Professional Documents
Culture Documents
1. Introduction
1.1
Foreword
This document provides guidance and criteria for the design of Giba River Dam and its
pertinent structures.
There are no established and obligatory design criteria and standards for design of dams
and appurtenant structures in Ethiopia,. Hence, the design criteria below are based on
widely used international practices. In most cases the design criteria are adopted from
the recommendations by the United States Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and/or
by the United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), two American Government
agencies with vast practical experiences on design of dam projects. Where it was not
possible to find design criteria recommendations by USACE or USBR, other
international standards and publications have been considered. Previous design practices
and experiences by other prominent designers have also been taken into account.
1.2
Basic Data
1.2.1 General
Preparatory and background basic data for design include the following:
Previous studies dealing with the subject matter.
Existing studies concerning the environmental and socio-economic impacts
concerning the reservoir, the watershed and other development plans (if any), which
have affect on the case.
Seismic data, regional and Horn of Africa.
Regional geological data.
Formerly existing geological/geotechnical data concerning the relevant area or its
near proximity.
Climatologic, hydrometric and hydrologic data of the project area and its
surroundings.
Existing surveys.
Aerial photos.
Existing maps: topography, geology (all available scales, governmental and others).
Any additional relevant data.
1.2.2 Geological and Geotechnical Study
The main objective for these investigations is to provide sufficient data for the
following:
Understanding the geological structure of the dam and reservoir site.
Dam foundation design.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 1 of 39
11/24/2008
Page 2 of 39
Study of expected peak floods for short-medium term return period (25 to 100 years)
for determination of during-construction diversion works and of catastrophic events
(PMF) for 24 and 48 hour storms.
Long range series of sediment arriving at the reservoir.
2. Dam Structure
2.1 Basic Requirements
The following criteria shall be met to ensure satisfactory earth and rock-fill structures:
Under all conditions of construction, reservoir operation, and seismic activity, the
embankment, foundation, and abutments shall remain stable.
Seepage through the embankment, foundation and abutments shall be properly
controlled and collected to prevent excessive uplift pressures, piping, sloughing and
removal of material by solution, or erosion of material by loss into cracks, joints, and
cavities. The design shall consider seepage control measures such as foundation
cutoffs, adequate and non-brittle impervious grouting, upstream impervious blankets,
filter and transition zones, drainage blankets, relief wells, etc.
Sufficient freeboard shall be provided in order to prevent overtopping by waves.
The freeboard shall also include allowance for the normal settlement of the
foundation and embankment as well as for seismic effects as applicable.
Spillway and outlets of sufficient capacity shall be designed to prevent overtopping
of the embankment at the design flood.
2.2
The following major factors shall be considered to reach the most viable type of dam:
Topography: The site topography of a relatively narrow valley with high, rocky walls
suggests an erthfill or rockfill embankment. Irregular valley conditions might suggest a
composite structure, partly earth and partly concrete. Composite sections might also be
used to provide a concrete spillway while the rest of the dam is constructed as an
embankment section. Topography may also influence the selection of appurtenant
structures. Natural saddles may provide a spillway location if conditions in the adjacent
watershed permit. If the reservoir rim is high and unbroken, a chute spillway may be
considered.
Geology and Foundation Conditions: The geology and foundation conditions at the
dam site may dictate the type of dam suitable for that site. Competent rock foundations
with relatively high shear strength and resistance to erosion and percolation offer few
restrictions as to the type of dam that can be built at the site. Gravelly/silty foundations,
if well compacted, are suitable for earth or rock-fill dams. Special precautions shall be
taken to provide adequate seepage control and/or effective water cutoffs or seals. The
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 3 of 39
11/24/2008
Page 4 of 39
The selection of the dam type to be designed shall consider all factors. The governing
consideration in the selection of the dam type shall be the design of an adequately safe
dam that incurs the least cost.
2.3
Axis Alignment
The embankment axis shall comprise straight sections and of the most economical
alignment fitting the topography and foundation conditions. Changes in the alignment
shall be radially curved.
2.4
Abutments
Alignment: The alignment shall be adjusted to avoid tying into narrow ridges, or into
abutments that diverge in the downstream direction. Zones of structurally weak
materials in abutments, such as weathered overburden and talus deposits shall be taken
into account or avoided.
Abutment Slopes: Where abutment slopes are steep, the core, filter, and transition
zones of the embankment shall be widened at locations of possible tension zones
resulting from different settlements.
The possibility of changing abutments steep slope to more moderate or stepped ones
shall also be considered.
Settlement: Large differential settlement near the abutments may result in transverse
cracking within the embankment. Considerations shall be made to use higher placement
water contents combined with flared sections and filters.
2.5
Freeboard
One of the requirements for design of an embankment dam is to ensure safety against
overtopping due to inadequate freeboard. Normal freeboard is the difference in
elevation between the crest of the dam and the normal reservoir water level (NWL).
