columns (dots/dashes) are counted ... as single black / white
(dark and light) lines, or as "line pairs - (1) black and (1) white line."
A TV's resolution can be reported as the result of counting the total number of picture
elements (pixels) per scan line, across the entire screen-width, multiplied by the total number of
scan lines. However, TV screen-sizes vary, making an equal comparison of different displays
more complex. TV's also differ technically, functionally and in component quality; this results in
additional complications.
An alternative method is to count the number of pixels that fit within a prescribed
circle, having a diameter equal to the screen height. Known as LPH - Lines per Picture
Height - this is the 'correct' method in determining TV resolution.
The "vertical resolution" of NTSC TV refers to the total number of lines (rows) scanned
As this shows, along with other, similar variables, the accuracy of a 'stated'
horizontal resolution for a particular display, may depend on who is doing the 'stating' .
However, for the purpose of this overview of HDTV-Resolution, the primary point
regarding horizontal resolution, is that it is variable. Unlike vertical resolution which is
1.11 VIDEO BANDWIDTH

BWS = 1/2 [(K AR (VLT) FR) (KH / KV)]
Where:
BWS = Total signal bandwidth
K = Kell factor
AR = Aspect ratio (the width of the display divided by the height of the display)
VLT = Total number of vertical scan lines
FR = Frame rate or refresh rate
KH = Ratio of total horizontal pixels to active pixels
KV = Ratio of total vertical lines to active lines

The circuits that process video signals need to have more bandwidth than the
actual bandwidth of the processed signal to minimize the degradation of the signal and the
resulting loss in picture quality. The amount the circuit bandwidth needs to exceed the highest
frequency in the signal is a function of the quality desired. To calculate this, we assume a singlepole response and use the following equation:
H(f)(dB) = 20log(1/(1+(BWS/BW-3dB)).5)
Rearranging and solving for the -0.1dB and the -0.5dB attenuation points, we get the following:
BW-3dB min = BWS (-0.1db) 6.55
'fixed,' horizontal resolution can differ from one TV display to another.
BW-3dB-min = BWS(-0.5db) 2.86
Where:
A minimum bandwidth that's about six and a half times' the highest frequency in the
signal. If you can tolerate 0.5dB attenuation, it needs to be only about three times. To account
for normal variations in the bandwidth of integrated circuits, it is recommended that the results
from equations 3 and 4 be multiplied by a factor of 1.5. This will ensure that the attenuation
performance is met over worst-case conditions. In equation mode, it is expressed as follows:
BW-3dB nominal = BW-3dB-min 1.5
In addition to bandwidth, the circuits must slew fast enough to faithfully reproduce the video
signal. The equation for the minimum slew rate is as follows:
SRMIN = 2 pi BWS Vpeak
Substituting and simplifying,
SRMIN = BWS 6.386
This is because some distortion can occur as the frequency of the signal approaches the slewrate limit. This can introduce frequency distortion, which will degrade the picture quality.
Multiplying the equation 6 result by a factor of at least two or three will ensure that the
distortion is minimized.
In equation form:
SRnominal = SRMIN 2
As an example, let's assume we have a standard NTSC video signal and the following
requirements:
VLT = 525
TVL = 346
BW-3dB = the minimum -3db bandwidth required for the circuit
AR = 1.3333
KH = 1.17
FR = 29.94
Using equation 1, we calculate a maximum signal bandwidth (BWS) of about 4.2MHz. This is the
highest frequency in the signal. Now let's assume that we need less than 0.1dB attenuation.
Using equation 3, we calculate the minimum signal bandwidth necessary to be 27.5MHz. Using
equation 5, to account for variations, gives 41.3MHz. This is the circuit -3dB bandwidth required
to achieve our desired resolution and maintain the signal quality. The last calculation we need to
make for our example is the minimum slew-rate requirement. Using equations 6 and 7 and
plugging in the 4.2MHz value for BWS, we see that we will need at least a slew rate of 52V/s
and a more desirable value of 80V/s.
1.12 INTERLACED SCANNING

Interlaced scan-based images use techniques developed for Cathode Ray Tube
(CRT)-based TV monitor displays, made up of 576 visible horizontal lines across a
standard TV screen. Interlacing divides these into odd and even lines and then alternately
refreshes them at 30 frames per second. The slight delay between odd and even line
refreshes creates some distortion or 'jaggedness'. This is because only half the lines keeps
up with the moving image while the other half waits to be refreshed.
Fig: 1.5
KV = 1.09
The effects of interlacing can be somewhat compensated for by using de-interlacing. Deinterlacing is the process of converting interlaced video into a non-interlaced form, by
eliminating some jaggedness from the video for better viewing. This process is also
called line doubling. Some network video products, such as Axis video servers, integrate
a de-interlace filter which improves image quality in the highest resolution (4CIF). This
analog camera.
Interlaced scanning has served the analog camera, television and VHS video world very
well for many years, and is still the most suitable for certain applications. However, now
that display technology is changing with the advent of Liquid Crystal Display (LCD),
Thin Film Transistor (TFT)-based monitors, DVDs and digital cameras, an alternative
method of bringing the image to the screen, known as progressive scanning, has been
created.
1.13 CAMERA LENSES

1.13.1 Lens Focal Length
We define focal length as the distance from the optical center of the lens to the focal
plane (target or "chip") of the video camera when the lens is focused at infinity.
We consider any object in the far distance to be at infinity. On a camera lens the
symbol
(similar to an "8" on its side) indicates infinity.
Since the lens-to-target distance for most lenses increases when we focus the lens on
anything closer than infinity (see second illustration), we specify infinity as the standard
for focal length measurement.
Focal length is generally measured in millimeters. In the case of lenses with fixed focal
lengths, we can talk about a 10mm lens, a 20mm lens, a 100mm lens, etc. As we will see,
this designation tells a lot about how the lens will reproduce subject matter.
feature eliminates the motion blur problems caused by the analog video signal from the
Fig:1.6
1.13.2 Zoom and Prime Lenses

Zoom lenses came into common use in the early 1960s. Before then, TV cameras
used lenses of different focal lengths mounted on a turret on the front of the camera, as
shown on the right. The cameraperson rotated each lens into position and focused it when
the camera was not on the air.
Today, most video cameras use zoom lenses. Unlike the four lenses shown here, each of
which operate at only one focal length, the effective focal length of a zoom lens can be
continuously varied. This typically means that the lens can go from a wide-angle to a
telephoto perspective.
To make this possible, zoom lenses use numerous glass elements, each of which is
precisely ground, polished, and positioned. The space between these elements changes as
Fig: 1.7
With prime lenses, the focal length of the lens cannot be varied. It might seem that
we would be taking a step backwards to use a prime lens or a lens that operates at only
one focal length.
Not necessarily. Some professional videographers and directors of photography -especially those who have their roots in film -- feel prime lenses are more predictable in
their results. (Of course, it also depends on what you're used to using!)
Prime lenses also come in more specialized forms, for example, super wide angle, super
telephoto, and super fast (i.e., it transmits more light).
However, for normal work, zoom lenses are much easier and faster to use. The latest of
HDTV zoom lenses are extremely sharp -- almost as sharp as the best prime lenses.
1.13.3 Angle of View
the lens is zoomed in and out. (Note cutaway view on the right below.)
Angle of view is directly associated with
lens focal length. The longer the focal length (in
millimeters), the narrower the angle of view (in
degrees).
drawing on the left, which shows angles of view

for different prime lenses.
A telephoto lens (or a zoom lens operating at
maximum focal length) has a narrow angle of
view. Although there is no exact definition for a
"telephoto" designation, we would consider the
angles at the top of the drawing from about 3 to
10 degrees in the telephoto range.
The bottom of the drawing (from about 45 to 90
degrees) represents the wide-angle range.
The normal angle of view range lies between telephoto and wide angle.
With the camera in the same position, a short focal lens creates a wide view and a long
focal length creates an enlarged image in the camera.
1.14 AUTOFOCUS SYSTEMS
You can see this relationship by studying the
Fig:1.8
There are two main ways for cameras to focus automatically: contrast detection
and phase detection. The former uses data from the CCD or CMOS sensor and looks at
how sharp the resulting photograph would be. It's simple, but slow, as the camera has to
go through all of the possibilities until it finds one where the subject is clearly contrasted
from the background. The latter uses a tool that works like a rangefinder, which
accurately calculates the correction needed to get the subject in focus. It's fast, but
difficult to operate as the light coming into the lens needs to reach both the phase detector
and the sensor (or the film) at the same time. This has meant that phase detection has
traditionally been reserved for SLRs, which already have a mirror that sends the image to
the viewfinder. At the same time, a second mirror also sends it down to the phase
detector. While focussing is taking place, the sensor is covered by these mirrors, which
rules out video. SLRs that do shoot video fold their mirrors out of the way and rely on
the contrast detection found on ordinary compacts.
1.15 CAMERA PICK UP DEVICES
The scene of picture is focused with help of lens system on a photosensitive target near
The electrical state of each area varies with intensity of light.
The electrical response of each element is read of f with help of electron beam circuit
produce electrical pulses.
The target plate is held with electrical potential with respect to cathode of pick up
tubes.
The actyal beam varies in accordance with electrical state of picture element.
The beams scans the image horizontally by means of magnetic field setup by horizontal
deflection coil.
Similarly the beams scans the image vertically by means of magnetic field setup by
vertical deflection coil.
The scanning must done in fast speed over the changing or moving pictures.
1.16 IMAGE ORTHICON

1.16.1 INTRODUCTION
The image orthicon was common in American broadcasting from 1946 until
1968. A combination of the image dissector and the orthicon technologies, it replaced the
iconoscope and the orthicon, which required a great deal of light to work adequately.
While the iconoscope and the intermediate orthicon used capacitance
between a multitude of small but discrete light sensitive collectors and an isolated signal
plate for reading video information, the image orthicon employed direct charge readings
from a continuous electronically charged collector. The resultant signal was immune to
most extraneous signal "crosstalk" from other parts of the target, and could yield
extremely detailed images. For instance, image orthicon cameras were used for capturing
a pickup tube.
Apollo/Saturn rockets nearing orbit after the networks had phased them out, as only they
could provide sufficient detail.
An image orthicon camera can take television pictures by candlelight because
of the more ordered light-sensitive area and the presence of an electron multiplier at the
light sensitivity curve similar to the human eye. However, it tends to flare in bright light,
causing a dark halo to be seen around the object; this anomaly is referred to as
"blooming" in the broadcast industry when image orthicon tubes were in operation.
Image orthicons were used extensively in the early color television cameras, where their
increased sensitivity was essential to overcome their very inefficient optical system.
Fig:1.9
1.16.2 OPERATION
An image orthicon consists of three parts: a photocathode with an image
store ("target"), a scanner that reads this image (an electron gun), and a multistage
electron multiplier.
base of the tube, which operated as a high-efficiency amplifier. It also has a logarithmic
In the image store, light falls upon the photocathode which is a photosensitive plate at a
very negative potential (approx. -600 V), and is converted into an electron image (a
principle borrowed from the image dissector). Once the image electrons reach the target,
they cause a "splash" of electrons by the effect of secondary emission. On average, each
image electron ejects several "splash" and these excess electrons are soaked up by the
charge on it in relation to the incident light in the photocathode. The result is an image
painted in positive charge, with the brightest portions having the largest positive charge.
A sharply focused beam of electrons (a cathode ray) is generated by the
electron gun at ground potential and accelerated by the anode around the gun at a high
positive voltage (approx. +1500 V). Once it exits the electron gun, its inertia makes the
beam move away from the dynode towards the back side of the target. At this point the
electrons lose speed and get deflected by the horizontal and vertical deflection coils,
effectively scanning the target. Thanks to the axial magnetic field of the focusing coil,
this deflection is not in a straight line, thus when the electrons reach the target they do so
perpendicularly avoiding a sideways component. The target is nearly at ground potential
with a small positive charge, thus when the electrons reach the target at low speed they
are absorbed without ejecting more electrons. This adds negative charge to the positive
charge until the region being scanned reaches some threshold negative charge, at which
point the scanning electrons are reflected by the negative potential rather than absorbed
(in this process the target recovers the electrons needed for the next scan). These reflected
electrons return down the cathode ray tube toward the first dynode of the electron
multiplier surrounding the electron gun which is at high potential. The number of
reflected electrons is a linear measure of the target's original positive charge, which, in
turn, is a measure of brightness.
Additional amplification is also performed via secondary emission in the
electron multiplier which consists of a stack of charged dynodes (pinwheel-like disks
surrounding the electron gun) in progressively higher potentials. As the returning electron
beam hits the first dynode, it ejects electrons similarly to the target; for each electron
striking a dynode, many are emitted. These secondary electrons are then drawn toward
positive mesh effectively removing electrons from the target and causing a positive
the next dynode at a higher potential, where the splashing continues for a number of
steps. Consider a single, highly energized electron hitting the first dynode, causing, say,
four electrons to be emitted and drawn towards the next dynode. Each of these might then
cause four each to be emitted. Thus, by the start of the third stage, you would have about
16 electrons to the original one. As many as 5 to 10 stages were not unusual, thus the
The mysterious "dark halo" around bright objects in an IO-captured

image is based in the very fact that the IO relies on the splashing caused by highly
energized electrons. When a very bright point of light) is captured, a great preponderance
of electrons is ejected from the image target. So many are ejected that the corresponding
point on the collection mesh can no longer soak them up, and thus they fall back to
nearby spots on the target much as splashing water when a rock is thrown in forms a ring.
Since the resultant splashed electrons do not contain sufficient energy to eject enough
electrons where they land, they will instead neutralize any positive charge in that region.
Since darker images result in less positive charge on the target, the excess electrons
deposited by the splash will be read as a dark region by the scanning electron beam.
1.17 VIDICON
1.17.1 INTRODUCTION
A vidicon tube is a video camera tube design in which the target material is a
photoconductor. While the initial photoconductor used was selenium, other targets
including silicon diode arrayshave been used.
achieved amplification is very important.
Fig:1.10
1.17.2 OPERATION
The vidicon is a storage-type camera tube in which a charge-density pattern is formed

by the imaged scene radiation on a photoconductive surface which is then scanned by a beam of
low-velocity electrons. The fluctuating voltage coupled out to a video amplifier can be used to
reproduce the scene being imaged. The electrical charge produced by an image will remain in
the face plate until it is scanned or until the charge dissipates. Pyroelectric photocathodes can
be used to produce a vidicon sensitive over a broad portion of the infrared spectrum.
1.18 PLUMBICON
1.18.1 INTRODUCTION
Plumbicon is a registered trademark of Philips for its Lead Oxide
(PbO) target vidicons. Used frequently in broadcast camera applications, these tubes have
low output, but a high signal-to-noise ratio. They had excellent resolution compared to
Image Orthicons, but lacked the artificially sharp edges of IO tubes, which caused some
of the viewing audience to perceive them as softer. CBS Labs invented the first outboard
Fig:1.11
1.18.2 OPERATION
Compared to Saticons, Plumbicons had much higher resistance to burn in, and
comet and trailing artifacts from bright lights in the shot. Saticons though, usually had
slightly higher resolution. After 1980, and the introduction of the diode gun plumbicon
tube, the resolution of both types was so high, compared to the maximum limits of the
broadcasting standard, that the Saticon's resolution advantage became moot. While
broadcast cameras migrated to solid state Charged Coupled Devices, plumbicon tubes
remain a staple imaging device in the medical field.
Narragansett Imaging is the only company now making Plumbicons, and it does so from
the factories Philips built for that purpose in Rhode Island, USA. While still a part of the
Philips empire, the company purchased EEV's (English Electric Valve) lead oxide
camera tube business, and gained a monopoly in lead oxide tube production.
1.18.3 OTHER CAMERA DEVICES

1.18.3.1 Saticon
edge enhancement circuits to sharpen the edges of Plumbicon generated images.
Saticon is a registered trademark of Hitachi also produced by Thomson and Sony. It was
developed in a joint effort by Hitachi and NHK (Japan Broadcasting Corporation). Its
surface consists of Selenium with trace amounts of Arsenic and Tellurium added
(SeAsTe) to make the signal more stable. SAT in the name is derived from (SeAsTe).
Newvicon is a registered trademark of Matsushita. The Newvicon tubes were

characterized by high light sensitivity. Its surface consists of a combination of Zinc
Selenide (ZnSe) and Zinc Cadmium Telluride (ZnCdTe)
1.18.3.3 Trinicon
Trinicon is a registered trademark of Sony. It uses a vertically striped RGB color filter
over the faceplate of an otherwise standard vidicon imaging tube to segment the scan into
corresponding red, green and blue segments. Only one tube was used in the camera,
instead of a tube for each color, as was standard for color cameras used in television
broadcasting. It is used mostly in low-end consumer cameras and camcorders, though
Sony also used it in some moderate cost professional cameras in the 1980s, such as the
DXC-1800 and BVP-1 models.
1.20 CCD SOLID STATE IMAGE SCANNERS
The operation of solid state image scanners is based on MOS circuitry.
The CCD may be thought to be in a shift register formed by a string of very

closely spaced MOS capacitors.
It can store and transfer analog charge signals either electrons or holes in
electrically or optically.
The chip consists of a p-type substrate, the side is oxidized to form a film of
silicon dioxide, an insulator.
By photolithographic process, an array of metal electrodes known as gates, are

deposit on insulator film.
1.18.3.2 Newvicon
Results- creation of very large number of tiny MOS capacitors on either surface
Fig:1.12
1.21 COMPARISON OF CAMERA TUBES
ofchip.
1.22 CAMERA TUBE DEFLECTION UNIT
Fig:1.13
It mounts itself inside a deflection coil unit which consists of focusing coil, horizontal
and vertical deflection coils, alignment coils and magnets.
The focusing coil surrounds entire tube extending from electron gun to face plate of
tube.
It produces axial field because of dc current passing through it.
The horizontal and vertical deflection coils are pair of coils each in a shape of yokes
mount on pick-up tube.
The horizontal deflection coils produce a vertical field and vertical deflection coils
produces horizontal field.
The field strength of deflecting magnetic field is about 1/10th of focusing coil.
The required currents have to be supplied by deflection drive circuits of camera chain.
The alignment coils are a pair of coils positioned just outside the limiting aperture that
produce a magnetic field at right angles to the tube axis.
1.23 VIDEO PROCESSING OF CAMERA SIGNALS
Digital video comprises a series of orthogonal bitmap digital images displayed

in rapid succession at a constant rate. In the context of video these images are
called frames. We measure the rate at which frames are displayed in frames
per second (FPS).
Since every frame is an orthogonal bitmap digital image it comprises a raster of

pixels. If it has a width of W pixels and a height of H pixels we say that the frame
Pixels have only one property, their color. The color of a pixel is represented by a
fixed number of bits. The more bits the more subtle variations of colors can be
reproduced. This is called the color depth (CD) of the video.
An example video can have a duration (T) of 1 hour (3600sec), a frame size of
640x480 (WxH) at a color depth of 24bits and a frame rate of 25fps. This example
video has the following properties:
1.
pixels per frame = 640 * 480 = 307,200
2.
bits per frame = 307,200 * 24 = 7,372,800 = 7.37Mbits
3.
bit rate (BR) = 7.37 * 25 = 184.25Mbits/sec size = 184Mbits/sec * 3600sec = 662,400Mbits =

82,800Mbytes = 82.8Gbytes
Fig:1.14
REFERENCE:
size is WxH.
1. A-M-Dhake-" Television and video Engineering second Edition TMH 2003
2. R-R-Gulati-"Modern Television Practice -Technology and servicing -second
edition New age International publishes -2004.
TELEVISION STANDARDS AND STUDIO EQUIPMENTS
SYLLABUS
Composite video signal
scanning standards
Horizontal and vertical syn
Blanking standards
video modulation and video signal standard
sound modulation and Inter carrier system
standard channel characteristics
Reception of VSB signals
TV Broadcast channels
CCIR-B standards
various TV broadcast systems
NTSC
PAL
UNIT II
SECAM system
Comparison
Television studio system
Tele cine equipments

