Gardner & Erikson 1

Running head: GARDNER’S MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES & ERIKSON’S EIGHT

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

&

Erikson’s Eight Stages of Man:

Theory and Implication for the Adult Learner

Mike Drye

Ed.D. Cohort VI

University of North Carolina at Charlotte

for

Dr. John Gretes

EIST 8101

June 15, 2002

 Gardner & Erikson 2

Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences &

Erikson’s Eight Stages of Man:

Theory and Implications for the Adult Learner

As learning theorists go, Howard Gardner and his “Multiple Intelligences” (MI)

(Gardner, 1983, 1999) is considered on the cutting edge of intelligence theory. Although panned

by critics as simply “talents” (Knowles, Holton, & Swanson, 1998), Gardner’s eight intelligences

(originally seven) offer a framework for human intelligence that recognizes abilities beyond the

verbal and linguistic traits measured by more traditional measures of intelligence (Brualdi,

1996).

As a clinical psychologist, Erik Erikson (1902-1994) expanded upon the work of Freud

and his contemporaries to include developmental stages for adults as well as children (Boeree,

1997). Since most previous developmental theories largely ignored continuing psychological

development after the teen years, Erikson’s work was truly innovative in that he postulated

continuing development throughout adulthood, indeed until death.

Considered in tandem, the theories of Gardner and Erikson provide a powerful and

potentially useful framework for adult learning at every chronological point throughout

adulthood, up to and including old age.

Howard Gardner & “Multiple Intelligence”

The son of refugees from Nazi Germany, Gardner was born in Pennsylvania in 1943

(Gardner, 2002). He attended Harvard for his entire post-secondary education, where he is now

the professor of Cognition and Education at the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Gardner

also holds several other adjunct professorships and over eighteen honorary degrees from

universities throughout the world. Gardner was trained as a developmental psychologist and

neuropsychologist. Through his research with gifted and brain-damaged children, he came to

believe that intelligence, as traditionally measured, did not adequately measure a person’s

intellectual capabilities (Plucker, 1998; Gardner, 1983, 1999). Pursuing that belief, Gardner

developed his theory of multiple intelligences, which considered human intelligence in a

 Gardner & Erikson 3

“multitude of contexts” (Plucker) that resulted in an infinite combination of individualized

intellectual constructs. Since each person possesses a uniquely derived combination of those

intelligences, Gardner theorized that instruction might be tailored and individualized to best

address those unique intellectual constructs.

Gardner notes that many non-western societies do not recognize the term “intelligence”

as it is conceptualized in the west (Gardner, 1999). Other societies consider intelligence in terms

of “obedience, good listening skills, or moral fiber” (Gardner, 1999, pt. 2, pg. 1). Noted

psychologists have proposed other alternative viewpoints, such as Goleman’s “emotional

intelligence,” Cole’s “moral intelligence of children”, and even leadership, executive, and

financial intelligence (Gardner, 1999).

Gardner (1999) designed a theoretical construct that accounted for “the diversity of skills

and capacities that are or have been valued in different communities around the world”(pt. 2, p.

3). He theorizes that there are at least eight: linguistic, logical- mathematical, musical, spatial,

bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and intrapersonal. And, no two persons exhibit all

the intelligences in the exact same proportions. Because education has not (until this point)

largely recognized this, students have been provided “blanket” instructional strategies and

opportunities that differently benefit students with different intelligence profiles. Gardner

proposes that instruction might be individualized by attending to the particular strengths and

weaknesses among the intelligences of any given student.

The two intelligences most traditionally valued in education and psychology, and thus

measured by most IQ tests, are linguistic and logical- mathematical (Gardner, 1983). Linguistic

intelligence involves the “ability to use with clarity the core operations of language” (Rogers,

2002). This involves a command of grammar, sounds, rhythms, inflections, and meter. It also

involves understanding the potential effects of language, including excitement, persuasion,

conveyance of information, or the like. Persons thought to exhibit linguistic intelligence might

be “poets, authors, reporters, attorneys, politicians…and teachers” (Rogers).

 Gardner & Erikson 4

Logical-mathematical Intelligence is ability in those academic constructs as well as most

fields of “pure” science. The capacity for abstract thought, reason, and problem-solving is

natural for this intelligence. The person with this intelligence also understands order, sequence,

and causality. Persons thought to have logical- mathematical intelligence are “mathematicians,

engineers, physicists, researchers, astronomers, and scientists”(Rogers, 2002).