Minimum freeboard is the difference in elevation between the crest of the dam and the
maximum reservoir water surface (MWL) due to the design flood. The difference
between normal and minimum freeboard represents the surcharge head.
MWL plus 1:100 years wind event effect shall be considered for determining the
minimum freeboard.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 5 of 39
NWL plus 1:1,000 year wind event effect shall be considered for determining the
Normal freeboard.
The freeboard shall be established taking into account the following factors:
Seiche effects.
Wind set up of the water surface.
Wave action.
Run-up of waves on the dam.
Malfunction of spillway and/or outlet for a moderate wind.
Hydrologic uncertainties resulting from inadequate database.
Consideration shall be given to landslide-generated water waves and/or displacement
of reservoir volume, or to prevent them.
Comparison shall be made between the most critical combinations to be used for
determining the normal freeboard. The methods available for freeboard calculation such
as the Savilles equation, Zuider Zee formula, Stevenson formula, etc shall be used. The
wind speed to be used in wave calculations shall not be less than 30 m/s.
Wind speeds are greater over water than the measured over land. The normal ratio
between wind speeds over water and over land is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Ratio between Wind Speeds Over Water and Over Land.
Effective fetch, km
1
2
4
8
Wind speed ratio
1.1
1.16
1.23
1.29
12
1.31
Camber
Crest Width
The top width of earth or rock-fill dam within conventional limits has little effect on
stability. The crest width is often governed by construction procedure and the access
required. Depending upon the height of the dam, the minimum top width according to
USACE is between about 7.5 and 12 m (25 to 40 ft).
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 6 of 39
Reducing the number of the embankment zones near the top shall be considered, to
reduce the overall width needed for the dam construction.
Widely accepted empirical methods for determining the crest width shall be used; e.g.,
the Japanese code 1957 specifies crest width (W) in terms of dam height (H) as follows:
W = 3.6 3 H 3 (metres).
2.8
Slope Protection
Riprap: Adequate slope protection shall be provided for anticipated earth and rock-fill
dam structures to protect upstream slope against wind and wave erosion. Dumped riprap
is the preferred type of upstream slope protection. The rip-rap shall satisfy the following
requirements:
The rip-rap shall be composed of solid (unckracked) homogeneous rock not
containing weak zones with only up to 3% voids.
The riprap shall have the shape and weight to dissipate wave energy without being
displaced.
The riprap shall be strong enough to perform without degrading or breaking down to
smaller pieces.
It must be durable enough to withstand, without loosing strength, effects of longterm exposure to alternating weather conditions, water composition, varying
inundation and saturation periods.
Depending on the minimum operating water level of the dam, the use of less or no riprap in the lower portion of the dam shall be considered below the minimum operating
level, for a length along the slope of double the wave height. A ledge (berm) of
sufficient width at this level, is necessary to provide support to the rip-rap. The ledge
shall be slanting down 2 3% (in upstream direction).
In the calculation of stone weights, the wave height and wave period shall be taken into
account. USBR Design Standard No. 13, Chap. 5 Protective Filters, and Chap. 7, Riprap
Slope Protection as well as USACE Publication 1110-2-2300 App. C are among the
widely used methods in the design of the upstream slope protection of embankment
dams.
Bedding Layers: The gradation of the bedding material shall be calculated to provide
retention of bedding particles by water motion through the overlying riprap layer and
retention of the material underlying the bedding layer. If the underlying material has
low plasticity, the gradation of the bedding material shall be established to conform to
the following filter criteria:
D15 B > 5 D15 E
D15 B > 5 D85 E
D85 B > 5 D15 R 5
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 7 of 39
Where:
D15B = the 15 percent passing the size of the bedding.
D85B = the 85 percent passing the size of the bedding.
D15E = the 15 percent passing the size of the material to be protected.
D85E = the 85 percent passing the size of the material to be protected.
D15R = the 15 percent passing the size of the riprap.
An intermediate filter layer may be required between the bedding and riprap. The above
mentioned shall also conform with the same USBR and USACE publications.
Downstream Slope Protection: Since the downstream faces of earth and rockfill, and
concrete faced rockfill dams have a rockfill zone on the downstream slope, erosion is
not a major issue. A uniform surface within the specified tolerance should suffice.
For downstream slopes of earthfill or shell material dams the following shall be taken
into account:
Covering the surface with a layer of rockfill, gravel over geotextile, or by
establishing grass cover.
Providing berms at a maximum vertical interval of 10 meters to limit the vertical
distance of runoff travel, the berms shall be slanted (2 4%) towards the dam and
downwards. Measures shall be considered to prevent blockage of the outlets.
Lined drains on the berms shall convey the runoff and carry it to the abutments.
Providing open lined drains shall be considered at the contact of the dam with the
abutments. Alternatively, the drains on the berms may be extended.
The drained water shall be released away from the dam and dam/abutment contact.