Helical and AST system
2.1 COMPOSITE VIDEO SIGNAL

Composite video is often designated by the CVBS initialize, meaning "Composite
Video, Blanking, and Sync." It is usually in standard formats such as NTsC, pAL, and
sECAm. It is a composite of three source signals called Y, U and V (together referred to
as YUV) with sync pulses. Y represents the brightness or luminance of the picture and
includes synchronizing pulses, so that by itself it could be displayed as a monochrome
picture. U and V represent hue and saturation or chrominance; between them they carry
the color information. They are first modulated on two orthogonal phases of a color
carrier signal to form a signal called the chrominance. Y and UV are then combined.
Since Y is a baseband signal and UV has been mixed with a carrier, this addition is
equivalent to frequency-division multiplexing.
production and master control Rooms
2.3 HORIZONTAL AND VERTICAL SYN
2.3.1 TV SYNCHRONISATION
The sync pulses of a tv waveform need to be able to allow the receiver or
waveforms is described here. The description given here applies to the European 625 line
CCIR (or PAL) signals but the arguments can be applied to other interlaced tv systems.
2.3.2 Basics
A tv picture is built up of a spot scanned rapidly on the faceplate of a crt
(cathode ray tube) horizontally and (relatively slowly) vertically to produce a 'raster'. The
brightness of the spot is varied to produce the picture. A synchronising signal to control
the position of the spot on the screen is combined with the brightness (or luminance)
information producing a 'composite' tv signal. The sync and brightness information are
kept separate by assigning them unique signal level ranges (see line waveform below).
Normally, the total range of a monochrome (black and white) signal is 1 Volt peak-topeak although the absolute dc levels may vary (usually the signal is ac coupled). The
luminance information occupies a range of around 0.7 V and the sync 0.3 V. With respect
to the lowest sync level, the brightest parts of the picture are at a level of 1 V with the
black level at 0.3 V. Black level is the same as the blanking level in CCIR system
(though this isn't necessarily the case for other systems); blanking occurs in non-picture
parts of the waveform when it is necessary for the electron gun of the crt to be 'off' so that
retrace is not visible on the screen.
The tv waveform carries pulses (at sub-black levels) that allow synchronisation of both
the horizontal and vertical deflection circuits. These pulses are separated by the video
information using a 'sync separator' - this can be just a comparator with its threshold set
around halfway between black level and the sync tips. See 'Notes' below for more
information on sync separation.
monitor to reliably produce an accurate picture. The form of the synchronisation
There are two deflection generators (timebases) - horizontal and vertical. Both must be
triggered at the right time to ensure that the picture is correctly reproduced. Therefore
both timebases need to be synchronised and there needs to be a method of triggering
either one independently using the same single set of sync pulses. The method used to
allow the receiver to distinguish between the two types of sync is to use different widths
2.3.3 Line Sync

A single line is shown in the figure below. The sync pulse is separated from the active picture
information by the 'porches': the 'back' and 'front' porches. These avoid the picture detail
affecting the accuracy of the synchronisation. (A further feature of the back porch is the ability
of this otherwise unused period to include a phase reference signal for colour decoding in the
PAL and NTSC colour systems).
2.3.4 INTERLACE
In tv, the same effect (of increasing the refresh rate by a factor of 2) is
achieved by the use of interlace, that is, splitting each picture into two fields. A field is a
single vertical scan. Each field consists of half the total picture lines (312) which is
scanned from top to bottom of the display at twice the picture rate. The second field then
completes the picture by scanning its lines between those of the first field. Thus a
for the horizontal and vertical sync pulses.
complete picture is produced in 1/25th of a second but the effective scan rate is twice this
(50 Hz). So a picture containing 625 lines is actually made up of two separate vertical
scans, each of 312 lines. This is termed 2:1 interlace (although as this order of interlace
Interlace will reduce the visibility of large area flicker but small detail that
the viewer at normal distances since the eye is unable to perceive rapid variations in time
in areas of very fine detail in a picture. Close examination of a blank scanned raster on a
monochrome display will enable the 25 Hz flicker to be seen, though it tends to be rather
more visible on picture detail such as sharp edges that are at small angles to the
horizontal where there can be very large local differences between the two fields. (Close
examination of an interlaced picture may also exhibit the phenomenon of 'line crawl'; this
effect gives the appearance of all the lines moving up (or down) the screen. Higher orders
of interlace are more prone to this which can be distracting at normal viewing distances;
this is partly why 2:1 interlace and not higher orders is used.)
Fig: The Appearance of a Raster on a CRT (with zero flyback time)
2.3.5 FIELD SYNCHRONISATION
isn't common to both fields will show up as 25 Hz flicker. However, this is not obvious to
Broad pulses or serrations are used for triggering the field scan generator. In order to keep the
line sync generator running continuously, falling edges appear every 64 microseconds
throughout the entire field blanking interval for this purpose. Because there is an effective half
line offset between the two sets of field sync pulses it is necessary to double the frequency of
the line syncs during the field sync pulses. This allows identical pulse trains to be used for both
2.3.6 EQUALISATION PULSES

The field sync pulses can be distinguished from the line syncs using simple analogue
techniques. This was the method universally used until recently when pseudo digital techniques
became easier and took over. One method is, having ac coupled the sync pulses (after stripping
the picture information), to integrate them; this will result in a drift of level downwards during
the field pulses of the integrated waveform, this negative signal can be used to trigger the
vertical sync generator. Now, for proper interlace to be achieved it is necessary for the field sync
generator to be triggered after identical delays after the last picture line of both odd and even
fields. If the field sync pulses occurred immediately following the end of the picture, then there
would be a potential difference in triggering times since, at the end of the odd field, there would
be only half a line duration following the line sync pulse before the start of the field sync pulses
whereas at the end of the even field there would be a full line delay.
The equalisation pulses, which are inserted before the field syncs, allow the
integrator to settle and be minimally influence by the presence of the line syncs. It is
worth noting that the equalisation pulse width is half that of the line sync pulses - this
compensates for the doubling in frequency, so that the dc level at the integrator output is
unaffected. Further equalisation pulses are inserted after the field syncs to ensure that the
trailing edge of the integrated waveform is the same for both fields for those circuits
where this may be critical (e.g. where the area under the waveform can influence the
triggering point).
field syncs.
Fig: Field Sync Waveforms (CCIR 625 line system)
The equalisation pulses and the field sync are identical for both fields and are shown in
detail below:
2.3.7 DESIGNATING LINES AND FIELDS

Each line of a complete picture is individually numbered. Lines are always numbered
consecutively in time and not as displayed on the crt screen. However, since it is necessary to
distinguish between the two fields which go to make up each picture the terms 'odd' and 'even'
are used. The 'odd' field is defined as the one which ends in a half-line of picture information;
whilst that which ends in a full-line of picture information is termed the 'even' field.
2.3.7.1Choice of Field Frequency
It is easy to see why 25 pictures per second rather than 24 was chosen. The effective vertical
scan frequency is 50 Hz and in the early days of tv, mains (at 50 Hz) could break through from
imperfectly filtered power supplies. This would manifest itself on the picture by modulating the
brightness of the picture or the position of the raster. If there were a difference of 1 Hz (i.e. 25 24 Hz) this modulation would show up very noticeably by rolling up the screen once every
less noticeable. In the US and elsewhere where the mains frequency is 60 Hz the field rate is also
60 Hz.
However, choosing a picture rate related to the local mains frequency means that
televising cinema films (filmed at 24 frames per second - fps) isn't straightforward. In
Europe cinema films are transmitted at 25 fps, this means that the action is marginally
increased in speed and the sound raised in frequency by roughly a semitone. This is not
normally considered to be a problem. In the US, on the other hand, it would be
impractical to show films at 30 fps. But by adding a degree of complexity to the scanning
process, they are shown at a film rate of 24 fps and the higher tv rate is accommodated by
taking pairs of film frames and spreading them between 5 tv fields. The first film frame
takes 2 tv fields and the second film frame, 3 tv fields (i.e. 1 pictures). The sequence
ends after 10 complete tv fields (i.e. 5 pictures) which takes the same time as
4 film frames.
Filmed material, destined to be shown on tv only, is very often shot at 25 or 30 fps
depending on the intended broadcast system - this does away with speed errors or
complications of scanning.
2.3.7.2 NOTES
1. SYNC SEPARATORS: Chips that will perform this function (as well as having some other
useful features) are the National Semiconductor LM1881 or the (more sophisticated)
Elantec (now Intersil) EL4581.
2. SYNC PULSE GENERATORS: The idea of an SPG is that a fixed frequency clock goes in and
the correct waveforms come out. Locking to a timebase supplied externally is usually an
second. Using a 50 Hz scan causes the modulation to be stationary on the screen which is far
option (Genlocking). In practice timings (pulse durations) can be a bit off and there may
be other quirks.
o
The first single chip SPG was the Ferranti (later GEC Plessey) ZN134 (16 pin DIL);
I mention this as (I believe) it was the first (produced some time in the late
seventies). It was able to produce either 625 or 525 line waveforms correctly.
The RCA (now Intersil) CD22402 is basically a 525 line SPG, it can produce a
correct 525 line waveform (which has 6 equalisation and field sync pulse) but
produces 6 of each in the 625 mode rather than the correct 5. In practice, this
defect is unlikely to be a real problem but it looks like a silly oversight by the
designers. Obsolete, but some may still be around.
My favourite sync pulse generator is the Philips SAA1101. This is programmable

to provide 625 or 525 line standards (correctly) and signals for PAL, NTSC or
SECAM encoding. Interlace can be switched off as well. This device is now a
discontinued product but the datasheet is well worth studying for insight into
the synchronising waveforms (but note that some of the waveforms in the
datasheet haven't been drawn particularly accurately).
The only single chip SPG currently in production that I know of is the Fairchild
74ACT715. This is a wholly programmable device which can produce almost any
set of video timing waveforms. It is designed to give NTSC 525 line waveforms
by default but while other line system waveforms can be generated it will
require some ingenuity to achieve this - registers need to be loaded with the
correct numbers every time it is switched on. Fairchild haven't given any
application notes, which, had they done, would make the chip possibly more
attractive to use in a design. Has anyone any experience of this chip? Let me
know.
3. The definition of Odd and Even Fields follows the nomenclature used in Report No. 124
adopted by the International Radio Consultative Committee at its Plenary Assembly in
Los Angeles in 1959. Return to text (or press 'Back' button). People who should know
better manage to get things quite wrong; see what they say.
4. The timing datum for all the pulses (line sync, field sync and equalisation) is the falling
edge. Falling edges are separated by either 32 or 64 microseconds).
Long obsolete.
5. Equalisation pulses are a desirable feature of a tv waveform. However, many tv systems
(as well as home computers and games) can produce adequately interlaced pictures
without them. Two such systems were the British 405 and the French 819 line systems.
The absence of equalisation pulses may result in a defect called line pairing - its
appearance is as described - the lines of the raster are not evenly spaced but appear on
are distinct, however, this impairment is not serious - its main effect is to make the line
structure more visible at normal viewing distances.
6. In the UK, some broadcasters, at least sometimes, choose to extend the field blanking
by half a line at the end of the odd and the beginning of the even fields thereby
extending the field blanking by one line in total. This means that there are no active half
picture lines but it also means that the blanking signal is different for the two fields (and
therefore
harder
to
produce).
Additionally, now that we're all going digital, many programmes in the UK are
transmitted with fewer active lines than is specified. This is equivalent to increasing the
number of lines blanked.
7. Extra signals are inserted during the field blanking interval and before the 'official' start
of the picture (lines 23 or 336). These signals are for in-service network testing using the
Insertion Test Signal (ITS) or for teletext transmission. Lines 7 - 22 and 320 - 335 are
available for text data although, in practice, not all are usually used. The ITS usually is
broadcast on two lines per field: 19, 20, 332 and 333 are used.
2.4 BLANKING STANDARDS

Enables TVs to 'lock on' to signals. Sync signal level is '0v'. Always a small
'quiet' 0.3v 'blank' period around sync pulses (stops old circuitry getting confused). Areas
of synchronisation known as 'blanking periods' Originally designed as times where the
electron gun in the TV was 'blanked' for the retrace back to the left/top-left of the screen.
2.4.1 Two sorts of blanking period:
the screen with gaps alternating between wide and not-so-wide. Provided that the lines
Horizontal blanking period:

o
Sits between lines of image data.
Contains "start of line" point.
Accurate timing is crucial in getting jiggle-free images.
Field blanking period:

o
Sits between fields of image data.
Tens of scanlines long.
Contains a special sequence of sync pulses.
Contains the 'start of field' point.
These periods overlap. (Sync pulses areas in field blanking period take precedence).
More details below.

The following (probably over-simplified) diagram shows how these blanking periods
overlap.
In the real signal, the field blanking period covers more scanlines and there are far more
scanlines in a frame!
Fig: Over-simplified diagram of blanking periods
2.4.2 Horizontal Blanking Period
Contains the 'start of scanline' sync pulse.
blanking periods.
Some scanlines with horizontal blanking periods fall within the Field Blanking
Period. These scanlines do not carry Picture Data (they can, however, carry other data,
such as teletext).
Horizontal Blanking Period = Front-Porch + H-Sync pulse + Back-Porch
Start of H-Sync signifies start of scanline.
Many more details (rise/fall times etc.) left out here.
Back-Porch is where colour synchronisation occurs.
Back-Porch is empty for monochrome.
Timing table:
The following diagram shows a signal's voltage level over a couple of horizontal
Area
PAL
64s 63.55s
Front Porch
1.65s
1.5s
H-Sync pulse
4.7s
4.7s
Back Porch
5.7s
4.5s
Blanking period (total) 12.05s 10.7s

'Active Display' period 51.95s 52.9s
A scanline 'starts' when the H-Sync pulse starts (yes - worth repeating). Timing of HSync pulse start is crucial. Jitter on H-Sync pulse = wobbly picture (effect similar to poor
video recorders from the 80's). Length of H-Sync pulse less critical. 4s pulse works
nicely. Most microcontroller video output seems to use 4s H-Sync pulse.
2.4.3 Field Blanking Period

Hides
movement
of
electron
gun
trace
back
to
top-left
Contains 'field start' datum point.

Field Blanking Period for Odd and Even fields identical, but...
Odd Field Blanking: starts at normal scanline boundary.
Even Field Blanking: starts halfway through scanline.
3 sections of pulses at start of blanking period:
Pre-equalising pulses
Vertical Sync pulses
Post-equalising pulses.
of
screen.
Whole Scanline
NTSC
Each section lasts for 5 half-scanlines. (NTSC: 6 half-scanlines).
Single short pulse
Nothing else.
Each Vertical Sync half-scanline
Single broad pulse
Nothing else.
A field's 'start point' is the start of the first broad sync.

Duration of
PAL / NTSC
Short Sync pulse 2.35s

Broad Sync pulse (scanline_duration / 2) - 4.7s
The 'Short Sync' pulse is exactly half the duration of the H-Sync pulse.
The following diagram shows the first 15 half-scanlines in the field blanking period.
Each Pre/Post-equalising half-scanline:
2.5 INTER CARRIER SYSTEM

Inter carrier as used in TV transmitters
In TV transmitters, both AF and VF modulate intermediate frequency (IF) carriers.
(The frequency difference between the two carriers is 4.5 MHz. in system
M and
5.5 MHz. in system) Then the modulated IF signals are added either at the output of the
vision modulator or at the output of the vestigial sideband stage. In both cases, the added
signals are low level signals and no special combining circuitry is required.
Frequency conversion and amplification is common. So a frequency converter (or
a mixer) and a series of amplifiers for aural signal as well as an output combiner are
spared, which reduce the cost of the transmitter and electricity consumption of the
amplifiers considerably. Although a notch filter to suppress the inter modulation products
is used at the output of the inter carrier transmitter, the cost of the notch filter is not
comparable to the cost of extra amplifiers and the output combiner. (See the subsection
Inter modulation products below)
In TV receivers, the received radio frequency signal is converted to IF in tuner and then
in fact an FM subcarrier modulated by AF. (The subcarrier is 5.5 MHz. in system B and
4.5 MHz. in system M ) The aural signal and the VF are separated by a simple filter. The
only extra stage needed for AF (other than the loudspeaker) is an FM demodulator.[1] The
inter carrier receiver system makes for easier tuning of a TV station. The viewer could
fine tune such a set to get the best picture reception, and not lose sound reception.
(Although AF VF signals are combined in the IF stages of the transmitters, they are
separated in baseband stages of the receivers.)
When VF and the aural signal modulate the same carrier the inevitable non-linearity of
the electronic circuits cause unwanted signals which are called inter modulation products.
The unwanted signals appear on RF spectrum at regular intervals, the interval being equal
to the frequency difference of the visual and aural carriers.
In TV broadcasting the inter modulation products of the aural subcarrier and the main
carrier appear out of the RF band of the TV channel. However, out of band product
means an unwanted transmission in the neighbour TV channels. For example, inter
modulation products of channel 7 appear in channel 5,6, 8 and 9. That is why notch filters
are used in inter carrier system.
2.6 STANDARD CHANNEL CHARACTERISTICS

In CCIR system B standards for TV channel
USB is fully transmitted while LSB is passed upto 0.75 MHZ
demodulated. The output of the demodulator consists of a VF and an aural signal which is
The end slopes are allowed as 0.5MHZ as LSB is suppressed fully at 1.25 MHZ
while USB is fully attenuated
The sound carrier with frequency modulation carrier deviation upto + or -50KHZ
This is logical; placed to minimize interference between sound and picture signals
Therefore channel width=7 MHZ, from -1.25 MHZ to +5.75MHZ bandwidth.
2.7 RECEPTION OF VSB SIGNALS
In VSB the lower modulation frequency from 0 to 0.75 MHZ in both side bands
If all channel frequencies arev equally amplified in RF and IF amplifiers of TV

receivers and led to video detectors,the double side band frequencies gives twice
output voltage.
It is necessary to shape the IF picture response curve of receiver so frequencies in

double sideband are provided less amplification.
The slope is linearly over the double sideband frequency range from -0.75 to
+0.75 MHz.
The width of sloping edge is twice that of VSB.
Sum of output contributions from two sidebands together make up the same
output at all frequencies.
2.8 TV BROADCAST CHANNELS
Channels are assigned in VHF and UHF ranges.
The allocated frequencies are,

Lower UHF range
upper VHF range
III
UHF range
IV
41-68 MHZ
174-230 MHZ
470-582 MHZ
is positioned at extremity of side band at 5.5 MHZ.
UHF range
606-790 MHZ
Carrier stability within +1KHZ to -1KHZ.
When transmitters operating on same channel operating different place causes co-
2.9 CCIR-B STANDARD

CCIR stands for Comittee Consultatif International Radiotelecommunique. This
is the committee that recommended the standards for B/W television accepted by most of
Europe, Australia and others. This is why when we refer to equipment that complies with
the B/W TV standards we call it CCIR compatible. The same "type" of standard, but
later extended to colour signals, was called PAL. The name comes from the concept used
for the colour reproduction by alternate phase changes of the colour carrier at each new
line, hence: Phase Alternate Line-PAL.
EIA stands for Electronics Industry Association, an association that created the
standard for B/W television in the USA, Canada and Japan, where it is often referred to
as RS-170, it being the recommendation code of the EIA proposal. When B/W TV was
upgraded to colour, it was named by the group that created the recommendation:
National Television Systems Committee, or abbreviated NTSC.
SECAM comes from the French "Sequentiel a memoire" which actually describes
how the colour is transmitted, by a sequence of chrominance colour signals and the need
for a memory device in the TV receiver when decoding the colour information.
All of the TV standards use the picture ratio of 4:3 (4 units in width, 3 units in
height). This is mostly due to the similar film aspect ratio of the early days of television.
channel interference due to freak distant reception.
The different number of lines used in different TV standards dictates the other
characteristics of the system. CCIR recommends 625 lines, EIA 525 lines and SECAM
Symbol Characteristics
Value
Field Period (ms)
16.6833
Field-blanking interval
j'
Build-up time of the edges of field-blanking pulse (.s)
Interval between front edge of field-blanking interval and front edge of

first equalizing pulse (.s)
(19 to 21) H
a
<6.35
1.5.0.1
Duration of first sequence of equalizing pulses
3H
Duration of sequence of synchronizing pulses
3H
Duration of second sequence of equalizing pulses
3H
Duration of equalizing pulses (.s)
2.3.0.1
Duration of field-synchronizing pulses (.s)
27.1
Interval between field-synchronizing pulses (.s)
4.7.0.1
Build-up time of synchronizing and equalizing pulses (.s)
<0.25
819 lines.
Basic Characteristics
Characteristics
B,G/PAL
M/NTSC
Number of lines per picture (frame)
625
525
Field frequency, nominal value (fields/s) 50
59.94
Line frequency fH
156250.0001% 15734.2640.0003%
Assumed gamma of display device
2.8
2.2
Nominal video bandwidth (MHz)
4.2
2.10 PAL
2.10.1 VIDEO TIMING SPECIFICATION
Line
period
64
us
Line
blanking
12.05
Line
sync
Front
porch:
Burst
start
4.7
5.6
1.65
+
(Micro-seconds)
0.1
+
us
0.25
us
0.1
us
0.1
after
sync
Burst 10 + 1 cycles
us
start.
Basic characteristics of video and synchronizing signals
a = line sync
b = back porch
T here are various Video/Television standards in use. Important ones are