Intra-Personal Intelligence is “the ability to form an accurate model of oneself, and to

use that model to operate effectively in life” (Rogers, 2002). It involves the ability to

discriminate between emotional pleasure and pain, and to manipulate one’s own behaviors based

on subsequent relevant situations. More advanced interpersonal intelligence involves detection

and symbolization of complex emotional issues between parties. Persons tho ught to exhibit such

abilities are “novelists, therapists, psychologists, and philosophers” (Rogers).

Inter-Personal Intelligence is “the ability to notice and make distinctions among

individuals…among their moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions” (Rogers, 2002). It

involves detection and discrimination of the various moods of others, as well as intentions and

desires. It can be likened to intuition about others. Politicians, the clergy, and the helping

professions usually exhibit high inter-personal intelligence.

Musical Intelligence is “the abililty to use a core set of musical elements—pitch, rhythm,

and timbre” (Rogers, 2002). As with the other intelligences, there is a range of difficulty, with

the highest tiers involving perhaps composition, listening, or performance. Those who exhibit

musical intelligence include singers, composers, music producers, or simply music aficionados.

Spatial Intelligence is the “capacity to see the world accurately, and to be able to recreate

one’s visual experience” (Rogers, 2002). Recognition of repetition, transformation,

conceptualization and reconceptualization of mental images are all examples of spatial

intelligence. Also involved is the ability to graphically reproduce spatial imagery according to

observed criteria. Persons who exhibit spatial intelligence include “sailors, surgeons, sculptors,

painters, cartographers, and architects”(Rogers).

 Gardner & Erikson 5

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence is “the control of one’s bodily motions and the ability to

handle objects skillfully”(Rogers, 2002). Persons who exhibit bodily-kinesthetic intelligence

might include “actors, dancers, swimmers, acrobats, athletes, jugglers, instrumentalists, and

artisans”(Rogers).

Finally, sometime before 1999 Gardner added his eighth intelligence, Naturalistic

Intelligence. Rogers (2002) describes it as “the ability to understand, relate to, categorize,

classify, comprehend, and explain the things encountered in the world of nature.” Gardner

suggests that “farmers, ranchers, hunters, gardeners, and animal handlers” exhibit traits of

naturalistic intelligence (Rogers, 2002).

Gardner (1999) equates the skills and capacities described within his theory with

intelligence(s). He does not see a problem with critics’ charges that they are merely skills; he

sees skills and capacities as synonymous with intelligence. And he readily admits that there may

be more, especially given technological (and other) changes that will most certainly occur in the

future. Gardner believes that three struggles concerning intelligence theory will continue: 1)

Purists (traditional I.Q.) will contend with pluralists (multiple intelligence) for some time to

come; 2) Purists will contend with pluralists about appropriate measures for intelligence, with

pluralists leaning toward performance-based measures; and 3) The relationship between

intelligence and human worth will continue to be debated. Regardless of the outcome, the

multiple intelligences framework allows for human worth beyond that of verbal and

computational skills.

Erik Erikson’s Eight Stages of Man

Erik Erikson (1902-1994), born Erik Abrahmsen to his Jewish-German mother in 1902,

was originally an artist, then teacher, then psychoanalysis student in Vienna. He studied under

Anna Freud, and fled to Boston during the Nazi rise in the 1930’s. He taught at Harvard Medical

School and practiced psychoanalysis while there, but later also taught at Yale and Berkeley. He

changed his name to Erikson (from Homberger, acquired at age two from his stepfather) when he

became an American citizen (Boeree, 1997).

 Gardner & Erikson 6

Given his time in Austria, Erikson was understandably a neo-Freudian ego-psychologist.

However, unlike Freud’s extreme loyalists, Erikson’s theoretical construct allows for the

substantial influence of society and culture on personality development . Freud postulated five

developmental stages, ending sometime soon after puberty. Erikson refined Freud’s theory of

stages of personality development, but expanded the stages from five to eight, including

development during the adult years (Erikson, 1968; Boeree, 1997).

Erikson called his theory of development through stages the epigenetic principle. This

principal says that people develop through those eight stages, and that personality is molded by

the successes or failures at resolving crises that occur during each stage. The stages must occur

in order, or the person will suffer dire consequences, as each subsequent stage builds upon the

resolution experienced in the previous stages. If the crisis at each stage is successfully resolved,

then the person develops an appropriate psychological virtue. Similarly, if the crisis at each

stage is not successfully resolved, the person may develop what Erikson terms “maladaptations”

or “malignancies” (Erikson, 1963, 1968; Boeree, 1997).