2.9
Embankment Zoning
The embankment dam shall be zoned to provide an adequate impervious zone, transition
zones between the core and the shells, adequate filters for seepage control, and shells for
stability. The embankment zoning shall use as much material as possible from required
excavation and from borrow areas with the shortest haul distances and the least waste,
first considering the flooded area for borrow places (for additional storage volume, but
without increasing seepage). Gradation of the materials in the transition zones shall
meet the filter criteria presented in Section 3.13.
2.10 Embankment Materials
2.8.1
Most soils can be used for earth-fill or core construction as long as they are
impermeable, insoluble, non reactive to the water chemical composition and
substantially inorganic. Rock flours and clays with liquid limits above 80% shall be
avoided. The lower limit of the plasticity index shall be 5 to 10 %.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 8 of 39
Fine-grained soil shall be used for embankment or core construction only with water
contents suitable for compaction and for operation of construction equipment.
Well-graded soils are preferable to soils having relatively uniform particle sizes.
Embankment soils that undergo considerable shrinkage upon drying shall be protected
by adequate thicknesses of non-shrinking fine-grained soils to reduce evaporation. The
use of clayey soils as backfill in contact with concrete or masonry structures shall be
avoided (if possible), except in the impervious zone of an embankment.
If fine-grained material is in short supply resulting in a thin core, it should have a low
permeability. The use of wider filter zones shall be considered.
2.8.2 Rockfill Material
Rockfill material shall be composed of sound uncracked fresh rock, which is not
affected by the water chemical composition, with a specific weight of at least 2.65
ton/m and not more than 3% voids.
Sound rock is ideal for compacted rockfill. Some weathered or weaker rocks may be
suitable, including sandstones and cemented shales (but not clay shales). Rocks that
break down to sizes smaller than specified during excavation, placement, or compaction
are unsuitable as rockfill, and such materials shall be treated according to it's final
properties as soils, or be rejected.
Rock is unsuitable if it splits easily, crushes, or shatters into dust and/or small
fragments, or reacts to water composition.
The suitability of rock shall be judged by examination of the effects of weathering
action in outcrops and by on-site and laboratory tests.
Rockfill composed of a relatively wide gradation of angular, bulk fragment might settle
less or slower than if composed of different shaped stones or grade. Uni-graded riprap
protects the embankment better (depending on correct size).
2.11 Impervious Core
There is no definite rule for determining the safe thickness of the core. The width of a
central impervious core shall be established using seepage and piping considerations,
types of material available for the core and shells, the filter design, and seismic
considerations.
According to common practice, a core width at the base, or cutoff, amounts to at least
25% of the difference between the maximum reservoir and minimum tailwater
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 9 of 39
elevations. Cores with a width of 30% to 50% of the water head, (at that particular
section), have proved satisfactory. Core thickness of about one-half of the dam height,
(at that particular section), is also accepted. A core top width of about 3 m is the
minimum for construction purposes.
The permeability of the compacted core material shall not exceed 10-5 cm/s. The water
moisture content shall be carefully determined according to laboratory test results and
geotechnical considerations, (see also the subject of cracks).
2.12 Shoulder or Shell of the Dam
In a common type of earthfill or earth and rockfill embankment, a central impervious
core is flanked by more pervious shells that support the core. The upstream shell shall
be designed to provide stability against end of and during construction, rapid drawdown,
earthquake, and other loading conditions, and protected against waves. The downstream
shell acts as a drain that controls the seepage and provides stability under high reservoir
levels, and shall be designed to provide stability against steady state seepage, during
construction, end of construction and during earthquakes.
Control of seepage through the embankment shall be provided by internal filter drains.
2.13 Filter Design
The filter design for drainage layers and internal zoning of a dam is a critical part of the
embankment design. It is essential that the individual particles in the foundation and
embankment/core are held in place and do not move as a result of seepage/erosion
forces. The zones of material shall meet filter criteria with respect to adjacent
materials. These criteria are satisfactory for use with filters of either natural sand and
gravel or crushed rock and for filter gradations that are either uniform or graded.
The types of material to be protected by filters shall comprise:
Category
% finer than #200 sieve
1
> 85
2
40-85
3
15-39
4
<15
The filter criteria shall be calculated for the 4 categories according to USBR Design
Standard No. 13, Embankment Dams, Chap. 5: Protective Filters, as well as by USACE
publication EM 1110-2-2300 App. B. It shall have the following parameters:
Filter material produced from rock origin shall conform with the requirements of
Section 3.10b.
The gradation curve of the filter should have roughly the same shape as the gradation
curve of the protected soil.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 10 of 39
Filters shall not contain more than 5% of fines passing the No. 200 sieve (0.075
mm), and the fines should be cohesion-less.