CCIR/PAL, EIA/NTSC, SECAM etc. The major difference between these standards is in
the
no.
of
scanning
linesand
frame
frequency.
CCIR standard has 625 lines/frame and 25 frames/sec. EIA standard has 525 lines/frame
and 30 frames/sec.
2.10.2 PAL DETAILS
1. CCIR/PAL standard video signal has 625 lines/frame and it repeats @ 25 frames/sec.
2. Each frame is split into 2 fields; - each consisting of 312.5 lines, called odd and even
3. Interlacing: The lines of odd-even field lie alternately . This method of scanning is
called interlacing. This interlaced scanning is used to reduce flicker while displaying the
image on a monitor.
Interlaced scanning process is shown below.
2.10.3 SYNCHRONIZATION PULSE

Starting of each Horizontal line is marked by a Horizontal sync pulse and the
starting of each field by a vertical sync pulse. There are 625 Horizontal sync pulses per
frame and 50 vertical sync pulses per second. Vertical sync pulse is a serrated block pulse
as shown.
fields. Thus field rate is 50. i.e. CCIR /PAL std has 50 fields/sec rate .
Synchronisation pulses ensure that the video image is locked on a video monitor (or VCR
etc) vertically and horizontally without any jitter or rolling. If vertical sync is lost, picture
may move/tear vertically. If horizontal sync is lost, picture may move/tear horizontally.
Synchronisation pulse ensure that all the equipment used in a CCTV set up like VCRs,
Monitors, Multiplexers and cameras are locked together. Video information is carried on
each line except portions which are in blank periods (Horizontal & Vertical blanking /
retrace period).
2.10.4 MONOCHROME OR BLACK & WHITE VIDEO SIGNAL

For monochrome video signals, video information is basically the intensity or luminance
information (Y signal). 0V represents the black level and 0.7V represents the peak white level .
Sync
pulses
have
an
amplitude
of
-0.3V
with
respect
to
blanking
Properly terminated video signal levels are shown below.
level.
( Refer to the Application Note 3 on Characteristic impedance) Colour Video Signal
True components of colour video signals are R,G,B signals . This method of representing
colour signals requires 3 video channels or cables and are seldom used, (except in
Y = 0.3UR 0.59UG 0.11UB is the brightness information.
From the R, G, B and Y signals, Colour - Difference signals (R-Y) and (B-Y) are
generated. These colour - difference signals are modulated on a colour sub-carrier signal
(4.43MHz for PAL standard ) and is added to the Y information. This mixed signal is
known as composite colour video signal. This composite signal requires only one cable
for transmission. At the monitor, special filter circuits are used to separate the luminance
and colour difference signals. From these signals R , G , B information is separated and is
fed to the RGB guns in the monitor.
To aid separation of colour signals from composite video signal , a colour burst signal is
added to the back porch of Horizontal synchronization signal.
The composite colour bar video signal is shown below.
Colour bar composite video signal
computer monitors). From the RGB signals, luminance can be represented as below.
2.10.5 BANDWIDTH
A colour bar signal has a maximum bandwidth of 0-5.5 MHz. For
monochrome signals, the colour subcarrier and colour components are absent. For such a
signal the bandwidth depends on the resolution of the camera. Typically it may vary from
It may be noted that the colour information is carried on the sub-carrier which
is at high frequency portion of the video signal. Thus when video signal is transmitted
over long distances through coaxial cable, the colour saturation, contrast as well as
horizontal pixel resolution gets reduced. If the attenuation is too high, the colour video
signal may even appear as Black & White on a colour monitor.
2.10.6 RESOLUTION
Resolution is the property of a system to display fine details. The higher the
resolution, the more details we can see. The resolution of a TV picture depends on the no.
of active scanning lines ,the quality of the camera, the quality of the monitor and the
quality of the transmittingmedia. There are 2 types of resolutions - Vertical and
horizontal.
Vertical resolution is defined by the no: of horizontal lines / details that can be
resolved on a monitor screen.
Horizontal resolution is the number of effective pixels / details along a horizontal

line that can be resolved on a monitor screen. This depends on the quality of the camera
& monitor and essentially on the Band Width of the system.
2.11 NTSC SYSTEM

A method analogous to the N.T.S.C. colour television system is used to
obtain a bandwidth reduction of a black-and-white video signal by a factor of
3 MHz for a low resolution camera to 5 MHz for a high resolution camera.
approximately 2:1. The normal signal is split into two frequency bands, nominally zero to
1.5 Mc/s and 1.5 to 3.0 Mc/s. The latter is used to amplitude-modulate a sub-carrier,
whose frequency is an odd multiple of half the line scanning rate. The lower sideband of
the modulator output is selected and combined with the original zero-to-1.5 Mc/s band,
so that the spectra of the two signals interleave. The combined signal may now be sent
composite signal is applied to a synchronous demodulator, fed also with sub-carrier of the
same frequency as at the transmitter.
2.11.1 Frequency Spectrum of one NTSC channel
A system of transmitting black and white signals was already in place for several years
when it became possible to transmit color signals. If black and white did not exist before then
the logical approach to take would be to transmit red, green and blue signals. In order to make
over a channel of 1.5 Mc/s nominal bandwidth. At the receiving end of the channel the
the color signal usable by black and white receivers a different approach was used and is
illustrated above by the signals in one channel. The bandwidth for each channel remained at
6MHz as for black and white. Sound in black and white had been transmitted as an FM signal
with 25kHz deviation and this also was left unchanged. In b/w a bandwidth of 4.2MHz was
allowed for the luminance signal with only a portion of the lower sideband being
wide. VSB was used instead of SSB because of the importance of the low frequencies in the
luminance signal. This method of transmitting the luminance also remained unchanged for color
signals. For the color system the luminance signal was derived as a combination of red, green
and blue signals weighted according to the sensitivity of the eye.
Y = 0.30R + 0.59G + 0.11B
In order to recover the red, green and blue signals at the receiver at least 3 signals which can be
linear combinations of red, green and blue must be transmitted. With the luminance already
chosen for b/w compatibility two other signals must still be chosen and transmitted within the
6MHz bandwidth. The 2 signals chosen were the I and the Q signals, both of which are linear
combinations of red, green and blue.
I = 0.60R - 0.28G -0.32B

Q = 0.21R - 0.52G + 0.31B
Both are transmitted as DSB signals with a 3.58MHz(suppressed) carrier. The carrier for the I and
Q are 90 out of phase. The upper sideband of the I signal is also truncated to fit within the
limited bandwidth. In order for the receiver to recover the carrier, a "color burst" of 8 to 10
cycles of the carrier is transmitted on the back porch of the horizontal sync pulse during the
blanking interval(see below).
2.11.2 COLOR CIRCLE
transmitted(VSB). The transition region of the luminance spectrum(max to min) is ~ 0.5MHz
The relative phase of the color burst, I and Q signals are shown above. I and Q are
combined to produce a C(color) signal. The magnitude of C fixes the saturation of the color and
the
phase
of
fixes
the
hue
of
the
color.
When viewed in time one line of a video signal will have 3 characteristics, an average level which
fixes the luminance(b/w) signal, an oscillation at 3.58MHz whose magnitude fixes the saturation
and
whose
phase
fixes
the
hue
of
the
color.
The line frequency is 4.5MHz/286 = 15734.26Hz, the vertical scanning frequency is

15734.26/262.5 = 59.94Hz. The Color subcarrier frequency is the 455th harmonic of half the line
frequency 455 X 15734.26 /2 = 3.579545MHz. This choice of numbers means that color
information in successive fields will be out of phase, minimising interference with b/w receivers.
The lines in the luminance spectrum occur at nfH while those of the color spectrum occur at (n +
)fH
resulting
in
interleaving
of
the
spectra.
In the original ntsc monochrome signal the line frequency was 15750Hz and the vertical
scanning frequency was 60Hz. Like in the FM band the sound FM is preemphasised with a time
constant of 75s. The sound can be transmitted in stereo using a system similar to how it is
2.11 .3 BLANKING INTERVALS
The image is produced by an electron beam scanning from left to right to produce a
line of the image. While each line is scanned, the beam is also scanned vertically so that a
complete field is produced. After the first field, a second is interlaced with the first to produce a
complete frame. When each line is scanned, the beam must return to the left side of the screen
without producing a trace. This is achieved during the line blanking interval (~10 microseconds)
as indicated above. The signal is brought to a reference level considered as the blanking level.
The vertical blanking interval enables the beam to return to the top of the screen after each
field without producing a line on the screen. L refers to the Line interval of ~ 63.5 microseconds
and V is 1/60 Seconds. Purple lines indicate the visible part of each line (~53.5 microseconds).
done in the FM band. In this case the pilot carrier is at 15.734kHz.
In order to produce a stable picture, the oscillator producing the vertical

deflection of the beam must be synchronised with that used by the camera. Without this
the picture drifts up or down. The oscillator deflecting the beam horizontally must also be
synchronised with that used by the camera to avoid horizontal drift or diagonal breakup
of the picture. The vertical blanking interval has equalising and synchronising pulses
inserted into it to provide vertical sync and proper interlacing. Horizontal sync pulses are
inserted during the line blanking interval as shown above in green to provide horizontal
sync. The color burst is also inserted into the line blanking interval to enable the receiver
to regenerate the color carrier with the correct frequency and phase. The amplitude of the
color burst is half of the sync signal and its mean value is the blanking level. Frequency
of the burst is 3.58MHz.
2.11. 4 SYNCHRONISING SIGNALS
2.11.5 ACTIVE SCAN LINES PER FIELD

Even though there are 625 scan lines in a full video frame, only part of them carry
the actual image: namely, lines 23 through line 310 in the first field, and lines 336
through 623 in the second field.
But wait, it is a bit more complicated than that: the analog tv standards dictate that
only the second half of line 23 is used for active image, and, likewise, only the first half
of line 623 is used for active image.
In total, this gives us (nominally) 287.5 + 287.5 = 575 scan lines worth of
"active" image data, even though the image (as whole) spans on 576 scan lines (since it
begins in the middle of line 23 and abruptly ends in the middle of line 623.)
As it would be quite awkward to handle these half lines on a computer, computer people
usually process the image as if the last and first lines were used in full. Hence, for
computer image processing purposes it can be thought there are 288 active scan lines in
the first field and 288 active scan lines in the second field, giving us a total of 576 active
lines (which is a familiar number for anyone who has ever captured "full frame" PAL
video encoder chip should automatically snip the second half of the first line off, as well
as the first half of the last line.)
2.12 SECAM SYSTEM

Sequential Color Avec Memoire
or Sequential Color with Memory
video signals.) (Once you output your 576-line computer-generated video images, the
2.12.1 INTRODUCTION
Line/Field 625/50 625/50
Vertical Frequency 50 Hz 50 Hz
Video Bandwidth 5.0 MHz 6.0 MHz
Sound Carrier 5.5 MHz 6.5 MHz
SECAM is a compatible standard, which means that monochrome television receivers
predating its introduction are still able to show the programs. Because of this compatibility
requirement, color standards add a second signal to the basic monochrome signal, and this
signal carries the color information, called chrominance or C in short, while the black and white
information is called the luminance (Y in short). Old TV receivers only display the luminance,
while color receivers process both signals. Additionally, for compatibility, it is required to use no
more bandwidth than the monochrome signal alone; the color signal has to be somehow
inserted into the monochrome signal, without disturbing it. This insertion is possible because
the spectrum of the monochrome TV signal is not continuous, hence empty space exists which
can be utilized. This lack of continuity results from the discrete nature of the signal, which is
divided into frames and lines. Analogue color systems differ by the way in which empty space is
used. In all cases, the color signal is inserted at the end of the spectrum of the monochrome
signal.
In order to be able to separate the color signal from the monochrome one in the receiver,
a fixed frequency sub carrier has to be used, this sub carrier being modulated by the color
signal.
The color space is three dimensional by the nature of the human vision, so after
subtracting the luminance, which is carried by the base signal, the color sub carrier still
has to carry a two dimensional signal. Typically the red (R) and the blue (B) information
Horizontal Frequency 15.625 kHz 15.625 kHz
are carried because their signal difference with luminance (R-Y and B-Y) is stronger than
that of green (G-Y).
SECAM differs from the other color systems by the way the R-Y and B-Y signals are
carried. First, SECAM uses frequency modulation to encode chrominance information on
Second, instead of transmitting the red and blue information together, it only sends one of
them at a time, and uses the information about the other color from the preceding line. It
uses a delay line, an analog memory device, for storing one line of color information.
This justifies the "Sequential, With Memory" name.
Because SECAM transmits only one color at a time, it is free of the color artifacts present
in NTSC and PAL resulting from the combined transmission of both signals.
This means that the vertical color resolution is halved relative to NTSC. It is however not
halved compared to PAL. Although PAL does not eliminate half of vertical color
information during encoding, it combines color information from adjacent lines at the
decoding stage, in order to compensate for "color sub carrier phase errors" occurring
during the transmission of the Amplitude-Modulated color sub carrier. This is normally
done using a delay line like in SECAM but can be accomplished "visually" in cheap TV
sets (PAL standard). Because the FM modulation of SECAM's color sub carrier is
insensitive to phase (or amplitude) errors, phase errors do not cause loss of color
saturation in SECAM, although they do in PAL. In NTSC, such errors cause color shifts.
The color difference signals in SECAM are actually calculated in the color space, which
is a scaled version of the YUV color space. This encoding is better suited to the
transmission of only one signal at a time.
the sub carrier.
2.13 TELEVISION STUDIO SYSTEM

A television studio is an installation in which television or video
acquisition of raw footage for post-production. The design of a studio is similar to, and
derived from, movie studios, with a few amendments for the special requirements of
television production. A professional television studio generally has several rooms, which
are kept separate for noise and practicality reasons. These rooms are connected via
intercom, and personnel will be divided among these workplaces.
2.13.1 STUDIO FLOOR
The studio floor is the actual stage on which the actions that will be recorded take place. A
studio floor has the following characteristics and installations:
decoration and/or sets
cameras (sometimes one, usually several) on pedestals
microphones
lighting rigs and the associated controlling equipment.
several video monitors for visual feedback from the production control room
a small public address system for communication
productions take place, either for live television, for recording live to tape, or for the
A glass window between production control room (PCR) and studio floor for direct visual
contact is usually desired, but not always possible
The on-screen "talent" themselves, and any guests - the subjects of the show.
A floor director or floor manager, who has overall charge of the studio area, and who
relays timing and other information from the director.
One or more camera operators who operate the television cameras, though in some
instances these can also be operated from PCR using remote heads.
Possibly a teleprompter operator, especially if this is a news broadcast

Lighting has two purposes in television. It allows the camera to make a picture and it
makes the picture interesting. Flat, even lighting gives the video engineer the least amount of
trouble, but it also renders the least interesting picture. The most basic lighting set-up is called
"3-point" lighting. Lighting is always planned relative to the camera angles. Advanced students
are expected to practice basic 3-point lighting. Since lighting can be a very subjective medium,
there are no real hard and fast rules about lighting ratios and lighting setups. Talk shows tend to
be lit evenly and flat. The particular lighting set up depends on mood, purpose, or style of
lighting needed. There are many different ways to achieve this.
Fresnel Spotlight: So named for its ring-stepped lens. In our studio, most of the fresnel spots
contain 500-1000 watt lamps. A 1000 watt instrument is called a ONE-K. The instrument has a
spot/flood control on the side or rear which allows the light to be changed from a narrow, highly
focused beam of light, to a wider, less intense spread. This range is actually produced by the
movement of a reflector inside the instrument which moves closer to, or farther away from the
fresnel lens. On the other side of each fresnel spot is a knob called the "tilt lock". When tight,
the up and down motion of the instrument is locked.When loosened, the instrument may be
tilted up or down to any position. The tilt control is usually set tight enough to maintain the tilt
position, yet loose enough to allow the operator to move the light up or down. "Barn-doors" are
While a production is in progress, the following people work in the studio floor.
metal flags attached to a spotlight to confine the light to a given area, often to keep light off the
background.
Scoop Floodlight: A deep open-faced (no lens) floodlight with a diffused, generally elliptical
open-faced instrument mounted horizontally