In stage one, the oral-sensory stage, infants undergo a crisis of trust v. mistrust, where

they either develop the virtues of hope & faith or the maladaptation of sensory distortion &

withdrawal. In stage two, the anal-muscular stage, toddlers experience the crisis of autonomy v.

shame/doubt, and must decide whether to hold on to their parents (for their most basic needs) or

to let go and learn for themselves. From stage two, children will learn either the virtues of will

and determination, or develop the malignancies of impulsivity and compulsion. Stage three, the

genital-locomotor stage, the pre-schooler undergoes the crisis of initiative v. guilt, and seeks a

balance between the two. Too much initiative without enough guilt may lead to ruthlessness; too

much guilt with little initiative may lead to inhibition. A good balance between the two will lead

to purpose and courage (Erikson, 1968; Boeree, 1997).

In stage four, from age 7-12 (or so), school-age children face the crisis of industry v.

inferiority. The sphere of influence greatly increases from the immediate nuclear family to all

who come in contact with the child. Pushed too far toward the extreme of industry, children may
 Gardner & Erikson 7

develop the maladaptation of narrow virtuosity, similar to becoming a “little adult.” Too far

toward inferiority may result in inertia, or total withdrawal from those activities where failure

was too painful to ever retry that activity. Balance results in the virtue of competency (Erikson,

1968; Boeree, 1997).

Stage five, from age 12-18 (or so), presents the crisis of ego-identity v. role-confusion.

Adolescents must figure out “who they are,” and how they fit into the larger society. Rites of

passage offer adolescents opportunities to develop their own unique egos, and Erikson even

suggested a “psychosocial moratorium” where the youngster could simply take “time out” from

the demands of growing up to reflect upon their journey to date. If a person developed too far

toward a particular ego role, then the maladaptation could result in fanaticism, with no tolerance

of other views. Too little identity can result in the malignancy of repudiation, wherein

adolescents allow themselves to be absorbed into some group that provides their identity for

them, such as today’s gothic adolescent subculture. Boeree (1997) likens such a situation (being

“bad”) as better than having no identity at all. A good balance should result in a state of fidelity,

or mutual acceptance of and within the person’s community.

As for personality theory, five stages was as far as Freud ventured. Erikson, however,

addressed the unique and relatively uncharted territory of continued adult development. Stage

six, early adulthood (roughly the twenties), poses the crisis of intimacy v. isolation. Too far

toward intimacy can result in the maladaptation of promiscuity, and too isolationist can result in

the malignancy of exclusion, with an accompanying hatefulness toward others. The balance

point results in love, and not exclus ively sexual; love toward one’s friends, peers, and fellow man

as well (Erikson, 1968; Boeree, 1997).

Stage seven is middle adulthood. This time frame is somewhat fuzzy, but it includes the

childrearing years, with the crisis of generativity v. stagnation. This period is when people do

something useful with their lives, or not. Those who become self-absorbed (rather than

contributing without expectation of reciprocity) reach stagnation. Those “couch potatoes” who
 Gardner & Erikson 8

generate little suffer the malignancy of rejectivity. Midlife crises may occur in this stage. Those

who successfully achieve a balance realize the virtue of care (Erikson, 1968; Boeree, 1997).

Stage eight, the final stage, is termed late adulthood, and begins sometime around

retirement. Older folks face the crisis of ego integrity v. despair. As abilities necessarily

decline, seniors must come to terms with the life they have lived. If they lean too far towards

integrity, they may face the maladaptation of presumption, whereby they largely dwell on the

past without facing the actual difficulties of old age. Too far toward despair, and they may delve

into the malignant tendency of disdain, a contempt for their own and everyone else’s life. If

persons strike the successful balance between the two, then they achieve the virtue of wisdom

(Erikson, 1968; Boeree, 1997).

According to Erikson, each crisis must be addressed before the person can

developmentally proceed to the next stage. Failure to resolve each crisis will result in severe

developmental problems that will hamper or prevent proper development in subsequent stages.

Not surprisingly, few people reach the wisdom of old age without a developmental delay or two

along the way.

Gardner and Erikson’s Influence on Adult Learning

The reduction of human intelligence to a single ordinal measure has probably done

immeasurable collective damage to literally millions of human psyches who are subjected to

such tests. However, they do serve a purpose, almost always dealing with classification, sorting,

some manifestation of discrimination, or the like. But those who come out on the wrong end, the

losing end, of such measures still grow up and continue to play a role within society. Gardner’s

multiple intelligences (1983, 1999) offer a more comprehensive, useful measure of intelligence

as a collection of skills. Critics argue that skills are not intelligence, but Gardner counters that

the ability to perform mathematical and linguistic operations are simply skills within those

domains of intelligence. And, there are others. This viewpoint is extremely promising and

useful to the field of adult education.