Filters shall not contain organic material, nor any other material differing from the
approved filter material itself.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 11 of 39
Earthfill
The compacted density ratio for earthfill shall be 98% of the standard maximum dry
density, with a water content between OWC 1% and OWC + 1% or between OWC
and OWC + 2%, where OWC is the standard compaction optimum water content.
Standard Proctor procedures not modified shall be used, in order to ensure moist
compaction which leads to low permeability flexible fills. For soils which are difficult
to compact, the compaction requirement may be relaxed to as low as 95% density ratio,
under controlled laboratory tests, provided that compaction is carried out above
optimum water content. The layer thickness after compaction shall be 200 to 250 mm,
provided that the density and water content requirements are satisfied, homogeneously
to all the layer's depth .
Earthfill can be placed by scrapers or dumping truck and spread with a grader or
bulldozer. Oversized materials shall be removed before compaction. The surface of the
previously compacted layer shall be scarified prior to placing the next layer of fill to
ensure good bond. Addition of a small amount of water to the scarified surface shall be
considered prior to placing the next fill.
Water content adjustments shall be carried out at the borrow area, with only minor
adjustments allowed on the embankment. Soils in the borrow area which are more dry
or wet than the required water content shall be conditioned for several days before use
in the embankment. Failure to do this is common cause of difficulty in achieving the
specified compaction requirements.
2.14.2
Rockfill
Procedures to be used in compacting rock-fill materials, especially where rocks are soft,
shall be selected on the basis of test fills, in which lift thicknesses, number of passes,
and types of compaction equipment (i.e., different vibratory rollers) are experimented.
USACE recommends that rock-fill shall not be placed in layers thicker than 60 cm,
unless the results of test fills show that adequate compaction can be obtained using
thicker lifts.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 12 of 39
As the maximum particle size of rockfill decreases, the lift thickness shall be decreased.
The maximum particle size shall not exceed 90% of the lift thickness. Smooth-wheeled
vibratory rollers having static weights of 10 to 15 tons, the type of which shall be
decided according to the results of the test fills, are effective in achieving high densities
for hard durable rock if the speed, cycles per minute, amplitude, and number of passes
are correct.
Quarry-run rock having an excess of fines can be passed over a grizzly, and the fines
placed next to the core. Fine rock zones should be placed in 30 to 45 cm lift thicknesses.
There is no need to scarify the surfaces of compacted lifts of hard rock-fill.
2.14.3
Filters
Filters shall preferably be placed ahead of earthfill or rockfill as shown in Fig. 1 in order
to reduce risk of contamination of filter zone and allow good control of the filter width.
11/24/2008
Page 13 of 39
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 14 of 39
3.1
General Considerations
The stability of the proposed dam shall be analysed using state of the art software, such
as Slope/W from Geo-Slope International Ltd. of Canada, or similar. The stability
analyses shall be conducted with the following aims:
To determine the factor of safety for various slip surfaces of upstream and
downstream slopes under steady state seepage condition, with or without earthquake.
To determine the factor of safety for various slip surfaces of upstream slope under
sudden drawdown condition.
To determine the factor of safety for various slip surfaces of upstream and
downstream slopes under end of construction condition.
The foundation effect in the various slope stability analyses and load conditions shall
also be accounted for.
3.2
Loading Condition
Table 2 summarises the loading conditions and corresponding minimum factor of safety
requirements advised by USACE and used worldwide. The design shall meet these
requirements.
Table 2: Various Load Cases and Minimum Required Factor of Safety
Case
Loading Condition
Critical Slope
FOSmin
End of construction
Upstream
1.3
1
Downstream
1.3
During construction
Upstream
1.3
2
Downstream
1.3
Sudden drawdown
Upstream
1.3
3
Steady state seepage
Upstream
1.5
4
Downstream
1.5
Steady state seepage with earthquake
Upstream
1.1
5
Downstream
1.1
Analyses shall also be carried out to assess the sensitivity of the safety factor to
variation in shear strength, pore pressure, and slip surface geometry. Safety shall be
ensured for a wide range of assumptions with regard to these factors.
3.3
The slope stability investigation of the proposed dam shall be carried out using
Slope/W software program or similar, based on the limit equilibrium method. The limit
equilibrium methods, which satisfy both force and moment equilibrium conditions shall
be used in the analysis. Both Spencer and Morgenstern-Price methods satisfy both force
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 15 of 39
and moment equilibrium conditions and shall be used to obtain the factors of safety. The
results obtained using such methods shall be compared with other methods.
The pore pressures that would develop within the body of the dam and in the foundation
under steady state seepage shall be initially estimated with the help of SEEP/W software
(based on the Finite Element Method) or similar. These pore pressures, in terms of head,
shall then be incorporated in the slope stability analysis using Slope/W software
program, or similar.
3.4
Circular slip surfaces are common and reasonable for earthfill dams; the sliding surfaces
may take other forms in rockfill dams. For zoned rockfill dams with distinct zones of
different properties, multi linear sliding planes shall be studied. This is also called
sliding block method and shall be carried out in Slope/W software, or similar, with
several fully specified slip surfaces.