at the top of the cyclorama curtain. A cyc strip lights the curtain in a smooth and uniform
manner. Often used to wash the cyclorama with color.
Key Light: The key light is defined as the apparent, main source of light. The position of the key
light can greatly impact the positioning of all the other lights. The key light is the modeling light.
A harsh, shadow producing instrument such as a Fresnel spotlight, is usually used as the key
light.
Fill Light: The fill light is the instrument used to soften the dark, well defined shadow produced
by the key light. Ideally, the fill light should not produce a shadow of its own. Therefore, an
instrument which produces a softer, more diffused type of light is usually used.
Back Light: Back light is illumination from behind the subject. Its main purpose is to show the
separation between the subject and the background. Since the television screen is a two
dimensional object, it is necessary to imply the third dimension with light. Without the
backlight, the subject and the background tend to blend together, but when correctly applied,
the back light subtly rims the subject with light, which visually separates the subject from the
background. The back light is set at about a 45 degree angle. It must be used with care, since its
intensity should vary according to the relative quality of the hair, etc. Blonds and bald people
get less back lighting than those having dark hair.
contoured reflector. Often used as a fill light. Cyclorama Strip Light (cyc strip): An rectangular
Side light: Side light is sometimes used as an alternative to the standard three point lighting set
up. It is helpful to light this way for people with glasses because there are no reflections of the
lights in the glasses. It still involves a main, key source, and a soft fill, except the lights are aimed
almost directly from the side.
Background light: The purpose of the background light is to establish a "base level of overall
dimmer than the lights on the performers. Background lights are similar to back lights in that
they are both used to create a feeling of depth and dimension in a two dimensional medium.
"Slashing" the drapes is to light them with an oblique beam of light that creates a highlight line
or "slash" across them.
Barndoors - The flaps attached to the front of the instrument, they are manipulated to prevent
light from striking unwanted areas.
Flags - A Device which can also block out light. Flags can be mounted on a light stand or in the
lighting grid. Flags create harder edges where the light is cut off, than barndoors do, and can
also block off unwanted light.
Diffusion - Diffusion scatters light, creating soft, somewhat blurred shadow edges, and less
severe modeling. Diffusion also act to reduce the intensity of an instrument without significantly
affecting the instruments color temperature. Diffusion is available in a variety of materials.
Diffusion can be mounted in a "gel frame" or attached to the instruments barndoors with
clothes pins.
Scrims - A wire screen used to cut down the amount of light emulating from an instrument. It is
inserted between the lens and the barndoors. They do not significantly alter the shadow pattern
or color temperature produced by a light.
lighting" on the set, and to illuminate the set pieces. These lights are usually considerably
Gels - The generic nickname for a vast array of colored tough, heat resistant, polyester, film-like
products used in front of lights. Their purpose is to alter the color characteristics of the lights to
which they are attached. Gels are mounted in a "gel frame" or attached to the instruments
Footcandle - Refers to the amount of light falling on a one-foot square surface from a candle
placed one foot away.
Light Meter - A device used to measure the quantity of light (in foot candles). The camera
requires a minimum amount of light to render an acceptable image.
Color Temperature - Color temperature refers to the redness or blue-white quality of light,
certain color temperatures are required for color TV. Cameras are calibrated for a specific color
temperature, the lighting should remain reasonably close to that temperature range. You should
also know that when you dim a light, its color temperature drops, becoming more red based.
Motivated Light Source - As an example, if a person were indoors near a desk lamp, the lamp
might appear to be the main source of subject illumination. "Regardless of the type of fixture or
its location on the set, if that light is the main, apparent source of subject illumination, it is by
default the key light".
2.14 PRODUCTION CONTROL ROOM
barndoors with clothes pins.
The production control room (PCR), also known as the "gallery" or Studio Control Room
(SCR), is the place in a television studio in which the composition of the outgoing
program takes place. Facilities in a PCR include:
A video monitor wall, with monitors for program, preview, VTRs, cameras, graphics and
other video sources. In some facilities, the monitor wall is a series of racks containing
with a virtual monitor wall (sometimes called a "glass cockpit"), one or more large video
screens, each capable of displaying multiple sources in a simulation of a monitor wall.
A vision mixer, a large control panel used to select the video sources to be seen on air
and, in many cases, in any monitors on the set. The term 'vision mixer' is primarily used
in Europe, while the term 'switcher' is usually used in North America.
An audio mixing console and other audio equipment such as effects devices.
A character generator, which creates the majority of the names and full screen graphics
that are inserted into the program
Digital video effects, or DVE, for manipulation of video sources. In newer vision mixers,
the DVE is integrated into the vision mixer; older models without built-in DVE's can
often control external DVE devices, or an external DVE can be manually run by an
operator.
A still store, or still frame, device for storage of graphics or other images. While the
name suggests that the device is only capable of storing still images, newer still stores can
store moving video clips.
The technical director's station, with waveform monitors, vectorscopes and the CCUs or
remote control panels for the CCUs.
In some facilities, VTRs may also be located in the PCR, but are also often found in the
central machine room
Intercom and IFB equipment for communication with talent and crew
physical television and computer monitors; in others, the monitor wall has been replaced
The multi camera outputs are feed into the production switcher. We get a
finished video content from the production switcher. Similarly the finished audio content
from the audio mixer is obtained. The separate Video and Audio content are embedded or
mixed after the time correction.
Generally the video content passes through much more number of stages of processing so
there develops a time lag between the video and audio source. The time lag of video
signals need to be eliminated by delaying the audio signal. So a time correction or audio
delay is done. The class of equipments which does time correction, embedding of audio
There could be other functions which could be required at this stage such as format
conversion, frame conversion, chroma keying etc all these are done by various types OF
glues. The finished content is transferred to a video server or a VTR (VTR is device
which record the content into tapes). The feature of production switcher and audio mixer
would be discussed later once I would have described the outline of the complex system.
2.14.1 CENTRAL APPARATUS ROOM
If I take the Kingdom analogy that far its akin to the armoury of fort. I am not saying it
the central armoury as there
is CAR
of MCR (Master
Control Room).
There are number of equipments which generates lot of heat and need to rack mounted
and separated from there control console. These parts of the equipment or equipments are
kept in CAR. A sample list could be CCU, RCP, MCP, Glues, Video server etc.
2.15 MASTER CONTROL ROOM
signals into video etc are called GLUES.
The master control room houses equipment that is too noisy or runs too hot for the
production control room. It also makes sure that wire lengths and installation
requirements keep within manageable lengths, since most high-quality wiring runs only
between devices in this room. This can include:
The actual circuitry and connection boxes of the vision mixer, DVE and character
generator devices
camera control units
VTRs
patch panels for reconfiguration of the wiring between the various pieces of equipment.
In a broadcast station in the US, master control room or "MCR" is the place where the
on-air signal is controlled. It may include controls to play back programs and
commercials, switch local or network feeds, record satellite feeds and monitor the
transmitter(s), or these items may be in an adjacent equipment rack room. The term
"studio" usually refers to a place where a particular local program is originated. If the
program is broadcast live, the signal goes from the production control room to MCR and
then out to the transmitter.
The integration team at TV Pro Gear handles every step of the creation of a
complete Master Control Room. There are many parts that need to work together
seamlessly in order for a Master Control Room to be a success. Our experts pay careful
attention to each aspect of the rooms we design in order to ensure a finished product that
fully suits the needs our clients.
We leave nothing out of our Master Control Rooms. We work with our clients to
develop the best possible solutions for each part of their project. We take care of
everything from the monitoring system, to storage solutions, to furniture, to setting up a
24-hour automated playout system.
As a systems integrator, we are entirely brand agnostic giving us the ability to choose
the equipment that best suits our clients' needs rather than worrying about loyalty to a
specific manufacturer. Our team will work alongside you to select the gear that will
combine to create the finest solution available.
We handle very basic solutions for smaller clients to very large installations where
dozens of monitors and several workstations are required. Our integration team brings all
upon completion.
In addition to constructing Master Control Rooms from the ground up, our team can
upgrade existing systems. Whether you are looking to just add a few monitors or give
you control room a complete makeover, we are certain to have a solution that fits your
needs. As high definition becomes the norm, upgrading is often an essential step in
keeping up with the rest of the pack. TV Pro Gear has tremendous experience in
handling these type of system upgrades and our expertise is certain to benefit you greatly.
A control room is a room serving as an operations centre where a facility or service can
be monitored and controlled. Examples include:
in television production, the master control room is an operations center for a network or
station, or the production control room of a television studio or color suite
each recording studio typically has its own control room where the recording is actually made.
2.16 TELECINE EQUIPMENTS
many television programs originate from photographic cine films, usually of 35mm and
16mm.
it is used for simple editing or add visual effects.
three types of equipment are used,

1. projector telecing
of the equipment together, finishing all of the wiring and cabling for a very clean look
2. flying spot scanner
3. digital ccd telecine
The parts of a flying spot scanner: (A) Cathode-ray tube (CRT); (B) photon beam; (C) & (D)
dichroic mirrors; (E), (F) & (G) red-, green- and blue-sensitive photomultipliers.
The CRT emits a pixel-sized electron beam which is converted to a photon beam
through the phosphors coating the envelope. This dot of light is then focused by a lens
onto the film's emulsion, and finally collected by a pickup device. In 1950 the first Rank
flying spot monochrome telecine was installed at the BBC's Lime Grove Studios.[7] The
advantage of the FSS is that colour analysis is done after scanning, so there can be no
registration errors as can be produced by vidicon tubes where scanning is done after
colour separation it also allows simpler dichroics to be used.
In a flying spot scanner (FSS) or cathode-ray tube (CRT) telecine, a pixel-sized
light beam is projected through exposed and developed motion picture film (either
negative or positive) at a phosphor-coated envelope. This beam of light scans across
the film image from left to right to record the vertical frame information. Horizontal
scanning of the frame was then accomplished by moving the film past the CRT beam.
This beam passes through the film image, projecting it pixel-by-pixel onto the pickup
(phosphor-coated envelope). The light from the CRT passes through the film and is
2.16.1 Flying spot scanner
separated by dichroic mirrors and filters into red, green and blue bands. Photomultiplier
tubes or avalanche photodiodes convert the light into separate red, green and blue
electrical signals for further electronic processing. During this time advances were also
made in CRTs, with increased light output producing a better SNR and so allowing
The problem with flying-spot scanners was the difference in frequencies between
television field rates and film frame rates. This was solved first by the Mk. I Polygonal
Prism system, which was optically sychronised to the television frame rate by the rotating
prism and could be run at any frame rate.), the most popular of the series and used a next
generation Digiscan plus other improvements.
2.16.2 Line array CCD
The parts of a CCD scanner: (A) Xenon bulb; (B) film plane; (C) & (D) prisms and/or dichroic
mirrors; (E) ,(F) & (G) red-, green- and blue-sensitive CCDs.
In a charge-coupled device Line Array CCD telecine, a white light is shone through the
exposed film image into a prism, which separates out the image into the three primary
colors, red, green and blue. Each beam of colored light is then projected at a different
CCD, one for each color. The CCD converts the light into electrical impulses which the
telecine electronics modulate into a video signal which can then be recorded onto video
tape or broadcast.
2.17 HELICAL AND AST SYSTEM
negative film to be used.
2.17.1 THE HELICAL SCAN SYSTEM
In an audio cassette deck, which only registers audio signals, the tape passes over a static
recording/playback head at constant speed. The higher the speed of the tape, the more
tape particles pass the head opening and the higher the frequencies that can be registered.
entire tone range, up to 18,000 or 20,000 Hz, despite a slow tape speed of no more than
4.75 centimeters per second.
However, to register video signals, a range of 3.2 MHz is required and so a tape speed of
approximately 5 meters per second is a prerequisite. This is over 100 times as fast as the
tape speed for an audio cassette deck. The required high recording speed for video
recorders is realized by the helical scan system without such high tape speeds. The
system basically consists of a revolving head drum, that has a minimum of two video
heads.
The head drum has a diameter of approximately 5 cm and rotates at a speed of 1500
revolutions per minute. The 1/2" (12.65 mm) wide videotape is guided around half the
surface of this drum, in a slightly oblique manner. This is achieved by positioning the
head drum at a slight angle. The tape guidance mechanism then ensures that the tape is
guided through the device at a speed of approximately 2 cm per second (half of the low
tape speed that is used in audio cassette decks).
2.17.2 AST
AUTOMATIC TRACKING
Track-while-scan systems are tracking systems for surveillance radars
whose nominal scan time (revisit time) is from 4 to 12 s. If the probability of detection (WD) per
scan is high, if accurate target location measurements are made, if the target density is low, and
if there are only a few false alarms, the design of the correlation logic and tracking filter is
straightforward. However in a realistic radar environment these assumptions are seldom valid,
and the design of the automatic tracking system is complicated. In actual situations one
Thanks to the extremely narrow head opening, it is possible to record and play back the
encounters target fades (changes in signal strength caused by multipath propagation, blind
speeds, and atmospheric conditions), false alarms (caused by noise. clutter, interference, and
jamming), and poor radar parameter estimates (caused by noise, unstabilized antennas,
unresolved targets, target splits, multipath propagation, and propagation effects). The tracking
system must deal with all these problems. A generic track-white-scan will be considered first.
automatic tracking. Track-While-Scan System A general outline of a track-while-scan system is

presented. Next, since a major portion of any tracking s~stem must deal with manipulating a
large amount of data efficiently. a typical file system and pointer system arc described. Then the
contact entry logic, coordinate systems, tracking filter, maneuver-following logic, track initiation,
and correlation logic are discussed in detail. % S0 ,Oteri ,atni iziu , Almost all track-while-scan
systems operate on an azimuthal sector basis that provides basic system timing. For instance, if
the radar has reported all the detections in sector I I and is now in sector 12, the tracking
program would start by correlating ( trt(o associate) the clutter points (stationar, tracks) in s ctor
10 w ith detections in sectors 9 . 10 , II. Those detections that arc associated with clutter points
a. deleted (are not used for further correlations) from the detection anfdil ea re used to update
the clutter points. Next. firm tracks in sector 8 are correlated with detections in sectors 7, 8, and
9. BN this time all clutter points have becn removed from sectors 9 and below. Those detections
that are associated with firm tracks are deleted from the detection file and arc used to update
the appropriate track.
REFERENCE:
This will be followed by a discussion of maximum likelihood, multiple scan approaches to
TELEVISION TRANSMISSION SYSTEM, PROPAGATION AND

ANTENNAS
SYLLABUS
REQUIREMENTS OF TV Broadcast Transmission
Design principle of TV Transmitters
IF Modulation
power output stages
Block diagram of TV transmitters
visual exciter
Aural Exciter
Diplexer
Transmitting antennas
Radio wave Characteristics
propagation phenomena
space wave propagation
UNIT III
Line of sight range
space wave reception over smooth terrain
distance reception
Co channel interference
Ghost images
interference problem
Receiving antenna requirements
characteristics and types
parasitic elements
Yagi aerials
Feeders matching
booster amplifiers.
3.1 REQUIREMENTS OF TV BROADCAST TRANSMISSION
Broadcasting means transmission in all directions by electromagnetic waves from the

transmitting station. Broadcasting, that deals mostly with entertainment and advertising, is
probably the most familiar use of television. Millions of television sets in use around the world
attest to its extreme popularity. Most programmes produced live in the studio are recorded on
video tape at a convenient time to be shown later. Initially television transmission was confined
to the VHF band only but later a large number of channel allocations were made in the UHF
band also. The distance of transmission, as explained earlier, is confined to line of the sight
between the transmitting and receiving antennas. The useful service range is up to 120 km for
Shadow zones
VHF stations and about 60 km for UHF stations. Television broadcasting initially started with
monochrome picture but around 1952 colour transmission was introduced. Despite its
complexity and higher cost, colour television has become such a commercial success that it is
3.2 DESIGN PRINCIPLE OF TV TRANSMITTERS

Transmission and reception involve the components of a television system that
generate, transmit, and utilize the television signal wave form (as shown in the block diagram).
The scene to be televised is focused by a lens on an image sensor located within the camera.
This produces the picture signal, and the synchronization and blanking pulses are then added,
establishing the complete composite video wave form. The composite video signal and the
sound signal are then imposed on a carrier wave of a specific allocated frequency and
transmitted over the air or over a cable network.
fast superseding the monochrome system.
3.3 IF MODULATION
Each IF stage is a tuned amplifier. Because of the selective properties of the tuned
amplifier the gain is quite large and falls off sharply at frequencies that lie on either side of the
other. This circuit arrangement is where Cin and Cout are the self shunting capacitances of the
input and output circuits respectively.
Several tuned amplifier stages are cascaded together to provide a large gain to amplify
the weak RF signal received from the mixer. Each stage operates under class A condition for
minimum distortion. At least one stage is AGC controlled to change the gain in accordance with
changes in the signal picked up by the antenna so as to deliver a signal of almost constant peak to
peak amplitude to the video detector. The last IF stage is not fed with AGC bias because here the
signal amplitude is quite large and any shift in the operating point by the AGC bias would result
in amplitude distortion. The overall design of the video IF strip becomes quite complex because
in addition to gain and bandwidth, matching of tuned circuits, stability, neutralizing and trap
circuits are also to be taken into account for proper functioning of the video IF section.
Neutralizing and matching of tuned circuits were discussed at length in the last chapter. The same
problems are there in the video IF stages. However, here matching and neutralization
passband. In some IF circuit designs a double tuned circuit is used for coupling one stage to the
3.4 POWER OUTPUT STAGES
The output power of VHF transmitter employs triodes or tetrodes in grid configuration
and re-entrant cavities.
Transmission line circuits also present their peculiar problems of coupling, etc. to avoid
The pout of UHF employs tetrodes or klystron.

power gains are less
Tetrodes - high efficiency,
klystrons - gains thrice that of tetrodes, high life.
Lower efficiency of klystron amplifier, cooling system must handle a large dissipation.
Modern UHF, employs multicavity klystrons or travelling wave tubes having high power
gain.
The modulator pout required is low and RF drive required is small.
3.5 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF TV TRANSMITTERS
this, we use triodes or tetrodes.
3.6 VISUAL EXCITER
It consists of video processing unit, visual,modulator, VSB filter and phase compensator
3.6.1 Video processing unit:

Video signal input of 1Vpp is processed in stabilizing amplifier and sync regenerator to
reduce noise and distortions. It clamps video signal during back porch and provides linearity
correction.
3.6.2 Visual modulator:

For low level modulator,
a.) A diode bridge modulator

b.) Diode balanced modulator.
It employssolid state devices and no tuning adjustments, provides excellent linearity for
modulation depths below 10%. The output is proportional to potential divides by Rs and Rl. If
lm in series with Eo, the input and output is square wave type with chopped input signal. The
instantaneous amplitude of fundamental is given by,
E0= Ac (1+m sin wmt)cos wct
VSB filter and Phase delay compensator or Equaliser: VSB filter is design with lumped
components, consists four sections of low pass ladder network.
The phase compensator is in-built to compensate phase distortions.
or delay equaliser and frequency converter.
The maximum delay and frequency of m,aximum delay of all-pass sections varied continuously.
3.7 AURAL EXCITER

Audio signal is given to pre-emphasis by high pass network of time constant
50ms. Fed into crystal controller oscillator for FM.
The audio signal voltage applied to varactor diode in paralled with tuned LC oscillator.
The junction capacitances varies with audio bias voltage, causes changes in frequency of
oscillator to produce FM of 33.4MHz.
The 33.4MHz oscillator frequency (f1) and 33.4MHz crystal controlled frequency (f2) are
compare in phase detector produces Vout is proportional to difference between two
frequencies.
When f1 and f2 are same and 90out of phase , Vout =0.
If FM oscillator drifts to higher frequency , detector produces a proportional positive

voltage.
The output of phase detector is directly coupled to second varactor diode through LPF.
3.8 DIPLEXER
The output of both aural and visual transmitters combined by means of diplexer unit.
CIN diplexer:
CIN Constant Impedance Notch
It provides a constant input impedance at input ports. It consists of 3dB DC, 2units of aural
notch cavities connected by coaxial transmission lines.
3.8.1 3dB COUPLERS:
It is 4 port device consiting pair of parallel plates with quarter wavelength.

The width, distance between them and position of end caps are adjusted to achieve properties,
. the power in p4 lags p2 by 90.

2. If equal powers at same frequency are applied at port 2& 4 , with a phase 90
lagging at p4, then combined output at p3 and no power in p1.
3. When p3 is terminated with Z0, port 2 & 4 by any other impedance at p1 equals
Z0.
4. When both p2 and p4 are terminated with Z0, impedance at p1 equals Z0, even if
p3 if p3 is terminated with other impedance.
3.8.2 AURAL NOTCH CAVITY(ANC)

This is tuned precisely to present a short circuit at aural carrier frequency.
The cavity has a very high Q and very low thermal co-efficient because of Inver
material used for inner conductor.
It decreases the effect of ambient temperature changes on the cavity tuning.
3.8.3 FILTERPLEXER:
In high level modulated transmitter, the VSB filter is located at output ,
so filter and diplexer can integrated into single unit called filterplexer.
3.8.4 TRANSMITTING ANTENNAS:

Generally , the operating bw must large and VSWR must less than 1.1 over
the channel BW of 7MHz.
The antenna should have omnidirectional pattern for a broadcast service.
Vertical stacking is used to increase directivity in vertical plane.
1. When Pv is I port1 , half power appears in P2 and other half in P4, no power in P3
Circular pattern in horizontal plane obtained by turnstile.
3.8.5 TURNSTILE ANTENNA

In this, 2 crossed dipoles are used anmd fed in quadrature in 90 out of phase.
Each dipole has a figure-of-eight pattern in horizontal plane, crossed each other.
to give broadband characteristics.
3.8.6 DIPOLE PANEL ANTENNA SYSTEM

Each panel consists of full wave dipoles mountedin front of reflectors. The array
is formed by 4 or 8 dipoles having elliptical flat cross section to reduce wind
resistances and losses.
The dipoles on side A are fed by cable length, L.
The dipoles on side B are fed by cable length (L+/4).
The dipoles on C are fed by L reversing the polarity of feed.
If radiation pattern is desired to directed only on three sides of antenna
tower , to give a cardoid pattern.
3.10 RADIOWAVE CHARACTERISTICS

Radiowave is an electrical power escaping into free space from flow of
high frequency currents in aerial circuit.
The isotrophic radiation radiation source radiating equally in all directions,
The relation between electric field,E and powerdensity,P is analogous between
voltage and power.
3.11 PROPAGATION PHENOMENA

They propogated waves may change in,
1. reflected by grounds, building ,etc
2. may be refracted and change direction through layers of atmosphere.
Superturnstile or batwing type antenna composed of number of crossed dipoles
3. Diffracted around tall massive objects.
4. Microwave frequency waves may absorbed and attenuated through media
containing water vapour, oxygen, etc.
1, the light absorption: the light is a flow of energy in the propagation of light through the
material will cause the material to make atomic valence electron transitions, or vibration, so
that part of light energy into heat, resulting in the attenuation of light energy, which
phenomenon is known as the light absorption. Absorbed light intensity is proportional to the
thickness of the absorber.
2, the reflection of light: light from a medium fired another cross-media interface, part of the
light back to the original medium, the light propagation direction is changed, a phenomenon
known as the reflection of light. Light of the law of reflection: reflection of light and incident
light, normal in the same plane; reflected light and incident light separated the sides in the
normal; angle of reflection equals angle of incidence can be summarized as: "three-coplanar,
two-line separation, the two angles are equal. "
3, the refraction of light: when light from one medium to another medium oblique, the direction
of change in its spread of this phenomenon is called refraction of light. Refraction of light, its
frequency unchanged, but the wavelength and velocity changes. Refraction, the refraction of
light, light rays, normal in the same plane, the refracted light and the normal incident light are
located on both sides. Refraction with the angle of incidence is changed, but the two months.
4, light scattering: a beam of light through the media outside the main part of the propagation
of light, a phenomenon known as light scattering. Is the essence of the phenomenon of
electromagnetic waves with the medium molecular interaction. Is the scattering of light atoms
or molecules to get energy from the incident light wave, the change in propagation direction
and phase, and even change the frequency of re-radiation process.
Light absorption, reflection, refraction, scattering and diffraction of the definition of
1. Radio Wave's Directness