 Gardner & Erikson 9

Gardner (1983) makes many points that are particularly applicable to the field of adult

education. First, he believes that human intelligence is collectively a set of skills that a person

uses to resolve problems in life (Boeree, 1997). Those who seek adult educational opportunities

obviously are seeking to increase their skills, regardless of motivation. Second, he believes that

intelligence involves the ability to produce a resource that is of value, of worth, in that culture.

Adult students, by and large, are interested in improving their worth, either personally or

professionally. Third, Gardner believes that human intelligence creates the capacity to recognize

or create problems, necessitating the creation or pursuit of new knowledge to address those

problems. Mandatory public schooling generally stops after high school, but adult learning

theory realizes that persons experience the need for continuing education throughout their

lifespan (Knowles et al, 1998).

Other principles of multiple intelligences bolster its potential applicability in adult

educational settings. Gardner (1983) believes that personal background experiences are key to

all the intelligences; adults, by virtue of age, have deeper and more varied pools of experience

from which to draw upon. Gardner believes that age and life circumstance do not hamper the

potential for growth and development within the intelligences. Said another way, it is simply

never too late to improve the condition of human intelligence.

On the developmental side, Erik Erikson (1965, 1968) offered one of the first staged

developmental theories that acknowledged adults’ continued cognitive development throughout

their life cycles. Previous theories stopped just after puberty, but Erikson theorized that human

cognitive and personality development continued until death. In fact, his adult stages

encompassed the largest portion of life, and stage seven (generativity v. stagnation) is predicated

upon the “life’s work” of the person; their contribution to society. The pursuit of improving

one’s life’s work (and worth) is at the very essence of adult education. Knowles et al. (1998) say

it best:

Each transition to a new stage creates a motivation to learn. If adult learning

professionals listen closely to the motivations of their learners, they will often
 Gardner & Erikson 10

hear some form of life transition pushing the adult to learn. By understanding the

developmental life span, practitioners can be more attuned to adults’ motivations

to learn.” (p. 175)

Professional providers of adult education acknowledge the value of Erikson’s

framework. Naylor (1985) describes how Knowles theory of andragogy (1998) fits within

Erikson’s eight stages, and how those and other theorists’ constructs might provide a framework

for adult educational offerings. Boeree (1997) suggests that Erikson’s eight might actually be

considered in two parts, with the final four stages dedicated to adulthood and realizing one’s

“self.” He also notes, however, that Erikson’s eight stages meet a standard often considered

more important in practice than “truth:” Erikson’s work is actually useful.

Therein lies the value most important for adult educators to consider about both

Gardner’s and Erikson’s work. Multiple intelligences (Gardner, 1983, 1999; Rogers, 2002) and

Erikson’s eight stages of man (Erikson, 1965, 1968; Boeree, 1997) are offered as neither truth

nor requisite in the practice of adult education. They do, however, offer productive and

constructive avenues by which providers and consumers of adult educational opportunities might

approach their goals.

 Gardner & Erikson 11

References:

Boeree, G. C. (1997). Erik Erikson. Retrieved July 5, 2002, from

http://www.ship.edu/~cgboeree/erikson.html

Brualdi, A. C. (1996). Multiple intelligences: Gardner’s theory. Washington, D. C.: ERIC

Clearinghouse on Assessment and Evaluation. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service

No. ED410226)

Erikson, E. H. (Ed.). (1965). The challenge of youth. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.

(Originally published (1963) as Youth: Change and Challenge).

Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and Crisis. New York: W.W. Norton Co.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligence. New York: Basic

Books Inc.

Gardner, H. (1999). Who owns intelligence? [Electronic Version]. The Atlantic Monthly,

283(2), 67-76.

Gardner, H. (2002). Howard Gardner. Project Zero Website. Retrieved 7/5/02 from

http://pzweb.harvard.edu/PIs/HG/htm

Knowles, M. S., Holton, E. F., & Swanson, R. A. (1998). The adult learner (5th ed.). Houston,

Texas: Gulf Publishing Co.

Naylor, M. (1985). Adult Development: Implications for adult education. Columbus, OH:

ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, Career, and Vocational Education. (ERIC Document

Reproduction Service No. ED 2592110

Plucker, J. (1998) Howard Gardner: American psychologist and educator. Retrieved July 5,

2002 from http://indiana.edu/~intell/gardner.html

Rogers, J. K. (2002, Website in progress). Resources in teaching introduction to multiple

intelligence theory. Retrieved July 5, 2002, from

ttp://www.harding.edu/~cbr/midemo/prin.html