3.5
Seismic Design
Seismic activities in Ethiopia are generally said to be related with Afar and the main
Ethiopian rift valley. Taking into account the expected long life period of the dam and
not ruling out the chance of the dam site being hit by a damaging earthquake, adequate
seismic design considerations shall be taken. Fig. 2 shows the hazard map of Ethiopia
prepared by the Institute of Geophysical Observatory at Addis Ababa University for a
Design Base Earthquake (DBE) with a return period of 300 years. Like other recently
designed dams, this hazard map shall be used to estimate the DBE for the embankment
dam.
The ground acceleration contours displayed on the map in Fig. 3 were produced based
on a 33 years data (1960 to 1993). However, as indicated in the book Earthquake
History of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, by Pierre Gouin (1997), significantly larger
earthquakes had occurred in the country earlier, albeit in the absence of well established
recording equipments at the time. The 12 February 1845 earthquake described in Fig.
3 is particularly of great interest and shall be considered in the seismic design of the
dam. The estimated location of the epicentre of this earthquake was within a distance of
about 175 to 275 km and the destruction induced by this earthquake was reported to be
large. Based on the tremors reported in different parts of the country including Gondar,
Wollo, parts of Gojam and parts of Shoa, this earthquake was estimated to be of
magnitude 4.0 to 4.5 and its estimated epicentre location at 12.2 N and 37.6 E.
The above mentioned and other probable earthquakes shall be examined during the
Feasibility Study stage.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 16 of 39
Fig. 2: Seismic Hazard Map of Ethiopia and its Northern and Eastern Neighbouring
Countries. The hazard map is for a probability of exceedence of 0.0033 (return period of
300 years). Contours indicate peak ground accelerations as a fraction of g.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 17 of 39
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 18 of 39
4. Dam Foundation
4.1
Basic Requirements
Seepage Control
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 19 of 39
5. Dam Instrumentation
The primary purpose of dam instrumentation is to provide data useful for determining
whether or not the embankment or foundation is behaving in accordance with
engineering predictions, or whether conditions call for intervention such as drawdown
or evacuation of downstream population, etc. All or some of the following facilities
shall be installed in the dam to monitor its performance and to confirm its structural
behaviour.
Facilities for measuring leakage.
Instruments for measuring pore pressure (piezometers).
Devices for measuring the phreatic line.
Internal instruments for measuring vertical settlement, horizontal movements and
foundation settlement.
Surface movement for horizontal and vertical movement.
Earth pressure cells.
Accelerometer for measuring earthquake induced accelerations.
Connecting network, computers and software for processing data and communication
system to processing centre for data updating, reporting, dam status evaluation, etc.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 20 of 39
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 21 of 39
Zone 3B: Coarse rockfill, quarry run, free drainage rockfill placed in layers about 1.5 m
to 2 m thick. Larger rock may be pushed to the downstream face. This zone is less
affected by the water load than Zone 3A, so a lower modulus is acceptable. The thicker
layers allow placement of larger rock.
Zone 2F: Some modern dams include a Zone 2F filter zone beneath the boundary joint.
This serves two functions: (1) to act as a high modulus zone to limit deformation of the
slab at the boundary joint, and (2) to limit leakage flow in the event the joint opens.
Zone 2F usually comprises maximum of 19 mm to 37 mm, with some silty fines, placed
in thin (200 mm) layers.
Many variations to the above mentioned zoning exist. A suitable zoning shall be adopted
to meet site conditions and the quality of construction materials available.
6.2
Site Suitability
CFRDs are suited for dam sites with a rock foundation and a source of suitable rockfill.
A CFRD might be a lower cost alternative than earth and rockfill dam. Factors that may
lead to CFRD being the most economic alternative, include:
Non-availability of suitable earth fill.
Climate: CFRDs are suited to wet climates. Periods in which earth fill can not be
placed are no hindrance for rockfill. This can result in significant overall savings in
construction schedule.
Grouting for CFRD can be carried out independently of embankment construction.
This may result in saving of overall time for construction.
Total embankment fill quantities are likely to be smaller and side slopes steeper for
CFRD than for earth and rock fill dams. This may lead to reductions in the cost of the
dam.
6.3
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 22 of 39
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 23 of 39
6.4
When a CFRD is constructed of hard, free draining rockfill, the upstream and
downstream slopes shall be fixed at 1.3H to 1V or 1.4H to 1V, corresponding roughly to
the angle of repose of loose dumped rockfill. When weak rockfill or gravel is used for
the dam rockfill zones, flatter slopes - 1.5H to 1V or 1.6H to 1V - shall be used to
prevent ravelling of the faceplate. If foundation strengths dictate, flatter slopes shall be
used (e.g. 2.2H to 1V, was used for Winneke dam, USA, Cooke, 1999). The stability of
the slopes in the dam usually is not analysed (Sherard and Cooke, 1987). However, if
analysis is to be carried out, the shear strength parameters of the rockfill shall first be
determined.