As a frequency gets higher, the wave length gets shorter, and the directness and
refractiveness increase, It approaches the properties of light.
Also, if there is an obstacle that is hard for the radio wave to pass through, on the other
side of this obstacle, the radio wave becomes weak, it refracts and multi-path noise
(feedback) occurs.
* Basically, when a wave length is long, the cordless phone's antenna should be long. However,
when a wave length is short, the antenna should be also be short, This is why the length of
antenna of the 900 MHz cordless phone is shorter than 43/49Mhz cordless phone.
2. Noise Occurrence
When a radio wave is weak, (when the electric signal is small), noise increases. For
example, the further the distance between the base unit and the portable unit (inverse
proportion to distance squared), the radio wave will become weaker And, at a certain
level, the noise (radio wave disturbance). There is also the possibility that the cordless
phone may receive interference when operated near a radio or TV station, electric cable,
etc. Even within a normal transmission range of 100m, if there is a building, a wall or
something that might cause interference, the transmission conditions become worse. In
cases that are extremely bad, the transmission range narrows extremely down to only 5 30m.
3.12 RADIOWAVE CHARACTERISTICS
With the spread of electrical products and the increase of wireless communication
products, noise and interference also occur in large quantities.
In some cases where noise is interfering with the cordless phone's radio waves, as the cause,
which is this noise, cannot be seen by the eye, many people think that the phone is no good or is
3.13 SPACEWAVE PROPAGATION

The radio waves having high frequencies are basically called as space waves.
These waves have the ability to propagate through atmosphere, from transmitter antenna
to receiver antenna. These waves can travel directly or can travel after reflecting from
earths surface to the troposphere surface of earth. So, it is also called as Tropospherical
Propagation. In the diagram of medium wave propagation, c shows the space wave
propagation. Basically the technique of space wave propagation is used in bands having
very high frequencies. E.g. V.H.F. band, U.H.F band etc. At such higher frequencies the
other wave propagation techniques like sky wave propagation, ground wave propagation
cant work. Only space wave propagation is left which can handle frequency waves of
higher frequencies. The other name of space wave propagation is line of sight
propagation. There are some limitations of space wave propagation.
1. These waves are limited to the curvature of the earth.
2. . These waves have line of sight propagation, means their propagation is along the
line of sight distance.
defective. Careful attention concerning this is necessary.
The line of sight distance is that exact distance at which both the sender and
receiver antenna are in sight of each other. So, from the above line it is clear that if we
want to increase the transmission distance then this can be done by simply extending the
heights of both the sender as well as the receiver antenna. This type of propagation is
used basically in radar and television communication.
The frequency range for television signals is nearly 80 to 200MHz. These waves are not
reflected by the ionosphere of the earth. The property of following the earths curvature is
also missing in these waves. So, for the propagation of television signal, geostationary
satellites are used. The satellites complete the task of reflecting television signals towards
earth. If we need greater transmission then we have to build extremely tall antennas.
3.14 LINE OF SIGHT RANGE

There are limits to the reach of radar signals. At the frequencies normally used for radar,
radio waves usually travel in a straight line. The waves may be obstructed by
weather or shadowing, and interference may come from other aircraft or from reflections
from ground objects .an aircraft may not be detected because it is below the radar line which is
tangent to the earths surface. Some rules of thumb are:
3.14.1 Range (to horizon):
RNM= 1.23 hradar with h in ft
Range (beyond horizon / over earth curvature):
In obtaining the radar horizon equations, it is common practice to assume a value for
the Earth's radius that is 4/3 times the actual radius. This is done to account for the effect of the
atmosphere on radar propagation. For a true line of sight, such as used for optical search and
rescue, the constant in the equations changes from 1.23 to 1.06. A nomograph for determining
maximum target range. Although an aircraft is shown to the left, it could just as well be a ship,
with radars on a mast of height "h". Any target of height (or altitude) "H" is depicted on the right
side.
RNM= 1.23 hradar + htarget with h in ft
It is due to 2 rays
1. direct LOS wave having pathlength,r0
2. reflected ray r1,r2 from point on earth surface.
Fig: space wave reception by direct and reflect waves

When d >> ht and hr, the phase difference is very small,little change of magnitude and phase
angle takes place at point of reflection,
3.15 SPACE WAVE RECEPTION OVER SMOOTH TERRAIN
For horizontal polarization, E=0 close to ground , but rises almost linearly with hr above earth
3.16 DISTANCE RECEPTION
Distance of TV signals , far beyond LOS range is sometimes possible due to bending or
diffraction.
VHF frequency pass through all ionized layers.
During abnormal conditions of ionosphere , such as periods of high sunspot activity

lower VHF band I signals may be influenced by high ionization.
The abnormal ionospheric conditions are affected by tropospheric conditions.
The LOS distance propagation is extended by tropospheric bending by refraction

through atmospheric layers and diffraction effects on earths curvature.
Tropospheric propagation occurs mostly on band I and lower channels of band III.
For good distance reception , irt is necessary to have,

i)
highly sensitive receiver at low noise figure
ii)
good high gain directive aerial system.
3.17 SHAWDOW ZONES

shadow zone is an area of the Earth's surface where seismographs cannot
detect an earthquake after its seismic waves have passed through the Earth. When an
earthquake occurs, seismic waves radiate out spherically from the earthquake's focus. The
primary seismic waves are refracted by the liquid outer core of the Earth and are not
detected between 104 and 140 (between approximately 11,570 and 15,570 km / 7,190
surface.
and 9,670 miles) from the epicenter. The secondary seismic waves cannot pass through
the liquid outer core and are not detected more than 104 (approximately 11,570 km /
The reason for this is that the velocity for P-waves and S-waves is governed by both the
different properties in the material which they travel through and the different
mathematical relationships they share in each case. The three properties are:
incompressibility (k), density (p) and rigidity (u). P-wave velocity is equal to
where as S-wave velocity is equal to
and so S-wave velocity
is entirely dependent on the rigidity of the material it travels through. Liquids, however,
have zero rigidity, hence always making the S-wave velocity overall zero and as such Swaves lose all velocity when traveling through a liquid. P-waves, however, are only
partially dependent on rigidity and as such still maintain some velocity (if greatly
reduced) when traveling through a liquid. [3] Analysis of the seismology of various
recorded earthquakes and their shadow zones, led geologist Richard Oldham to deduce in
1906 the liquid nature of the Earth's outer core.
3.18 CO-CHANNEL INTERFERENCE

Co-channel interference or CCI is crosstalk from two different radio transmitters using
the same frequency. There can be several causes,four examples are listed here.
Cellular Mobile Networks: In cellular mobile communication (GSM & LTE Systems, for
instance), frequency spectrum is a precious resource which is divided into non-
7,190 miles) from the epicenter.
overlapping spectrum bands which are assigned to different cells (In cellular
communications, a cell refers to the hexagonal/circular area around the base station
antenna). However, after certain geographical distance, the frequency bands are reused, i.e. the same spectrum bands are re-assigned to other distant cells. The Cochannel interference arises in the cellular mobile networks owing to this phenomenon
same frequencies arrive at the receiver from the undesired transmitters located (far
away) in some other cells and lead to deterioration in receiver performance.
Adverse weather conditions: During periods of abnormally high-pressure weather, VHF

signals which would normally exit through the atmosphere can instead be reflected by
the troposphere. This tropospheric ducting will cause the signal to travel much further
than intended; often causing interference to local transmitters in the areas affected by
the increased range of the distant transmitter.
Poor frequency planning: Poor planning of frequencies by broadcasters can cause CCI,
although this is rare. A very localised example is Listowel in the south-west of Ireland.
The RTNL UHF television transmitter systems in Listowel and Knockmoyle (near Tralee)
are on the same frequencies but with opposite polarisation. However in some outskirts
of Listowel town, both transmitters can be picked up causing heavy CCI. This problem
forces residents in these areas to use alternative transmitters to receive RT
programming.
Overly-crowded radio spectrum: In many populated areas, there just isn't much room in
the radio spectrum. Stations will be jam-packed in, sometimes to the point that one can
hear loud and clear two, three, or more stations on the same frequency, at once. In the
USA, the FCC propagation models used to space stations on the same frequency are not
always accurate in prediction of signals and interference An example of this situation is
in some parts of Fayetteville, Arkansas the local 99.5 FM KAKS is displaced by KXBL 99.5
FM in Tulsa, particularly on the west side of significant hills. Another example would be
of Cleveland's WKKY 104.7 having interference from Toledo's WIOT 104.7 FM on the
Ontario shore of Lake Erie, as well as Woodstock's CIHR-FM (on rare occasions), which is
also on 104.7 FM, due to the signals travelling very far across Lake Erie.
of Frequency reuse. Thus, besides the intended signal from with in the cell, signals at the
Co-channel interference
may be controlled by various radio resource management
schemes.
3.19 INTERFERENCE PROBLEMS
Nearly half of all reception problems are due to deficiencies or faults in the television
receiver, the aerial lead or the aerial. The following information will help you to check
whether the problem you are having is due to one of these causes.
Portable television sets fitted with an inbuilt aerial or a set-top aerial are prone to a
number of reception problems. Where these reception problems are experienced, the set
should be fitted with an aerial lead and an externally mounted aerial. The following
advice applies only to television sets having an outside aerial.
3.19.2 SOURCE OF INTERFERENCE

In many cases the source, if it is in your own home, will be obvious because the
interference to your TV appears when something (eg electric drill) is being used. Where
the source of interference isn't immediately obvious, try to locate it by switching off in
turn everything in the home while someone watches the effect on the TV screen.
Alternatively, if you have a portable radio and can hear the interference on it, take the
radio from room to room to find where the interference is loudest.
All modern electrical equipment is manufactured to regulations requiring that
interference suppressors are fitted. If you find that one of your appliances is causing
interference and the appliance is still under guarantee, send it back with a request that it
be put right. Otherwise, ask an electrical dealer to fit a suppressor to it. Under no
circumstances should you attempt this internal modification yourself.
3.19.3 RADIO TRANSMITTER INTERFERENCE:
3.19.1 INTRODUCTION
Radio transmitters are used for communication by Citizens' Band enthusiasts, radio
amateurs, radio taxis and many other licensed and authorized services. Strong radio
transmissions from any of these sources could affect your set.
In many cases there is no fault with the radio transmitter and the radio operator is not to
signals which it should not receive. In such cases, the TV set is said to be lacking in
immunity.
3.20 RECEIVING ANTENNA REQUIREMENTS

FM (frequency modulated) radio and TV waves don't act in the same way as AM radio
waves. For starters, they are on a higher frequency in the RF spectrum
(The name RF, for radio frequency, was obviously named for radio, but when TV came along
they just stuck with the name).
The FM radio band goes from 88 to 108 MHz (megahertz, or millions of cycles per
second). Again, you can see these numbers on your FM radio dial.
To keep from interfering with each other FM stations must be 200kHz apart within the
same geographic area. However, since the signals of FM stations cover only limited
distances, the same frequencies can be used in different geographic areas of the country.
Unlike AM radio stations, FM stations, at least in the United States, don't end up being
assigned frequencies with nice round numbers like 820 or 1240. Thus, an FM station may
be at 88.7 on the dial.
You may have noticed that FM stations don't reduce power or sign off the air at
sunset. Because of their higher frequency ionospheric refraction doesn't appreciably
affect FM or TV signals.
blame. The problem occurs because the TV set is not designed well enough to resist
For the most part, FM and TV signals are line-of-sight. Although this means that FM
stations don't interfere with each other, this characteristic creates a couple of other
problems.
First, these waves go in a straight line and don't bend around the earth as AM ground
waves do. Thus, they can quickly disappear into space.
So, the farther away from the FM or TV station you are, the higher you have to have an
antenna to receive the FM or TV signal. Note that the earth is round we hope this
doesn't come as a shock to anyone and, therefore, these signals will literally leave the
earth after 50 miles or so.
And, there's another problem. Since FM and TV signals are line-of-sight, they can be
stopped or reflected by things like mountains and buildings. In the case of solid objects
like buildings, reflections create ghost images in TV pictures and that "swishing sound"
when you listen to FM radio while driving around tall structures.
The higher the FM or TV transmitter antennas are the greater area they will cover
which explains why these antennas are commonly very tall, or placed on the top of
mountains. AM radio doesn't need that kind of advantage, since, as we've seen, AM
radio waves don't behave in the same way.
Note also from the drawing above that FM and TV signals tend to go through the
ionosphere rather than being refracted form it. Again, this means that no matter what the
station's power, it's signal will at some point leave the earth.
Antenna Gain
Independent of the use of a given antenna for transmitting or receiving, an important
characteristic of this antenna is the gain. Some antennas are highly directional; that is,
more energy is propagated in certain directions than in others. The ratio between the
amount of energy propagated in these directions compared to the energy that would be
propagated if the antenna were not directional (Isotropic Radiation) is known as its gain.
When a transmitting antenna with a certain gain is used as a receiving antenna, it will
also have the same gain for receiving.
Antenna Pattern
Most radiators emit (radiate) stronger radiation in one direction than in another. A
radiator such as this is referred to as anisotropic. However, a standard method allows the
positions around a source to be marked so that one radiation pattern can easily be
compared with another.
The energy radiated from an antenna forms a field having a definite radiation pattern. A
radiation pattern is a way of plotting the radiated energy from an antenna. This energy is
measured at various angles at a constant distance from the antenna. The shape of this
pattern depends on the type of antenna used.
To plot this pattern, two different types of graphs, rectangular-and polar-coordinate
graphs are used. The polar-coordinated graph has proved to be of great use in studying
radiation patterns. In the polar-coordinate graph, points are located by projection along a
rotating axis (radius) to an intersection with one of several concentric, equally-spaced
circles. The polar-coordinate graph of the measured radiation is shown in Figure 1.
3.21 CHARACTERISTICS AND TYPES OF ANTENNAS
The main beam (or main lobe ) is the region around the direction of maximum radiation
(usually the region that is within 3 dB of the peak of the main beam). The main beam in
Figure 1 is northbound.
The sidelobes are smaller beams that are away from the main beam. These sidelobes are
sidelobe level (or sidelobe ratio) is an important parameter used to characterize radiation
patterns. It is the maximum value of the sidelobes away from the main beam and is
expressed in Decibels. One sidelobe is called backlobe. This is the portion of radiation
pattern that is directed opposing the main beam direction.
Beam Width
The angular range of the antenna pattern in which at least half of the maximum power is
still emitted is described as a Beam With. Bordering points of this major lobe are
therefore the points at which the field strength has fallen in the room around 3 dB
regarding the maximum field strength. This angle is then described as beam width or
aperture angle or half power (- 3 dB) angle - with notation (also ). The beamwidth
is exactly the angle between the 2 red marked directions in the upper pictures. The angle
can be determined in the horizontal plane (with notation AZ) as well as in the vertical
plane .
Major and Side Lobes (Minor Lobes)

The pattern shown in the upper figures has radiation concentrated in several lobes. The
radiation intensity in one lobe is considerably stronger than in the other. The strongest
lobe is called major lobe; the others are (minor) side lobes. Since the complex radiation
patterns associated with arrays frequently contain several lobes of varying intensity, you
should learn to use appropriate terminology. In general, major lobes are those in which
the greatest amount of radiation occurs. Side or minor lobes are those in which the
radiation intensity is least.
Front-to-Back Ratio
usually radiation in undesired directions which can never be completely eliminated. The
The front-to-back ratio of an antenna is the proportion of energy radiated in the principal
direction of radiation to the energy radiated in the opposite direction. A high front-toback ratio is desirable because this means that a minimum amount of energy is radiated in
the undesired direction.
The effective aperture of an antenna Ae is the area presented to the radiated or received
signal. It is a key parameter, which governs the performance of the antenna.
Ae = KaA
The aperture efficiency depends on the distribution of the illumination across the
aperture. If this is linear then Ka= 1. This high efficiency is offset by the relatively high
level of sidelobes obtained with linear illumination. Therefore, antennas with more
practical levels of sidelobes have an antenna aperture efficiency less than one (Ae< A).
3.21.1 TYPES
HDTV Antenna
An antenna made for analog TV will work fine for DTV. There is nothing different about an
antenna for DTV or HDTV. Unscrupulous people have labeled their antennas HDTV Antennas
as a marketing ploy. The honest antenna makers have had to re-label their products likewise to
avoid losing sales.
Some terms
Gain a measure of how much signal the antenna will collect.
Beam width how directional an antenna is.
Bandwidth how the gain varies with frequency. A narrowband antenna will receive some
channels well, but other channels poorly.
Aperture
The Dipole
This is the simplest TV antenna. Variations on the dipole are the bowtie (which has wider
bandwidth), the folded-dipole (which can solve an efficiency problem) and the loop (a variation
(doughnut shape). The gain is generally 2.15 dBi. dBi means dB of improvement over an
isotropic radiator, which is an antenna that radiates equally in all directions. This sounds like a
discussion of transmitting antennas, and it could be. An antenna will have the same gain when
receiving as when transmitting, and also the same radiation pattern.
The dipole has positive gain because it does not radiate equally in all directions. This is a
universal truth. To get more gain, an antenna must radiate in fewer directions. Imagine a
spherical balloon. Now press on it from opposite sides with a finger of each hand. Push in until
your fingers meet. The result looks like the torroid above. But more importantly, the balloon
expanded in the other directions. A-hah! Gain! Thats the way antennas work.
on the folded dipole). All four have the same gain and the same radiation field: a torroid
Keep this balloon analogy in mind. More complicated antennas work by reducing radiation in
most directions. They distort the balloon considerably, but the volume of the balloon remains
Another rating system for antennas uses dBd, which means dB of improvement over a dipole
antenna. To convert dBd to dBi, just add 2.15. Antenna makers specify their gains in dB. They
actually mean dBd, but given the way they exaggerate their claims, dBi is usually closer to the
truth.
In the US, TV antennas are always horizontal. If you rotate an antenna about the forward axis (a
line from the transmitting antenna) the signal strength will vary as the cosine of the angle. In
other words, when the antenna elements are vertical, no signal is received because TV signals
have horizontal polarization.
Stacked Dipoles
Two heads are better than one, and so it is with dipoles. N dipoles will take in N times as much
RF power as one dipole, provided they are not too close to each other. Thus a 4-dipole antenna
would have a gain of 8.15 dBi. (That is 2.15 dBi doubled once (plus 3 dB) and doubled again
(plus another 3 dB).) This assumes their positions and cable lengths are adjusted so that their
signals add in-phase. This explanation of gain may seem at odds with the balloon explanation,
but ultimately they are equivalent. (Adding dipoles does not increase the volume of the balloon
because phase cancellation occurs in some directions.)
constant.
Dipoles are commonly stacked horizontally (collinearly), vertically (broadside), and in echelon
When dipoles are stacked horizontally, the horizontal beam width becomes very narrow. This is
because they do not add in-phase for directions not straight ahead. Similarly, when stacked
vertically, the vertical beam width becomes narrower.
Lets say you are 20 miles from a city and TV transmitters are scattered all over the city. A
medium gain antenna might be too weak, but a high gain antenna would be so directional you
would need a rotor. Solution: A bunch of dipoles stacked vertically would give you the gain you
need. The vertical narrowness of the resulting beam is of little importance, but the horizontal
broadness of the beam means no rotor needed.
Reflector Antennas
Radio waves will reflect off of a large conducting plane as if it was a mirror. A coarse screen
works just as as well. Reflector antennas are very common.
(end-fire).
The double bow-tie above has an average gain of 6 dBi. With a bigger screen it would have
more. The parabolic reflector focuses the signal onto a single dipole, but its bandwidth is a little
disappointing. The corner reflector has a little less gain but much greater bandwidth. The
corner reflector has roughly the gain of three dipoles. It is a good medium gain antenna, widely
used for UHF. If you need more than 25 dBi then the paraboloid dish is the only practical choice,
but they are huge.
Log-Periodic Dipole Arrays (LPDA)
The LPDA has several dipoles arranged in echelon and criss-cross fed from the front. The name
This is a very wideband antenna with a gain of up to about 7 dBi. For any frequency, only about
three of the elements are carrying much current. The other elements are inactive. As frequency
increases, the active elements move toward the front of the array. Most VHF TV antennas are
LPDAs.
TV LPDAs come in two types: straight and Vee. The Vee type (LPVA) has a very slightly higher
gain for channels 7-13. But this author often favors the straight type since it has nulls 90 to
each side that can be used to cancel out interference.
Yagi Antennas
comes from the geometric growth, which is logarithmic.
A Yagi antenna has several elements arranged in echelon. They are connected together by a
long element, called the boom. The boom carries no current. If the boom is an insulator, the
The rear-most element is called the reflector. The next element is called the driven
element. All the remaining elements are called directors. The directors are about 5% shorter
than the driven element. The reflector is about 5% longer than the driven element. The driven
element is usually a folded dipole or a loop. It is the only element connected to the cable. Yet
the other elements carry almost as much current.
The Yagi is the most magical of all antennas. The more directors you add, the higher the gain
becomes. Gains above 20 dBi are possible. But the Yagi is a narrowband antenna, often
intended for a single frequency. As frequency increases above the design frequency, the gain
declines abruptly. Below the design frequency, the gain falls off more gradually. When a Yagi is
to cover a band of frequencies, it must be designed for the highest frequency of the band.
An antenna has an aperture area, from which it captures all incoming radiation. The aperture of
a Yagi is round and its area is proportional to the gain. As the leading elements absorb power,
diffraction bends the adjacent rays in toward the antenna.
3.22 PARASITIC ELEMENTS
antenna works the same.
The driven element
The driven element(s) is/are connected to the feed line. In yagi antennas for ham radio,
there is usually just one driven element. This element is sometimes physically shortened
by inductive loading. It might contain traps so that it resonates on more than one band. It
The driven element is a dipole.

With a gamma match driven element, the elements may be, or not be electrically
connected.
The driven element can be either as an electrically separate dipole or together with the
boom and the other elements, as a gamma match.
When several parasitic antennas are operated together, such as in a collinear or stacked
array, there are several driven elements. Each driven element receives a portion of the
output power of the transmitter. Generally, the power is divided equally among all of the
driven elements. [In some phased arrays, all of the elements are driven.]
is half wave resonant, is center fed, and by itself would be a dipole antenna.
The driven element in a parasitic array is always resonant at the operating frequency. The
parasitic elements are usually (but not always) slightly off resonance; the directors are
generally tuned to a higher frequency than that of the driven element, and the reflector is
generally set to a lower frequency (thus longer). The impedance of the driven element, at
the feed point, is a pure resistance when the antenna is operated at its resonant frequency.
is low compared to that of a dipole in free space.

For the purpose of providing an impedance match between a driven element and a
transmission line, the driven element can be folded or bent into various configurations.
Among the most common matching systems are the delta, gamma and T networks.
Sometimes the driven element is a folded dipole rather than a single conductor.
Dipole as the driven element
The basic design uses a dipole as a driven element. It is resonant when the electrical
length is 1/2 of the wavelength, for the used frequency, applied to the feed point. Folded
Dipoles are commonly used in Yagi design.
Parasitic elements - Reflector - Director

A parasitic element is an element that is not directly connected to the feed line. Parasitic
elements are used for the purpose of obtaining directional power gain. Generally,
parasitic elements can be classified as either directors or reflectors, hence they work in
opposite ways.
Parasitic elements operate by electromagnetic coupling to the driven element. Parasitic
elements are parallel to a radiating element, at a specific distance from it, and of a certain
length, causes the radiation pattern to show gain in one direction and loss in the opposite
direction. For many years now, Yagi's principle is used at high frequencies by amateur
and commercial radio operators.
When parasitic elements are near the driven elemt, the impedance of the driven element
At high frequencies, parasitic elements are often used in directional antennas. The most
common of these are the quad antenna and the Yagi antenna.
3.23 BOOSTER AMPLIFIERS

As radio communication systems developed the receivers became more and more
The present day sets give a similar picture with an antenna signal strength of about 50 V in the
lower VHF range. In areas where the signal strength is somewhat less, raising the antenna or
using an antenna that is directional and has higher gain results in an acceptable picture. However,
in deep fringe areas where the signal from the desired station is very weak and fails to produce
any worthwhile picture, an additional RF amplifier external to the receiver becomes necessary.
Such amplifiers are known as booster amplifiers and are normally mounted on the antenna mast
close to the antenna terminals. A booster amplifiers is a broad-band transistor RF amplifier
designed to have a reasonable gain but a very high internal signal-to-noise ratio. It may be
emphasized that a booster capable of providing a high gain but incapable of providing a good
signal-to-noise ratio will give a picture with lot of snow. Similarly, a booster amplifier having
minimum internal noise but low gain will fail to provide a satisfactory picture. Thus a booster
amplifier must have both the attributes, i.e. reasonable gain and high signal-to-noise ratio. In
booster amplifiers that employ only one transistor, either a grounded-emitter or a grounded-base
configuration is used. Though the grounded-emitter arrangement gives a somewhat higher gain
the grounded-base configuration is more stable and is therefore preferred. Such amplifiers are
untuned and are designed to give a small boost to signals from several nearby stations. However,
when the interest is in a single station a tuned amplifier can be used to yield higher gain.
REFERENCE:
sensitive. Early TV receivers needed 200 to 300 V of signal for a picture of reasonable quality.
UNIT IV
TELEVISION RECEIVER SYSTEM
SYLLABUS
Specifications
VHF/UHF tuner with AFT
Digital tuning
Video If amplifier requirements
trap circuit
IF amplifier design SAW filter
video amplifier requirements
design of sound IF Takeoff
Sound If amplifier
FM discriminators.
Picture Tube
Electron Gun
Deflection system characteristics
colour picture tubes
shadow mask
Trinitron
PIL picture tubes
Block diagrams for monochrome and colour receivers
Purity convergence
automatic degaussing
pincushion correction
plasma displays
LCD
Horizontal vertical deflection systems- requirementsEHT generation and regulation
synch separators
SMPS
colour killer
colour decoders
CCD techniques.
4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAMS FOR MONOCHROME AND COLOUR

RECEIVERS
4.1.1MONOCHROME RECEIVERS
flat panel displays
NTSC colour television receivers have two additional controls, known as Colour
and Hue controls. These are provided at the front panel along with other controls. The colour or
saturation control varies the intensity or amount of colour in the reproduced picture. For
example, this control determines whether the leaves of a tree in the picture are dark green or
light green, and whether the sky in the picture is dark blue or light blue. The tint or hue control
selects the correct colour to be displayed. This is primarily used to set the correct skin colour,
since when flesh tones are correct, all other colours are correctly reproduced. It may be noted
that PAL colour receivers do not need any tint control while in SECAM colour receivers, both tint
and saturation controls are not necessary. The reasons for such differences are explained in
chapters exclusively devoted to colour television.
4.1.2 COLOUR RECEIVER
4.2 VHF/UHF TUNER WITH AFT
Employs Electronic tunes for VHF and UHF
Band is selected by tuning varactor diode and switching diodes
They are adaptable to pretuned channel selection, AFT and synthesized digital tuning
For channel selection the electronic tuner are controlled by technique of

i.
voltage synthesis- limited preset channels
ii.
Frequency synthesis- digital voltage synthesis with p/c and stored

program control
4.2.1 VOLTAGE SYNTHESIZED TUNING

Accurate electronic tuning, without any mechanical switching is possible by use of
this frequency synthesizer software controlled software controlled from a microcomputer. It
sets through band switching diode and sequence crystal oscillator through programmable
frequency divider. The error voltage obtained by comparison is proportional to difference
between two frequencies. The scaling down of frequencies to low value makes the PLL
processing practicable and easy implementation. The local oscillator frequency is pre-scaled and
divided by program divider to low value equal to value from crystal control oscillator. The PLL
monitors the oscillator frequency continuously and through phase detector comparator and
locks it to a stable value. The microprocessor can also arrange to display the tuned channel on
the screen itself/LED panel.
4.4 VIDEO IF AMPLIFIER REQUIREMENTS
Contrast depends on video amplifier gain is sharpness; resolution depends on

Bandwidth and phase response.
4.3 DIGITAL TUNING
4.4.1 GAIN
Contrast in black and white saturation in reproduced picture. For full contrast, video
voltages drive about 80 Vp-p. Thus minimum gain is of order 16 to 40. The gain is usually
variable by a negligible feedback in cathode circuit/screen voltage control.
For good reproduction of picture the shape and waveform of video waveform must
preserved. The shape of waveform depends upon frequencies and phase. It is necessary,
i.
All the frequency must amplified equally to maintain same amplitude.
ii.
The relative phases of all components in output is same as input.
It must be noted that phase shift introduced by a system should either be zero or proportional
to the frequency. In practical, video amplifier with two stages having adequate bandwidth, the
phase shift difficulties are not possible. But in multistage amplifier have to employ phase
equalizing circuits to give required phase shift.
4.4.2 BANDWIDTH
The lowest frequency for picture information in the horizontal direction can be
considered as 10 KHz when the camera beam scans all white and all black lines alternately. Note
that the active line period has been taken as 50 s instead of the actual
period of 52 s. Similarly when the beam scans half white and half black lines in succession, the
video frequency generated is 20 KMz.
4.4.3 FEQUENCY DISTORTION

The gain at high frequencies falls-off because of shunting effect of the devices output
capacitance, stray capacitances and input capacitance of the picture tube. When ac coupling is
employed the gain decreases at low frequencies on account of increasing reactance of the
coupling capacitor. This inequality in gain at different frequency components of the signal is
Bandwidth Frequency and phase response
called frequency distortion. Excessive frequency distortion cannot be tolerated because it
changes picture information. If high frequency content of the video signal is lost due to poor
high frequency response the rapid changes between black and white for small adjacent picture
elements in the horizontal line cannot be reproduced. This results in loss of horizontal detail.
Phase distortion is not important in audio amplifiers, because the ear does not detect
changes in relative phases of the various frequency components present in a given sound signal.
4.4.5 AMPLITUDE DISTORTION OF NONLINEAR DISTORTION

If the operating point on the transfer characteristics of a device for a given load and
signal amplitude is not carefully chosen, amplitude distortion occurs where different amplitudes
of the signal receive different amplification.
4.4.6 MANUAL CONTRAST CONTROL

It should be possible to vary amplitude of the video signal for optimum setting of contrast
between white and black parts of the picture. Any control that varies the amount of ac video
signal will operate as a contrast adjustment.
4.5 TRAP CIRCUIT

For getting tuned sound carrier channel and suppress the unwanted frequencies, trap
circuit is needed. LC and resonant circuit are called trap circuit.
Types of trap Circuits
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Shunt Traps
series Traps
Absorption Traps
Degenerative Traps
Bridged-T Traps
4.4.4 PHASE DISTORTION
Shunt traps
Series tuned circuits connected in shunt with path of signal acting as low impedance
short circuit.L1 and C1 forms a high Q resonant circuit with step rising response at frequency.
Series traps
Parallel tuned circuits connected input lead. At resonant frequency the impedance is
very high equal to 0LQ.
Absorption traps
Parallel tuned circuits coupled to input or output coils of tuned amplifier. This acts as
load circuit of amplifier to increase effective load impedance.
Degenerative traps
A parallel resonant circuit in un bypassed emitter introduces large negative feedback
offers T impedance.
Bridging- t traps
It consists of series trap in a resistance bridged across the centre trap of coil. This shunt
resistance R of the bridge can be adjusted to cancel the loses in tuned circuit.
IF amplifier design SAW filter
SAW-surface Acoustic Wave Fibers
Transistors are commonly used in IF amplifiers in TV receiver. to obtain a compact and
reliable circuit design for power consumption.
4.6 IF AMPLIFIER DESIGN SAW FILTER

SAW- Surface Acoustic Wave Filters
Fr=1/2L1C1
Transistors- commonly used in IF amplifiers in TV receivers to obtain compact

and reliable circuit design for power consumption.
SAW are waves propagating along the surface or boundary of media, similar to
elastic waves caused by earthquakes.
The surface is piezoelectric surface, then it acts as frequency selective filtering.
Construction:
Consists of piezoelectric surface of side 4 to 8mm, deposited with interdigital transducers(IDTs)
of 10 to 20 m width of comb shaped electrodes.
Working:
SAW is generated by piezoelectric property when electric signal applied to input

IDT and propagates along the surface.
The travelling wave towards right of output IDT are converted back into electrical
signals.
Those waves propagating left are absorbed by absorber layer.
When the pitch of output IDT is constant, the output is maximum for SAW ,
havinghalf wavelength= pitch.
Centre frequency is determined by the pitch of comb shaped electrodes.
Synchronous frequency, fo is given by,
where o uniform pitch distance.
These frequency characteristics are expressed as (sin x)/ x function.
In practical, the desired frequency characteristics, the shape of electrodes is

designed by performing an IFT by means of CAD(computer aided design).
The wave reflected by output IDT, sent back towards input IDT, again reflect by
input IDT towards output as triple transit echo (TTE), leads ghost images.
This reduces by splitting the transducer fingers and use of resin absorbers.
Electrical characteristics:
1. Amplitude characteristics
2. Group delay
4.7 VIDEO AMPLIFIER REQUIREMENTS

Gain
The video signal must be strog enough to vary the intensity of the picture tube scanning beam
to produce a full range of bright and dark values on the screen.
fo =SAW velocity/ o
Fequency Distortion
The gain at high frequencies falls-off because of shunting effect of the devices output
capacitance, stray capacitances and input capacitance of the picture tube. When ac coupling is
employed the gain decreases at low frequencies on account of increasing reactance of the
coupling capacitor.
4.8 SOUND IF TAKE-OFF
Video detector also acts as frequency converter for sound carrier in the signal.
Picture carrier IF= 38.9 MHz,
sound carrier IF = 33.4 MHz difference IF of 5.5 MHz which carries the FM of sound
signal.
This coupled with sound IF circuit for amplification, detection.
The sound IF lies just beyond the video band and if allowed to reach the picture
tube, produces picture modulation in the form of interference like pattern as
Moire pattern.
This Moire pattern is prevented by introducing a parallel resonant circuit in series
4.9 SOUND IF AMPLIFIER

The amplitude of the inter-carrier sound signal at the output of the video detector is
very low and so at least two stages of sound IF amplification are provided before feeding it to
the FM detector. This second IF stage is also used as a limiter, if necessary. Each IF stage is a
tuned amplifier with a centre frequency of 5.5 MHz and a bandwidth of over 150 KHz to provide
full gain to the FM sidebands. The desired bandwidth, though large, is easily attained because it
is a relatively small percentage ( 2%) of the intermediate frequency. This is similar to a radio
receiver IF amplifier where the necessary bandwidth of 10 KMz is also nearly 2% of the 455 KHz
IF frequency. However, the design and tuning of a TV sound IF stage is critical since in FM,
narrow IF bandwidth causes amplitude distortion on loud signals because of insufficient
response for maximum frequency deviation. This effect corresponds to clipping and limiting in
an audio amplifier which can make the sound unintelligible. In AM, however, the loss of high
frequencies that results on account of insufficient IF bandwidth is not too obvious in the
reproduced sound.
path tuned to 5.5MHz trap circuit.
4.10 FM DISCRIMINATOR/BALANCED SLOPE

DETECTOR
Aim of FM detector is to obtain voltage proportional to frequency

deviation in frequency modulated signal.
The Vout has an amplitude that varies with frequency of sideband in FM

signal.
The amplitude modulated signal obtained is given to diode detector to

obtain original modulating signal.
4.11 PICTURE TUBE

Modern
monochrome
picture
tubes
employ
electrostatic
focusing
and
electromagnetic deflection.. The deflection coils are mounted externally in a specially designed
and horizontal scanning currents deflect the beam at a fast rate to produce the raster. The
composite video signal that is injected either at the grid or cathode of the tube, modulates the
electron beam to produce brightness variations of the tube, modulates the electron beam to
produce brightness variations on the screen. This results in reconstruction of the picture on the
raster, bit by bit, as a function of time.
.
4.12 ELECTRON GUN

The cathode is indirectly heated and consists of a cylinder of nickel that is coated at its
end with throated tungsten or barium and strontium oxides. These emitting materials have low
work-function and when heated permit release of sufficient electrons to form the necessary
stream of electrons within the tube. The control grid (Grid No. 1) is maintained at a negative
potential with respect to cathode and controls the flow of electrons from the cathode. However,
instead of a wire mesh structure, as in a conventional amplifier tube, it is a cylinder with a small
circular opening to confine the electron stream to a small area. The grids that follow the control
grid are the accelerating or screen grid (Grid No. 2) and the focusing grid (Grid No. 3).
yoke that is fixed close to the neck of the tube. The coils when fed simultaneously with vertical
4.12.1 ELECTROSTATIC FOCUSSING

The electric field due to the positive potential at the accelerating grid (also known
as 1st anode) extends through the opening of the control grid right to the cathode surface. The
orientation of this field is such that besides accelerating the electrons down the tube, it also
brings all the electrons in the stream into a tiny spot called the crossover. This is known as the
first electrostatic lens action. The resultant convergence of the beam
4.12.2 BEAM VELOCITY

In order to give the electron stream sufficient velocity to reach the screen material with
proper energy to cause it to fluoresce, a second anode is included within the tube. This is a
conductive coating with colloidal graphite on the inside of the wide bell of the tube. This
coating, called aquadag, usually extends from almost half-way into the narrow neck to within 3
cm of the fluorescent screen. It is connected through a specially provided pin at the top or side
of the glass bell to a very high potential of over 15 kV. The exact voltage depends on the tube
size and is about 18 kV for a 48 cm monochrome tube. The electrons that get accelerated under
the influence of the high voltage anode area, attain very high velocities before they hit the
screen.
4.13 DEFLECTION SYSTEM

Both electric and magnetic fields can be employed for deflecting the electron beam. As
the atoms of the phosphor coating. Because of this the electrons of the beam remain under the
influence of the deflecting field for a very short time. This necessitates application of high
deflecting fields to achieve the desired deflection. For example with an anode voltage of about 1
kV, as would be the case in most oscilloscopes, some 10 V would be necessary for 1 cm
deflection of the beam on the screen, whereas in a picture tube with 15 kV at the final anode,
about 7500 V would be necessary to get full deflection on a 50 cm screen. It is very difficult to
generate such high voltages at the deflection frequencies.
4.13.1 DEFLECTION YOKE

The physical placement of the two pairs of coils around the neck of the picture tube and
the orientation of the magnetic fields produced by them. In combination, the vertical and
horizontal deflection coils are called the Yoke. This yoke is fixed
outside and close to the neck of the tube.
already stated the electron beam must attain a very high velocity to deliver enough energy to
The magnetic field of the coils reacts with the electron beam to cause its deflection. The
horizontal deflection coil which sweeps the beam across the face of the tube from left to right is
split into two sections and mounted above and below the beam axis.
This is the maximum angle through which the beam can be deflected without striking
the side of the bulb. Typical values of deflection angles are 70, 90, 110 and 114. The
advantage of a large deflection angle is that for equal picture size the picture tube is shorter and
can be installed in a smaller cabinet. However, a large deflection angle requires more power
from the deflection circuits. For this reason the tubes are made with a narrow neck to put the
deflection yoke closer to the electron beam.
4.13.3 COSINE WINDING

With increased deflection angles it becomes necessary to use a special type of winding
to generate uniform magnetic fields for linear deflection. In this arrangement the thickness of
the deflection winding varies as the cosine of the angle from a central reference line. Such a
winding is known as Cosine winding and its appearance in a deflection yoke .Nearly all present
day yokes are wound in this manner to ensure linear deflection.
4.14 PICTURE TUBE CHARACTERISTICS

The transfer characteristics of picture tubes are similar to the grid-plate characteristics of
vacuum tubes. The grid of the picture tube has a fixed bias that is set with the brightness control
4.13.2 DEFLECTION ANGLE
for optimum average brightness of the picture on the screen. The video signal that finally
controls the brightness variations on the screen may be applied either at the grid or cathode of
the picture tube. Each method has its own merits and demerits and are discussed in another
chapter. This method of varying the beam current to control the instantaneous screen
brightness is called intensity or Z axis modulation. The peak-to-peak amplitude of the ac video
and black at cut-off. The contrast control is in the video amplifier, which controls the peak-topeak amplitude of the video signal applied to the picture tube. At cut-off the grid voltage is
negative enough to reduce the beam current to a value low enough to extinguish the beam, and
this corresponds to the black level in the picture. The parts of the screen without any
luminescence look black in comparison with the adjacent white areas.
4.15 COLOUR PICTURE TUBES