6.5
Concrete Face
6.3.1 Plinth
In order to provide a watertight connection between the face slab and the dam
foundation, a plinth shall be provided. The plinth shall be founded on strong, non
erodible rock which is groutable, and which has been carefully excavated and cleaned
up with a water jet to facilitate a low permeability cutoff. The plinth width shall be in
the order of 4% to 5% of the water depth (ICOLD 1989, Sherard and Cooke, 1987).
The minimum plinth width shall be 3 m. The minimum plinth thickness shall be 0.3 m
to 0.4 m. Over-excavation and irregularities shall be filled with additional
concrete/dental treatment. The plinth shall be anchored to the rock with grouted dowels
of 25 mm to 35 mm diameter, reinforcing steel bars of 3 m to 5 m long, at 1.5 m to 2.5
m spacing, or as decided according to the feasibility stage geotechnical field and
laboratory results and recommendations.
The stability of the plinth against uplift, sliding and overturning shall be checked. The
plinth shall be reinforced to control cracking. ICOLD (1989) and Sherard and Cooke
(1987) recommend that a single layer of steel 100 mm to 150 mm clear of the upper
surface with 0.3% steel in both directions is adequate.
6.3.2 Face Slab
Face thickness: ICOLD (1989) and Sherard and Cooke (1987) recommend that the
minimum thickness shall be:
For dams of low and moderate height (up to 100 m), use constant thickness = 0.25 m
or 0.3 m.
For high and/or very important dams, use thickness = 0.3 m + 0.002H, where H =
water head in metres.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 24 of 39
River Diversion
Due to large river flows, the cost of diversion by tunnel may be very expensive.
Therefore, design of a CFRD shall consider allowing the rockfill to be overtopped,
provided that protection measures to prevent the displacement/unravelling of the
uppermost lifts or downstream face are taken. Protection measures such as steel
reinforcement of the rockfill or gabions anchored into the rockfill shall be considered.
7. Spillway
7.1
Open or Closed Type. Whenever an open channel spillway is possible, this design shall
have preference over closed type spillway (shaft spillway, siphon spillway, etc.).
Gates or No-gates. A non-control type of spillway shall be adopted for embankment
dams. Gated spillways are feasible where very good maintenance of the spillway and
smooth operation of its gates are assured.
7.3
11/24/2008
Page 25 of 39
hazards at the downstream areas in the event of dam failure on the other hand potentials.
These provisions are given in Tables 4, 5 and 6.
Table 4: Impounding Reservoir Size Classification
Size Category
Storage (m3)*
Small
62,500 to 1,250,000
Intermediate
1,250,000 to 6,250,000
Large
6,250,000 and above
3
*10,000 m = 6.1 ac-ft, and 1 m = 3.28 ft.
Table 5: Harm Hazard Classification
Harm
Loss of Life (extent of
Category
development)
Low
None expected (no permanent
structures for human habitation)
Significant
High
Height (m)*
7.5 to 12
12 to 30
30 and above
Economic Loss
Minimal (undeveloped to
occasional structures or
agriculture)
Appreciable (notable
agriculture, industry, or
structures)
Excessive (extensive
community, industry, or
agriculture)
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 26 of 39
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 27 of 39
Class C Projects: Dams that are 7.5 to 12 m (25 to 40 feet) high, or that impound 62,500
to 1,250,000 m3 (50 to 1,000 acre-feet) of water.
Class D Projects: Dams that are less than 7.5 m (25 feet) high and that impound less
than 62,500 m3 (50 acre-feet) of water. The inclusion of structures less than 1.80 m (6
feet) high or impounding less than 18,500 m3 (15 acre-feet) of water is optional by the
approving officer.
7.3.3 Design Flood
Based on the above tables and definitions, the design flood for the spillways of the
proposed Giba River dam shall be PMF of 24 or 48 hours (the larger of the two)
storm. The effect of 48 hours rainstorms PMF on outgoing routed floods shall be
examined as well. At this event the dam shall be capable to withstand also a full wave
effect with sufficiently safe freeboard. In addition, the dam shall be checked to be able
to contain a full PMF event with a minimum freeboard of 0.60 m.
7.4
Spillway Components
The following conditions shall be considered in the hydraulic design of the spillway:
Sub-critical flow condition in the approach channel and low velocity.
Critical flow condition as the water passes over the spillway weir crest (control
section).
Critical flow at the end of control section (at side channel spillway, etc.).
Supercritical flow condition in the discharge channel (chute).
Transitional flow at or near the termination of the chute, where the flow transitions
back to sub-critical conditions.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 28 of 39
Adequate conditions at the outlet channel and river outfall, to prevent adverse
settings which might cause damage.
7.6
Approach Channel
The approach channel conveys the water to the control structure. The guiding
considerations in selecting the layout and design of the approach channel shall be:
The entrance velocity shall be maintained lower than critical, while channel
curvatures and transitions made gradual to minimise the head loss through the
channel.
Water seepage from the approach channel avoided, particularly to under the dam.
7.7
Transition Conduit
The transition conduit of the spillway shall be designed such that no adverse backwater
effect is created. The transition shall be designed to pass the given flow to the
downstream without abrupt drop in water surface or excessive turbulence.
7.9
Discharge Channel
The discharge channel of the spillway (chute) shall be designed taking the following
into consideration:
Minimal curvature.
Rectangular cross section.
Flatter slopes for the upstream portion of the channel, if possible/economic, steeper
slopes for the downstream portion leading to energy dissipater.
Trajectory profile with or without aeration shall be designed where the slope changes
from flat to steep to prevent separation of the flow from the channel bottom.
In the case of choosing a closed cross section (tunnel or culvert) for the discharge
channel, full-flow condition shall be avoided as far as possible. The flow surface in
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 29 of 39
the transition conduit, computed for the design discharge, shall be kept to depth that
shall prevent full flow.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 30 of 39
Approach Channel
Structural considerations for the approach channel are primarily related to erosion
control and slope stability. The approach channel of the spillway shall be protected or
lined if its bottom and side slopes are unstable in presence of water or flow. Where
seepage from the channel threatens the spillway structure, the dam, and/or the abutment,
lining to reduce seepage and uplift underneath the control structure shall be designed.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 31 of 39
7.13.2
Control Structure
The foundation of the control structure of the spillway shall be treated with cutoff
and/or curtain grouting in order to reduce seepage through the foundation. Where
cracks/jointed rock are encountered, the foundation shall be consolidated and grouted as
necessary and/or rock anchors be provided for.
The control structure shall be designed to withstand all appropriate dead, static live,
pseudo-static, and where necessary dynamic loadings. The control structure shall be
designed as a gravity structure (dam) with additional loads from the flow over the crest
that shall occur under maximum reservoir level. Structural stability, especially sliding
stability, is a primary concern here because of the high uplift pressure.
The side walls of the control structure shall be designed to withstand all possible
combinations of various loadings such as backfill, earth pressure, water pressure, uplift
forces and seismic forces.
7.13.3
Discharge Channel
The discharge channel shall be lined with reinforced concrete. The structural design
shall consider all acting forces/moments.
The discharge channel shall be provided with cutoffs or keys, and joints to stabilise the
lining.
Drains shall be designed underneath the bottom slab of the discharge channel.
Side drainage facilities shall also be provided for preventing runoff from infiltrating
behind the side walls in order to safely drain seepage water.
Where cracks/jointed rock are encountered, the foundation shall be consolidated and
grouted as necessary and/or rock anchors be provided for.
7.13.4
Stilling Basin
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 32 of 39
General
Functional Design
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 33 of 39
11/24/2008
Page 34 of 39
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 35 of 39
The pump station shall be installed in a building with tentative dimensions of:
Length: 15 m.
Width: 6 m.
Height: to be calculated.
A manual overhead crane shall be provided for the installation / dismantling of the
pumps. Its characteristics shall be:
Capacity: 2 ton manual hoist, chain operated.
Length of runway: 15 m.
Span: 3.5 m.
Movement:
Along: manual, by means of chain.
Across: manual, by means of chain operated trolley.
8.2.4 Additional Equipment
Discharge branches: DN 400 mm equipped with swing type non-return valves,
manual flanged butterfly valves, air valve, manometer, etc.
Discharge manifold: DN 800 mm, equipped with electromagnetic flow meter and
manual flanged butterfly valve.
8.2.5 Standby Power Station
Diesel generating set for 100% of Stage 2 capacity.
Bulk fuel tank for 7 to 10 days of 20 hrs/day continuous operation.
8.3
Structural Design
The following loads on the intake works structure shall be taken into account:
Self weight water, i.e. inside and outside and only outside/or outside only.
Payload.
Buoyancy when empty and water in the reservoir at MaxWL.
wind load.
Wave load.
Earthquake.
The structure shall be supported on a slab foundation concept, with or without anchor
bars / piles as shall be determined according to site geotechnical conditions. The slab
dimensions and thickness shall be determined on the basis of the acting forces, bearing
stress on the foundation rock, and shear and moment in the concrete section; earthquake
loads shall be considered.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 36 of 39
Functional Design
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 37 of 39
9.3
Riparian/Bottom Release
Diversion/Release Tunnel/Conduit
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 38 of 39
The invert level of the diversion works conduit at the inlet shall be placed at an
elevation near the river bed level, about 0.50 m above the river bed level.