The colour television picture tube screen is coated with three different phosphors,
one for each of the chosen red, green and blue primaries. The three phosphors are physically
separate from one another and each is energized by an electron beam of intensity that is
proportional to the respective colour voltage reproduced in the television receiver. The object is
to produce three coincident rasters with produce the red, green and blue contents of the
transmitted picture. While seeing from a normal viewing distance the eye integrates the three
signal determines the contrast in the picture, between peak white with maximum beam current
colour information to convey the sensation of the hue at each part of the picture. Based on the
gun configuration and the manner in which phosphors are arranged on the screen, three
different types of colour picture tubes have been developed. These are:
1. Delta-gun colour picture tube
3. Single sun or Trintron Colour picture tube.
4.16 SHADOW MASK
This tube was first developed by the Radio Corporation of America (R.C.A.). It employs
three separate guns , one for each phosphor. The guns are equally spaced at 120 interval with
respect to each other and tilted inwards in relation to the axis of the tube. They form an
equilateral triangular configuration. As shown in Fig. the tube employs a screen where three
colour phosphor dots are arranged in groups known as triads. Each phosphor dot corresponds to
one of the three primary colours. The triads are repeated and depending on the size of the
picture tube, approximately 1,000,000 such dots forming nearly 333,000 triads are deposited on
the glass face plate. About one cm behind the tube screen is located a thin perforated metal
sheet known as the shadow mask. The mask has one hole for every phosphor dot triad on the
screen.
4.16.1 GENERATION OF COLOUR RASTERS

The overall colour seen is determined both by the intensity of each beam and the
phosphors which are being bombarded. If only one beam is on and the remaining two are cutoff, dots of only one colour phosphor get excited. Thus the raster will be seen to have only one
of the primary colours. Similarly, if one beam is cut-off and the remaining two are kept on, the
rasters produced by excitation of the phosphors of two colours will combine to create the
impression of a complementary colour. The exact hue will be determined by the relative
2. Guns-in-line or Precision-in-line (P-I-L) colour picture tube.
strengths of the two beams. When all the three guns are active simultaneously, lighter shades
4.16.2 PRIMARY COLOUR SIGNALS

The demodulators in the receiver recover (B Y) and (R Y) video signals. The (G Y)
colour video signal is obtained from these two through a suitable matrix. All the three colour
difference signals are then fed to the three grids of colour picture tube . The inverted luminance
signal ( Y) is applied at the junction of the three cathodes. The signal voltages subtract from
each other to develop control voltages for the three guns,
V G1 Vk = (VR VY) ( VY) = VR
V G1 Vk = (VG VY) ( VY) = VG
and V G1 Vk = (VB VY) ( VY) = VB
are produced on the screen.
In some receiver designs the Y signal is subtracted in the matrix and resulting colour
voltages are directly applied to the corresponding control grids. The cathode is then returned to
a fixed negative voltage.
This tube as the name suggests has three guns which are aligned precisely in a horizontal
line. The gun and mask structure of the P.I.L. tube together with yoke mounting details. The inline gun configuration helps in simplifying convergence adjustments.
THE vertical strips in triads. (R, G, B) which are repeated along the breadth of the tube. To
obtain the same colour fineness as in a delta-gun tube the horizontal spacing between the strips
of the same colour in adjacent triads is made equal to that between the dots of the same colour
in the delta-gun tube. One vertical line of slots is for one group of fine strips of red green and
blue phosphors. Since all the three electron beams are on the same plane, the beam in the
centre (green) moves along the axis of the tube. However, because of inward tilt of the right and
4.17 PRECISION-IN-LINE(P.I.L.) COLOUR PICTURE TUBE
left guns the blue and red beams travel at an angle and meet the central beam at the aperture
grille mask. The slots in the mask are so designed that each beam strikes its own phosphor and
is prevented from landing on other colour phosphors. The P.I.L. tube is more efficient, i.e., has
higher electron transparency and needs fewer convergence adjustments on account of the inline gun structure. It is manufactured with minor variations under different trade names in
4.18 TRINTRON COLOUR PICTURE TUBE

It employs a single gun having three in-line cathodes. This simplifies constructional
problems since only one electron gun assembly is to be accommodated. The three phosphor
triads are arranged in vertical strips as in the P.I.L. tube. Each strip is only a few thousandth of a
centimetre wide. A metal aperture grille like mask is provided very close to the screen. It has
one vertical slot for each phosphor triad. The grille is easy to manufacture and has greater
electron transparency as compared to both delta-gun and P.I.L. tubes. The three beams are bent
by an electrostatic lens system and appear to emerge from the same point in the lens assembly.
Since the beams have a common focus plane a sharper image is obtained with good focus over
the entire picture area. All this simplifies convergence problems and fewer adjustments are
necessary.
several countries and is the most used tube in present day colour receivers.
4.19 PURITY CONVERGENCE

4.19.1 PURITY AND STATIC CONVERGENCE
Modern P.I.L. tubes are manufactured with such precision that hardly any purity and static
convergence adjustments are necessary. However, to correct for small errors due to mounting
tolerances and stray magnetic fields multipole permanent magnet units are provided. Such a
unit is mounted on the neck of the tube next to the deflection yoke. The various magnets are
suitably oriented to achieve colour purity, static convergence and straightness of horizontal
raster lines.
4.19.2 CONVERGENCE
The technique of bringing the beams together so that they hit the same part of the
screen at the same time to produce three coincident rasters is referred to as convergence.
Convergence errors are caused by (i) non-coincident convergence planes, (ii) nonuniformity of
the deflection field and (iii) flat surface of the picture tube screen.
Proper convergence is achieved by postional adjustment of the individual beams. It falls
into two parts referred to as (i) static and (ii) dynamic convergence. Static convergence involves
movement of the beams by permanent magnetic fields which, once
4.20 AUTOMATIC DEGAUSSING (ADG) CIRCUIT

It uses a thermistor and a varistor for controlling the flow of alternating current
through the degaussing coil. When the receiver is turned on the ac voltage drop across the
thermistor is quite high (about 60 volts) and this causes a large current to flow through the
degaussing coil. Because of this heavy current, the thermistor heats up, its resistance falls and
voltage drop across it decreases. As a result, voltage across the varistor decreases thereby
increasing its resistance. This in turn reduces ac current through the coil to a very low value. The
circuit components are so chosen that initial surge of current through the degaussing coil is
close to 4 amperes and drops to about 25 mA in less than a second. Once the thermistor heats
up degaussing ends and normal ac voltage is restored to the B+ rectifier circuit.
Correctly set, bring the beams into convergence in the central area of the screen.
4.21 PINCUSHION CORRECTION

The use of permanent magnets for the elimination of pincushion distortion is not feasible
for colour receivers because the magnets would tend to introduce purity problems. Therefore,
dynamic pincushion correction is used with colour picture tubes. Such a correction automatically
increases horizontal width and vertical size in those regions of the raster that are shrunken
because of pincushion distortion.
4.23 FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS
A very thin display screen used in portable computers. Nearly all modern flat-panel
displays use LCD technologies. Most LCD screens are backlit to make them easier to
read in bright environments.
4.23.1 CRT
move across your screen either interlaced or non-interlaced hiting phosphor dots on the
inside glass tube. To the right is an example of the inside of a computer monitor
including the CRT, thanks goes out to for sharing this image.
Within the CRT are three electron guns, red, green and blue. Each of these guns
streams a steady flow of electrons, left to right, for each line of your monitor. As the
electrons hit the phosphors on the CRT, the phosphor will glow certain intensities. As a
new line begins, the guns will then begin at the left and continue right; these guns will
repeat this process sometimes thousands of times until the screen has been completely
drawn line by line. Once the phosphors on the CRT have been hit with an electron they
will only glow for a short period of time; because of this, the CRT must be refreshed,
which means the process will be repeated as explained above. If the video card's refresh
rate is not set high enough, you may encounter a flicker or a noticeable steady line
scrolling from the top to the bottom of your screen. If you are encountering this issue,
resolutions have been described on our video card page.
4.23.2 MONITOR
Also called a video display terminal (VDT) and video display unit (VDU), a
monitor is a video display screen and the hard shell that holds it. In its most common
usage, monitor refers only to devices that contain no electronic equipment other than
what is essentially needed to display and adjust the characteristics of an image.
Like most TVs, the computer monitor has a CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) that is found inside
the computer monitor as illustrated in the picture to the right. The CRT is the main
component and most expensive part within your computer monitor.
Short for Cathode-Ray Tube, CRT is the electron beams within a monitor that
4. 24 EHT GENERATION AND REGULATION
During flyback periods the magnitude of induced voltage across the primary (windings L1
to L3 in Fig. 20.4) coil is very high. In typical vacuum tube circuits it varies between 3 to 6 KV. By
placing a suitably wound coil (L4) in the magnetic circuit and connecting it to the primary
winding in a series aiding fashion, an additional voltage of about 6 to 8 KV is developed by
autotransformer action. This circuit arrangement results in a total voltage of 9 to 14 KV across
two ends of the combined winding. Further, by suitably controlling the distributed parameters
of the primary and secondary circuits and utilizing the technique of third harmonic tuning, the
total voltage can be enhanced by about 10 to 15 percent. Thus a pulse of the order of 11 to 16
KV is generated. This is fed to the high voltage rectifier D2 which conducts to charge the filter
capacitor to provide EHT supply. It may be noted that the high voltage rectifier conducts for a
short time during the flyback period because D2 is reverse biased at other times on account of
11 to 16 KV dc at its cathode (filament). The conduction of D2 partially dicharges CB but it is
soon made up when D1 conducts. Note that while D2 conducts both V1 and D1 remain cut-off to
avoid any loading.
4.25 SMPS
SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY (SMPS)
The use of ICs and modular construction is very common is modern television
receivers. This has led to the introduction of switching mode power supplies to meet the dc
requirements of such receivers. These are smaller, lighter and dissipate less power than
equivalent series regulated supplies.
BASIC PRINCIPLE
In a switched mode supply the regulating elements consist of series connected
transistors that act as rapidly opening and closing switches. The input ac is first converted to
unregulated dc, which, in turn is chopped by the switching elements operating at a rapid rate,
typically 20 KHz. The resultant 20 KHz pulse train is transformer coupled to an output network
which provides final rectification and smoothing of the dc output. Regulation is accomplished by
control circuits which vary the duty cycle (on-off periods) of the switching elements if the output
voltage tends to vary.
Operating Advantages and Disadvantages

The advantages of a SMPS over a conventional regulated supply are:
(i) The switching transistors are basically on-off devices and hence dissipate very little power
when either on (saturated) or off (non-conducting). Efficiencies ranging from 65 to 85 percent
are typical of such supplies as compared to 30 to 45 percent efficiencies for linear supplies.
(ii) On account of the higher switching rate (20 KHz) the power transformer, inductor
and filter capacitors are much smaller and lighter than those required for operation at power
line frequencies. Typically a switching power supply is less than one third in size and weight of a
comparable series regulated supply.
(iii) A switched-mode supply can operate under low ac input voltage. It has a relatively
long hold-up period if input power is lost momentarily. This is so because more energy can be
stored in its input filter capacitors.
Disadvantages. Although the advantages are impressive a SMPS has the following
inherent disadvantages:
(i) Electromagnetic interference (EMI) is a natural by-product of the on-off switching
within these supplies. This interference can get coupled to various sections of the receiver and
hinder their normal operation. For this reason, switching supplies have built-in shields and filter
networks which substantially reduce EMI and also control output ripple and noise. In addition,
special shields are provided around those sections of the receiver circuitry which are highly
susceptible to electromagnetic interference.
4.26 SYNC SEPARATORS

4.26.1 Features
AC coupled composite input signal
>10 k
input resistance
<10 mA power supply drain current

Composite sync and vertical outputs
Odd/even field output
Burst gate/back porch output
Horizontal scan rates to 150 kHz
Edge triggered vertical output
Default triggered vertical output for non-standard video signal (video games-home
computers)
4.26.2 Description
The LM1881 Video sync separator extracts timing information including
composite and vertical sync, burst/back porch timing, and odd/even field information
from standard negative going sync NTSC, PAL* and SECAM video signals with
amplitude from 0.5V to 2V p-p. The integrated circuit is also capable of providing sync
separation for non-standard, faster horizontal rate video signals. The vertical output is
produced on the rising edge of the first serration in the vertical sync period. A default
(ii) The control circuitry is expensive, quite complex and somewhat less reliable.
vertical output is produced after a time delay if the rising edge mentioned above does not
occur within the externally set delay period, such as might be the case for a non-standard
4.27 COLOR KILLER

The color killer is an electronic stage in color TV receiver sets which acts as a
muting circuit to cut off the color amplifiers when the TV receives a monochrome signal.
4.27.1 Monochromatic transmission

When a receiver is tuned to a monochrome transmission, the displayed scene
should have no color components. However, there are two factors which result in color
display even during monochrome transmission:
a high frequency component of the luminance signal
a high frequency of external noise
When the frequencies of these signals equals the frequency of the color subcarrier
wave, they may create an irritating color dot pattern like confetti, which interferes with
the monochrome picture.
4.27.2 color transmission

In a color TV waveform, a reference pulse, called the burst is transmitted along the back
porch portion of the video signal. If the transmitted signal is monochromatic, then the
burst is not transmitted. The color killer is actually a muting circuit in the chroma section
which supervises the burst and turns off the color amplifiers if no burst is received.
4.28 CCD TECHNIQUE
video signal.
The Basic CCD Characteristic Principle CCD cameras are based on strange electronic
chips, called CCD sensors. These components provide a higher sensitivity to light than common
films, allowing it to store the pictures on computers. A CCD chip, is an array of light-sensitive
elements. These are, in fact, very small electronic capacitors. These capacitors are charged by
the electrons generated by the light. In fact, each light element (commonly called photon), that
current source. These current sources, are localized in small delimited areas (the capacitors),
called pixels. Common CCD chips are composed of several pixels, for instance, 192*165,
512*512, 1024*1024, or much more for rich people! It's easy to understand that it is physically
impossible to access each pixel individually. In fact, a CCD sensor provides only one serial output
which each capacitor can be discharged through (each pixel can be read). CCD array can be read
through only one output.
The capacitors are discharged in lines and there are some control gates that
allow the transfer of one pixel line into the next one. The last line of the array can be
transferred into a horizontal shift register. This Shift register allows the transfer of one
pixel to the next one, and the last pixel of this horizontal register is connected to the
output gate.
How to take a picture

1. Clean the CCD array by reading the picture.
2. Wait for a defined time ( the exposure time) to allow the light to charge the capacitors.
3. Readout the picture.
The output gate of the CCD array can either be connected to an analogue or to a
digital converter in order to digitize the picture, or it can provide a standard video signal
if the clock's timing is according to the video norms. If the image is digitized, it will be
easy to store it in a computer memory. So, its processing will be easy to perform. Noise
Reduction If a CCD array is used in a warm environment (20 C), the photosensitive area
atoms produce a current, which produces noise on the picture. To reduce this noise, the
reaches the CCD array's atoms, displaces some electrons. This displacement provides the
CCD array atoms should be cooled, so that their thermal excitation is reduced. In
They are cooled by two main processes:

1. Electrically cooled
2. Chemically cooled
Cooling a CCD with liquid gas, is the most efficient method, but this is still reserved for
professional purposes. This is mainly due to the equipment needed to store and use such
liquids. So, the most commonly used process is the use of a thermoelectric cooler, also
known as Peltier cells. They are devices that work as a heat pump. The heat contained in
one face of the cell, is transferred to the other face. These cells, should be powered by
direct current.
The efficiency of such cells can be improved by cooling their hot face. In order to
provide a great cooling to the CCD, it is possible to use 2 Peltier cells, plus a water or
glycol cooling system. The first cell, cools down the CCD, the second cools the first one,
and the liquid circuit evacuates the heat provided by the second Peltier cell.
REFERENCE:
astronomical use, the CCDs are cooled to temperatures like -50C or -70C.
UNIT V
ADVANCED TELEVISION SYSTEMS
( Qualitative treatment only)
SYLLABUS
Wobbuloscope
pattern generators
Cam corders
Cable TV Types, processors, scrambling and conditional access systemsSatellite Television system
Tele text of video text systems
digital TV systemHDTV
3DTV
VCR
Videodisc system.
5.1 REMOTE CONTROL OF TV RECEIVERS

Based on the design of the remote control unit and type and make of the
receiver, it is possible to control as many as five different functions. These include
volume-up and on-off, volume down, channel selection, colour-up, colour-down, etc. A
transmitter box, commonly known as a Bonger or Clicker, used at a distance from the
receiver, sends out a signal that is intercepted by a transducer provided in the receiver.
The nature of the signal received is interpreted by the sensing system for, say, channel
selection or for on-off and volume control purposes. The received signals are processed
to control mechanical or electronic units. A mechanical unit consists of relays and
Remote control of TV receivers
ratchets besides a reversible motor and gear trains. In electronic systems dc voltages are
used to vary the controlling functions. For example, volume and colour controls are
obtained by varying the operating bias of the amplifiers that form part of these circuits.
DC control of channel selection makes use of varactor tuning. In later designs of remote
control, digital ICs have been used to process the signals received from the transmitting
synthesizer approach applicable to television tuning and this has considerably simplified
design of remote control units.
FIG:5.1
5.1.1 TRANSMITTING UNIT

The transmitting unit may be mechanically actuated or electronic in nature. It
generates ultrasonic sound waves at frequencies around 40 KHz. In the air these waves
are directed towards the receiver where they operate the pick-up transducer which is
normally a piezoelectric microphone. The use of frequencies around 40 KHz is
advantageous because these are too high for the human ear and can be confined by the
walls to the rooms, with very little
possibility of interference to receivers in other rooms or beyond the receiver at which
they are
aimed. Furthermore, it is quite easy to generate accoustic signals by purely mechanical
means without the need of a battery or any other powering source.
box. In addition, recent developments in high speed IC counters have made the frequency
5.1.2 CONTROL FREQUENCIES
There are no standard values but the frequency range normally employed for
remote control functions lies between 37 KHz to 44 KHz. Some typical values for the
main functions are:
41.25 KHzChannel selection
43.25 KHzVolume down

The contrast and brightness controls are usually not included for remote control
because
AGC circuit automatically changes the receiver gain to maintain the desired contrast and
brightness in the reproduced picture.
5.1.3 GENERATION OF FREQUENCIES

Since each function needs a distinct signal to actuate it, several frequencies are to be
generated to perform different functions. A mechanical source or an electronic oscillator
may be used to generate ultrasonic sound waves.
5.2 TELEVISION WOBBULOSCOPE

This instrument combines a sweep generator, a marker generator and an
oscilloscope all in one. It is a very useful single unit for alignment of RF, IF and video
sections of a TV receiver. It may not have all the features of a high quality sweep
generator but is an economical and compact piece of equipment specially designed for
television servicing. The oscilloscope usually has provision for TV-V and TV-H sweep
modes. A RF output down to 1 MHz is also available for video amplifier testing.
5.2.1 SWEEP-MARKER GENERATOR

Earlier sweep and marker generators ware manufactured as separate units.
However, now
the two instruments are combined into a single instrument known as sweep-marker
generator. It includes a built-in marker adder for post-injection of the marker signal.
37.75 KHzVolume up
Such units also provide a variable dc bias source for feeding a fixed bias to the RF and IF
sections of the receiver. This is necessary during alignment when the internal AGC bias
must be disabled for correct tuning.
5.2.2 CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

be regarded as a fast X-Y recorder where the electron beam of the cathode-ray tube is the
pencil and the phosphor coating on its screen is the sheet on which the plot gets drawn.
The electron gun in
the C.R. tube has external provision both for focusing the beam to produce a well-defined
trace
and controlling its intensity for varying the brilliancy of the trace which appears on the
screen.
These controls are provided on the front panel of the scope. Two pairs of deflecting plates
mounted at right angles to each other, ahead of the electron gun, provide deflection of the
electron beam both along the horizontal (X) axis and vertical (Y) axis of the screen.
Electrostatic deflection is employed. By varying dc potential across the deflecting plates
the spot can be shifted anywhere on the screen. To achieve this, two additional controls
known as horizontal shift and vertical shift are located on the front panel of the
oscilloscope. The deflection sensitivity (volt/cm of deflection of the electron beam) is
very low and so amplifiers are always used to achieve the desired deflection. Gain
controls for both horizontal and vertical deflection amplifiers are located on the front
panel to facilitate adjustment of breadth and height of the trace obtained on the screen.
A CRO provides a visual display of any time varying electrical signal and so it may
Fig: 5.2
5.3 PATTERN GENERATOR