9.2.3 Conduit Alignment
The following shall be considered in selecting the conduit alignment:
The conduit alignment should, as far as possible, be located in competent ground
formation, avoiding faults and major shear zones.
The conduit should be aligned on a stable foundation which shall also provide
impermeability.
There should be sufficient horizontal and vertical rock cover at a tunnel grade to
withstand the internal water pressure. The vertical rock cover shall be adequate to
support arching action over tunnel cavity. Else, the design shall take such a liability
into consideration.
The selected alignment shall be such that it shall allow adopting a simple scheme of
works to convert the diversion conduit into bottom outlet after the requirement of
construction stage river diversion is over.
The number of bends shall be kept at the minimum possible and the bend deflection
be at the minimum possible angles under the given topography. If possible, the
conduit alignment shall not interfere or be suitably incorporated with the grout
curtain under dam foundation.
Tunnel/conduit portals shall be so located that the stability of ground slopes above
the portals shall be ensured without the need for heavy supporting measures.
9.5
9.3.1 General
The water outlet works, conduit/tunnel, inlet and outlet channels, should be able to
convey from the reservoir to the downstream:
The design diversion flow (where the water abstraction works incorporated with the
diversion facilities).
Riparian flow.
Bottom outlet operation, (flushing, rapid lowering of water surface elevation upon
demand/emergency), etc.
9.3.2 Inlet and Outlet Channels
In positioning the intake works, the lowest level required for reservoir evacuation,
bottom of active storage, sediment deposition level, etc. shall be taken into account. It
shall be affected by the following factors:
The best use of topography.
Having a good foundation.
Making the diversion conduit shortest as possible.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 39 of 39
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 40 of 40
9.4.1 Conduit
Cut and cover type of diversion/outlet conduit shall be designed as a reinforced concrete
rigid frame with joints and cutoff walls.
All forces from vertical and lateral pressures due to the embankment fill material,
seeping water, reservoir water, and the weight of the conduit itself computed bending
moment, shear and axial forces, etc. shall be taken into account in the structural design
of the conduit.
9.4.2 Tunnel
The concrete lining of diversion tunnel shall be designed by considering all forces from
the rock pressure, external water pressure due to percolating water from the reservoir
(for the section upstream of the dam axis) and internal submergence water head, shear
and axial forces, bending moments and all other affecting factors. The worst possible
combination of all these shall be taken into account.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 41 of 41
References
BCEOM & Associates, Abbay Basin Integrated Master Plan Studies, Phase 3,
Volume IV, Pre-feasibility study, Part 5 Irrigation and Drainage Ribb, 1997.
Fell, R., MacGregor, P. & Stapledon, D., Geotechnical Engineering of Embankment
Dams, A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1992.
FEMA, Federal Guidelines for Safety: Hazard Potential Classification System for
Dams. FEMA 333,10/1988, U.S.A.
FFMA, Selecting and Accommodating Inflow Design Floods for Dams. Fema 94,
10/1988, U.S.A.
GeoStudio 2004, Geo-slope International, Ltd., Canada, 2002.
Gouin P., Earthquake History of Ethiopia and the Horn of Africa, 1977.
I.C.E., Floods and Reservoir Safety, 3rd Edition, Engineering Guide, 1996, U.K.
Kesem Dam Draft Final Design Report, Section 005 Dam and Ancillary Structures,
WWDSE in cooperation with WAPCOS (India), 2003.
Mott MacDonald, MCE, WWDSE, Koga Irrigation Project Dam Design Report
(Draft) 6/2003.
Nakano, R., Design of Fill-Type Dams, Japan International Cooperation Agency
(JICA), 1991.
National Academy Press, Safety of Dams: Flood and Earthquake Criteria, 1983.
Robert, B. Janson, editor, Advanced Dam Engineering, For Design, Construction and
Rehabilitation, 1986.
Sherard, J. L., Woodward, R. J., Gizienski, S. F. & Clevenger, W. A., Earth and
Earth-rock dams, Engineering Problems of Design and Construction, John Wiley and
Sons, 1963.
Tendaho Dam and Sugar Project, Draft Final Report, Section 005 Dam and
Appurtenant Works, WWDSE in cooperation with WAPCOS (India), 2003.
The Norwegian Regulations for Planning, Construction and Operation of Dams,
Norwegian University Press, 1981.
Thomas, H. H., The Engineering of Large Dams, Part 1 & 2, John Wiley and Sons,
1974.
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, General Design and Construction Considerations for
Earth and Rock-Fill Dams, EM 1110-2-2300, 30 July 2004, and other EM
publications.
United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR), Design of Small Dams, 1987.
United States Bureau of Reclamation, Design Standards No. 13, Embankment Dams.
\\Mekelle4\Mekellewatersupply\SURFACE
WATER COMPONENT\FS for SW
Dev\Conceptual Design\Design
Criteria for Dam.doc
11/24/2008
Page 42 of 42