A pattern generator provides video signals, direct and with RF modulation, on
the standard TV channels for alignment, testing and servicing of television receivers. The
output signal is designed to produce simple geometric patterns like vertical and horizontal
bars, chequer-board, cross-hatch, dots etc. These patterns are used for linearity and video
amplifier adjustments. In addition to this, FM sound signal is also provided in pattern
generators for aligning sound section of the receiver.
Fig: 5.3
The generator employs two stable chains of multivibrators, dividers and pulse
shaping circuits, one below the line frequency to produce a series of horizontal bars and
the other above 15625 Hz to produce vertical bars. The signals are modified into short
duration pulses which when fed to the video section of the receiver along with the sync
pulse train produce fine lines on the screen. Multivibrators produce square wave video
signal at m times the horizontal frequency to provide m vertical black and white bars.
After every m cycles, the horizontal blanking pulse triggers the multivibrator for
synchronizing the bar signal on every line. A control on the front panel of the pattern
generator enables variation of multivibrator frequency to change the number of bars.
Similarly square wave pulses derived either from 50 Hz mains or from the master
oscillator are used to trigger another set of multivibrators to generate squarewave video
signal that is n times the vertical frequency. These on feeding the video amplifier produce
horizontal black and white bars. The number of horizontal bars can also be varied by a
potentiometer that controls the switching rate of the corresponding multivibrator. The bar
pattern signal is combined with the sync and blanking pulses in the video adder to
produce composite video signals before feeding it to the modulator. Provision of switches
in the signal paths of the two multivibrators enables generation of various patterns. If
both mH and nV switches are off, there will be a blank white raster. With mH switch on,
vertical bars will be produced and when only nV switch is on, horizontal bars are
The horizontal bar pattern is used for checking vertical linearity. These bars should be
equally spaced throughout the screen for linearity. If necessary frame linearity preset
controls in the receiver can be varied to get best possible results. Similarly the vertical bar
pattern can be used for checking and setting horizontal linearity. With the cross-hatch
pattern formed by vertical and horizontal lines, the linearity may be adjusted more
precisely because any unequal spacing of the lines is easily discernible. If the pattern rolls
up or down or loses horizontal synchronization, the frequency preset controls in the
receiver oscillator circuits can be adjusted till the pattern becomes stationary. Picture
centering and aspect ratio can also be checked with the cross-hatch pattern by counting
the number of squares on the vertical and horizontal sides of the screen.
5.4 CAMCORDERS
With improved quality in small size, a compact combination of video camera
and recorder camcorder.
5.4.1 BETA CAM

*The system uses 2 adjacent video tracks ine recording time compressed chrominance
signals and other luminance signals.
*the compressed color difference signals R-V and B-Y are time division multiplexed and
accomodance sequentially on horizontal line.
*Bandwidth increases to 1.5MHZ, without problems of any cross talk
*For digital TV interfacing, TDMX and luma signals make component coding easier.
generated. With both switches on, a cross hatch pattern will be produced.
*A separate time code track is positioned below the control track to ensure a more
reliable servo system.
5.4.2 8 mm CAMERA RECORDER
* It handles a wide illumination range of 17-100,000 lux.

* Features are 7-colour tilter, white fader, edit, interval RECwith flying erase head, build
in character generator is calendar in memory.
5.5 CABLE TV
5.5.1 TYPES
Co-axial Cables
Fibre optic Cables

o Multimedia step index fibre
o Single mode fibre
o Graded index fibre
CO-AXIAL CABLE
*Advantages: Easy interfacing with existing equipment lower initial costs.
* The trunk cable with diameter 20 to 25mm has inside aluminum tubing. Thick copperclad aluminum conductor with polyethylene foam as spacers.
*For wafer proof of strength, protective polyethylene jacket and steel armar is used .
*Thinner cable is used for branch lines.
FIBRE OPTIC CABLES
*Glass fibre optic cable: Thin glass fibre 50-100m dia, enclosed with low refractive
index cladding about 30 m thickness.
* It available in wide range models from the video manufactures.
*The modulated light along glass fibre via process of total internal reflections from inner
surfaces, called step-index fibre.
*Multimode transmission in step-index fibers with relatively large core diameter.
*Single mode fibre: The diameter is very small, less than 10 m propagates along the
*Graded index fibre: The refractive index along the radius is gradually varied to give
graded index profile.
5.5.2 PROCESSORS
*All signals caused on cable TV network originals at head end, where they are frequency
multiplexed and combined for transmission over the cable.
*For reception of distant stations, directional arrials of high gain are installed on tall
towers and minimum interference.
5.5.2.1 Head End Processors

*The various signals obtained are processed to bring the output to constant level.
*The multiplexing is done by modulating the programs on suitable channel carrier.
IF
Converter
IF
filter
IF
amplifier
Carrier
Level
OSC lock-inAGC
control
LP
IF filter
IF
Converter
axis in single mode.
SIF
Metrodyne
processor
VIF
Fig 5.4 : Schematic of a heterodyne processor
independently.
*Then recombined, heterodyne up converted to desired output channel.
*2 pilot carriers are generally transmitted near the ends of cable spectrum to provide
reference levels.
*All channels are grouped together in combining networks into a common cable.
*The demodulated video and audio baseband signals first modulate 38.9MHz for picture
and 33.4MHz for sound.
Advantages
Better selectivity
Flexibility
5.5.3 SCRAMBLING AND CONDITIONAL ACCESS

SYSTEMS:
Scrambling: It is to suppress the sync signals at transmitting end
*The picture without H and V sync cannot lock into steady picture seen as rolling picture
and diamond bars.
*For descrambling, a pilot carrier containing the sync timing information is transmitted
on separate carrier.
*Another method with great security and complexity is baseband scrambling , the
scrambled coded lines are decoded and it requires demodulation process.
*The video and audio IF carriers are amplified filtered and level controlled
*Scrambling is possible by digital processing of video and audio and introducing
complex encryption and smart keyboard for controlled access.
*Now Addressable converters: includes tunable converters and address recognization
circuitry which is controlled by computer so specific channels are turned OFF or ON to
5.5.4 CONDITIONAL ACCESS

*Features: Equipment compatibity access, support, user system interface, telephone
communication module.
*The techniques used are scramblers and injectors upstream and descrambler modules.
*In cable and satellite systems, 3 different operational are projected
1. Access to a given channel for fixed duration
2. Pay per view with preselected choice of channel
3. Pay per view without preselction.
5.6 TELETEXT O F VIDEO TEXT SYSTEM
Videotext is a two-way information service as video display unit or crt terminal.
This information service generally provides data in 4 major areas,

1. Finance stock exchanges
2. Money markets and reservation
3. Messaging- topical news and reviews
A subscriber to database can select desired information via keypad accessory.
Prestel - first video text service.
View data systems use all kinds of host computers, from minicomputers to
mainframes depends upon power require for service.
5.6.1 View data chip (lucy)
subscriber.
It performs most of hardware functions of a viewdata terminal- autodialer circuit,

band demodulator and asynchronous receiver, baud modulator and asynchronous
transmitter.
It includes a tape interface for recording and character codes.
CRT displays are used to display the information for viewing and editing.
It can be an intelligent terminal or microcomputers.
Intelligent terminals- equipped with microprocessor and data storage memory

capacity to process the data.
Microcomputers with software for data storage and local processing capability.
TV monitor is enhanced with video bandwidth to improve resolution as CRT

display monitor or VDU.
5.7 DIGITAL TV SYSTEM

Analog signals suffers degradation due to noise, crosstalk, linear and non-linear
distortion.
In this, analog is converted to digital by analog to digital converter .
ADC performs sampling, quantization and encoding.
5.7.1 Sampling:
The TV signal is sampled at rate of twice the maximum band limit frequencyNyquist criteria.
Fourier transform of band limit signal at T seconds is scaled by 1/T and given by
wo = 2/T.
If input signal is not band limited or sampling frequency does not meet the
requirement of sampling theorem, the various components of spectrum overlap.
5.6.2 View data terminals
It suffers from distortion called aliasing effect and moir patterns appear in
picture.
To avoid aliasing errors, the sampling frequency must exceed 10mhz.
5.7.2 Quantization:
numerical values as ADC.

Since DAC is reverse process.
5.7.3 Encoder:
The sampled value is assign a binary code along with additional coding like parity
for error detection , scrambling,etc.
Errors occurred are eliminated by redundancy in digital signals.
Because of this, delay may occurs in TV , so forward error correction (FEC) is

obtained.
Block coding and convolution coding are two approaches in this direction.
5.8 HDTV
High definition TV
The 35mm films with highest quality standard picture reproduction.
For 625 or 525 scanning lines , the HDTV system offers a wide screen format and
fineness of definition.
According to CCIR, a HDTV system allows 3 times the picture height, such that
virtuality and transparent to quality as motion and perception of depth in original
scene.
This implies large screen display of cinema quality and it is defined as system
having twice the horizontal and vertical spatial resolution of HDTV.
5.8.1 NHK HDTV:
The sampled output, discrete in time in continuous in amplitude and assigned a discrete
These include HDTV recording and transmission of pictures and wide range of
applications in motion picture production, video theatres, film processing and
electronic high quality image printing and publishing.
5.8.2 HDTV SYTEM CONSIDERATIONS:

It consists of 3 parts,
1. Program generating studio equipment- cameras, VCR
2. Transmitters and transmission links- microwave, satellite.
3. Large screen TV receiver sets, projection TV equipment.
Applications -
picture production, video theatres , printing , medical
diagnostic, etc.
Number of systems proposed for this transmitter one compatible current

channel and MAC approach.
5.8.3 HDTV Equipment:
Camera ,VTR, Telecine , Monitors with satisfactory performance are

already available and efforts to improve stability, handiness and
operational work.
HARP High Gain Avalanche Rushing Photoconductor , camera tube,

which is 10 times sensitive as current ones.
Digital VTRs with improved electronic tape editing, high efficiency

encoding and band compression based receivers with costly protypes.
Large screen flat panel displays or projectors at reasonable cost for

development of HDTV.
5.9 3DTV
For 3D picture, we have to show the depth also along with length and breadth.
( L + B + H)
5.9.1 Principle:
The left and right eye of human see a different image of same object, so brain
Two different images are generated by 2 cameras, like our eyes located.
For stereo sound transmitter, the left and right channel signals are FM at 5.5MHz
audio carrier.
The combined audio and video signals are amplitude modulated by channel
carrier using separate modulators.
USB and LSB selected and combined before final transmission.
5.9.2 3-D Display methods:

By using 3 set of color signals we reproduce the 3-D effect on picture tube screen.
First method:
All green color phosphor strips excited by green(G) video signal right. Similarly
red color phosphor strips excited by red(R) video signal left.
Blue (B) color phosphor strips are not exited at all.
If viewer wears, G filter at right eye and R filter at left eye, than brain combined
to form various Y shades.
Second method:
Two video display units(VDU) are used, to create 3D pictures in natural colors.
A polarizing film is fitted in front of VDU and light outputs are reflected using a
mirror arrangement on screen.
Third method:
This is known as ABDY 3D system.
In this, R color information are delayed by nearly 600ns and it is obtain by using
delay circuits.
interprets these as a single composite image in 3D.
So, double image is formed on screen of picture tube.
5.10 VCR- VIDEO CASSETTE RECORDER

5.10.1 INTRODUCTION
signals. Although built-in tuners and timers have become integral parts of the average
video recorder, they are not prerequisites for reaching the main goal: audio and video
registration and playback.
5.10.1 THE HELICAL SCAN SYSTEM

In an audio cassette deck, which only registers audio signals, the tape passes over
a static recording/playback head at constant speed. The higher the speed of the tape, the
more tape particles pass the head opening and the higher the frequencies that can be
registered. Thanks to the extremely narrow head opening, it is possible to record and play
back the entire tone range, up to 18,000 or 20,000 Hz, despite a slow tape speed of no
more than 4.75 centimeters per second.
However, to register video signals, a range of 3.2 MHz is required and so a tape
speed of approximately 5 meters per second is a prerequisite. This is over 100 times as
fast as the tape speed for an audio cassette deck. The required high recording speed for
video recorders is realized by the helical scan system without such high tape speeds. The
system basically consists of a revolving head drum, that has a minimum of two video
heads.
The head drum has a diameter of approximately 5 cm and rotates at a speed of
1500 revolutions per minute. The 1/2" (12.65 mm) wide videotape is guided around half
the surface of this drum, in a slightly oblique manner. This is achieved by positioning the
head drum at a slight angle. The tape guidance mechanism then ensures that the tape is
guided through the device at a speed of approximately 2 cm per second (half of the low
tape speed that is used in audio cassette decks).
The main purpose of the video recorder is recording and replaying video and audio
Fig:5.5
Tape guidance along the head drum with the video heads writing tracks on the tape.
In the meantime, the rapidly revolving video heads write narrow tape tracks of no more
than 0.020 to 0.050 mm wide on the tape, next to each other, diagonally. Every half
revolution, each of the two heads writes one diagonal track which equals half an image.
The first head writes one track, i.e., the first field (the odd numbered scanning lines). The
second head writes a second track, i.e., the other half of the image (the second field: the
even numbered scanning lines), which precisely fits in the first image. This corresponds
to the interlacing principle, as applied in television (see Chapter 2: TV set). One full
revolution of both heads results in two diagonal tracks right next to each other, together
forming one entire image scan (a frame). This means that two apparently contradictory
requirements can be realized simultaneously: low tape speed of only 2 cm per second and
at the same time a high registration speed (relative tape speed) of no less than 5 meters
per second. These two requirements make it possible to record the high video frequencies
up to 3.2 MHz. At the same time, the low tape speed gives a time capacity up to three
hours.
5.10.3 SYNCHRONIZATION TRACK

The revolutionary speed of the head drum and the video heads needs to
maintain a constancy within strict parameters. Moreover, the tracks must be scanned
during playback in precisely the same way as they were recorded. Each tape track is
synchronized at the recording stage by means of field synchronization pulses. These
pulses are generated in the video recorder by a separate head which are recorded on a
separate narrow track at the side of the video tape. This is called the synchronization,
Fig:5.6
Position of the video, audio and synchronization tracks on the tape.
Fig: 5.7
Position of the audio, sync and erase heads inside the VCR.
servo or control track.
5.11 VIDEO DISC SYSTEMS
There are three major video systems in use today:
Video Home System (VHS)
Video Hi8
When the video recorders were first introduced, Philips also developed a system
called V2000. Despite the fact that is was a high quality system, it was not successful in
the market. Although Betamax was reasonably successful at first, its popularity waned
and VHS was adopted as the world standard.
5.11.1 BETAMAX
The Sony Betamax System, launched in 1975, was based on the pre-existing
professional Sony U-matic-system. In the Betamax system, the video tape is guided along
the head drum in a U-shape for all tape guidance functions, such as recording, playback
and fast forward/backward. When the cassette is inserted, the tape is guided around the
head drum (called threading). Threading the tape takes a few seconds, but once the tape is
threaded, shifting from one tape function to another can be achieved rapidly and
smoothly.
Betamax
Fig: 5.8
The Betamax U-system before (top) and after (bottom) threading.
5.11.2 VIDEO HOME SYSTEM (VHS)
JVC's VHS System was introduced one year after the launch of Betamax. In
VHS, the tape is guided through in an M-shape; the so-called M-tape guidance system. It
is considered simpler and more compact than the U-system. Threading is faster and is
done every time the tape guidance function is changed. It is therefore somewhat slower
and noisier than the U-system. This problem is being solved by "Quick-start" VHS video
recorders, which allow fast and silent changes in tape guidance functions. To avoid
excessive wear, M-tape guidance system recorders are provided with an automatic
switch-off feature, activated some minutes after the recorder is put on hold, which
automatically unthreads the tape. An improvement of the basic VHS system is HQ (High
Quality) VHS.
track size and relative speed. VHS has rather wide video tracks, but a slightly lower
relative tape speed, and that also counts for the audio track. In general, the advantages of
one aspect are tempered by the disadvantages of the other. The end result is that there is
not too much difference between the sound and image qualities of both systems.
Fig: 5.9
The VHS M-system before (top) and after (bottom) threading.
5.11.3 VIDEO HI8
In the VHS system different starting points were used than in Betamax, such as
As a direct addition to the Video-8 camcorders, there is a third system: Video Hi8,
which uses a smaller cassette than VHS and Betamax. The sound recording takes place
digitally, making its sound quality very good. When using the special Hi8 Metal Tape,
the quality of both image and sound are equivalent to that of Super-VHS. The Video-Hi8-
minute cassette, one can record 6 x 90 minutes, making a total of 18 hours of continuous
music. The video Hi8-system also allows manipulating digital images, such as picture-inpicture and editing. Video Hi8 uses a combination of the M- and U-tape guidance system.
Fig:5.10
Cassette sizes compared.
REFERENCE:
1. A-M-Dhake-" Television and video Engineering second Edition TMH 2003.
recorder can also be used to make audio recordings (digital stereo) only. Using a 90

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Television System and scanning Principles: Sound and picture transmission

color television signals and systems

1.1 TELEVISION SYSTEM AND SCANNING PRINCIPLES

1.2 SCANNING PROCESS

video processing of camera signals

The scanning technique is simillar to reading and writing information on a page,

The scanning is done by line by line.

The retrace and trace period obtained during scanning of lines.

1.3 VIDEO SIGNALS

Camera signal corresponding to picture or scene is transmitted.

Blanking pulses to make horizontal and vertical retrace as invisible.

Sync pulses to synchronize the transmitter and receiver scanning system.

1.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN EYE

Formulating therequirements of camera tube scanning and reproducing system, this

1. Visual activity-resolving fine details in picture

brightness - the apparent luminance of a patch in an image.

Lightness - apparent reflectance of a perceived surface. the perceived light level of a

1.5.1 Photometric Measurements

Luminous intensity (of a light l

lumen per watt

source in some direction) .

Luminance (at a given point and in L

candela per square meter cd/m2

(formerly, nit) lux

Illuminance (at a point of a E

lumen per square meter

Luminous pulse remittance

1.6 ASPECT RATIO AND RECTANGULAR SCANNING

Rectangular or Progressive scanning, as opposed to interlaced, scans the

Example: Capturing moving objects

1.7 PERSISTENCE OF VISION AND FLICKER

1.6.2 RECTANGULAR SCANNING

The rate of 24 pictures/sec in motion pictures and scanning of 25 frames/sec in TV

This problem is solved in motion pictures by showing a picture twice, so 48 views of

1.9 KELL FACTOR

alternately bright and dark.

1.10 VERTICAL AND HORIZONTAL RESOLUTION

The horizontal resolution of television, and other video displays, is dependent

1.11 VIDEO BANDWIDTH

KV = Ratio of total vertical lines to active lines

'fixed,' horizontal resolution can differ from one TV display to another.

BW-3dB = the minimum -3db bandwidth required for the circuit

1.12 INTERLACED SCANNING

1.13 CAMERA LENSES

(similar to an "8" on its side) indicates infinity.

1.13.2 Zoom and Prime Lenses

1.13.3 Angle of View

drawing on the left, which shows angles of view

1.14 AUTOFOCUS SYSTEMS

You can see this relationship by studying the

The electrical state of each area varies with intensity of light.

1.16 IMAGE ORTHICON

The mysterious "dark halo" around bright objects in an IO-captured

achieved amplification is very important.

The vidicon is a storage-type camera tube in which a charge-density pattern is formed

1.18.3 OTHER CAMERA DEVICES

edge enhancement circuits to sharpen the edges of Plumbicon generated images.

Newvicon is a registered trademark of Matsushita. The Newvicon tubes were

1.20 CCD SOLID STATE IMAGE SCANNERS

The operation of solid state image scanners is based on MOS circuitry.

The CCD may be thought to be in a shift register formed by a string of very