Chapter 3: Flows Around Submerged Bodies

Chapter
3
FLOWS AROUND
SUBMERGED BODIES
FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES
KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS
Characteristics of External Flows
Boundary Layers
Boundary Layer Theory for Flat Plate
Drag
Lift
3.1
CHARACTERISTICS OF EXTERNAL FLOWS

External flow refers to flows around a closed solid body, not
constrained by boundaries and without free surfaces.
Figure 3.1 External flow for 2D, axisymmetric and 3D cases
The characteristics of the flow is determined by the local Reynolds

Number:
Re x =
Ux Ux
=
(3.1)
where U is the upstream velocity and x the characteristic length.

3
Figure 3.2 Pressure and wall shear stress distribution of an airfoil
The fluid-body interaction on the surface of the body leads to wall

shear stresses w due to viscous effects and pressure p.
4
Figure3.3
Shear and pressure force distribution on area dA
The force analysis on an elemental area dA in the above figure yields:

dFx = ( p dA) cos + ( w dA) sin
dFy = ( p dA) sin + ( w dA) cos
Therefore, drag D and lift L could be obtained:
D = dFx = p cos dA + w sin dA
(3.2)
L = dFy = p sin dA + w cos dA
(3.3)
Forces D and L are known as aerodynamic (for air/gas) or

hydrodynamic (for water/liquid) forces.
Experimentally, p, w, D and L can be made related to dynamic

2
pressure 12 U :
Local Pressure Coefficient:
Cp =
p p
2
1
2 U
(3.4)
Local Friction Coefficient:
w
2
1
2 U
(3.5)
CD =
D
2
1
2 U A
(3.6)
CL =
L
2
1
2 U A
(3.7)
cf =
Drag Coefficient:
Lift Coefficient:
EXAMPLE 3.1
Water flows past an equal triangular bar as shown in the figure below.
Using the given pressure distribution and neglecting shear forces,
calculate the drag and lift on the bar.
Drag (w = 0):
D = p cos dA + w sin dA
= p cos 180 dA + p cos 60 dA + p cos( 60) dA

1
= cos 180 p dA + 2 cos 60 p dA
= ( 1) 0.25U 2 A + 2( 12 )
[ (0.5U )A]
1
2
= 0.25U 2 A + 0.25U 2 A = 0.5U 2 A

= 0.5(998)(1.6) (1.2 0.03) = 46.0 N
2
Since body is symmetry:

L=0
3.2
BOUNDARY LAYERS
Figure 3.4 Boundary layers for 3 different values of Rel
10
Boundary layer is the region around the surface of a body where

viscous effects are dominant (V < 0.99U ) .
Outside of the boundary layer, the flow could be assumed inviscid.
Flows with high velocity (high Re) could lead to circulation or wakes
downstream of the body.
For a blunt body, such as cylinders, flow separation could occur

starting from a separation point or location.
11
Figure 3.5 Boundary layers around a cylinder for 3 different ReD values
12
There are 3 parameters used to represent boundary layer:

1.
2.
3.
Boundary layer thickness value of y where V < 0.99U ,

Boundary layer displacement thickness * represents the
additional body thickness such that equivalent mass flow rate is
achieved with an assumed uniform inviscid flow,
Boundary layer momentum thickness represents a
measure of total drag on the body.
Rajah 3.6
Displacement effect of boundary layer

13
The boundary layer displacement thickness * could be derived from

conservation of mass as follows:
Ub dy = ub dy , = h + *
0
Density , width b and velocity U are constants, hence
Uh = u dy = (U + u U ) dy
= U h + * + (u U ) dy
* = 1
0
u
dy
U
(3.8)
14
The boundary layer momentum thickness could be derived from

conservation of linear momentum as follows:
h
Fx = D = U ( U )b dy + u (u )b dy
D = U 2bh b u 2 dy
0
with Uh = 0 u dy (von Krmn, 1921):
D = b u (U u ) dy bU 2
0
u
U
1 dy
U
(3.9)
15
Noting that D = w dA = b w dx , the momentum integral

equation is obtained:
w =
d
1 dD
= U 2
b dx
dx
(3.10)
w
d
=
2
2
1
dx
2 U
(3.11)
cf =
Thus, the friction drag coefficent CDf could be derived in terms of cf:
C Df =
D
=
2
1
U
b
l
2
C Df =
b w dx
0
1
2
U 2bl
1 l
2
c
dx
=
f
l 0
l
(3.12)
16
3.3
BOUNDARY LAYER THEORY FOR FLAT PLATE
Figure 3.6 Laminar and turbulent boundary layer
Assume flow is steady and incompressible, and gravitational effect

neglected.
17
The critical Rex values (Rex,cr) for transition from laminar to turbulent
occurs within the range of 5 105 3 106.
In a laminar boundary layer, utilizing the continuity equation (1.13)

and 2D Navier-Stokes equation (1.19):
u v
=0
+
x y
2u 2u
u
u
1 p
+v
=
+ 2 + 2
u
x
y
y
x
x
2v 2v
v
v
1 p
=
+ 2 + 2
u +v
x
y
y
y
x
18
For large Re values ( 104), the following assumption is applicable

(Prandtl, 1904):
v
From Bernoulli equation (dp + V dV + g dz = 0) :
p
0
y
dU
p dp
=
= U
x dx
dx
Thus, continuity/Navier-Stokes simplifies to:

u v
+
=0
x y
dU
u
u
2u
u
+v
=U
+ 2
dx
x
y
y
19
The boundary conditions for this case:

At y = 0 :
At y :
u=v=0
u U
The solution to this case was presented by Blasius (1908) through

substitution using parameters and f() as follows (use constant U):
u
= f ( )
U
u=
= Uf ( ) ,
y
=y
U
x
= xU f ( ) , v =
U
(f f )
=
x
4x
with ( ) . Hence, the Navier-Stokes equation becomes:

f + 12 ff = 0
20
The boundary conditions for the above equation are:

At y, = 0 :
At y, :
f (0) = f (0) = 0
f () 1
Solving numerically, Blasius (1908) found
=5
x
U
*
x
5
Re x
(3.13)
1.721
Re x
(3.14)
0.664
Re x
(3.15)
21
Figure 3.7 Blasius solution (1908)
22
At the wall (y = 0), shear stress w = (u y ) y =0 and the local friction

coefficient cf could be obtained:
w = 0.332U 3 2
cf =
CD f =
0.664
Re x
1.328
Re l
(3.16)
(3.17)
(3.18)
23
EXAMPLE 3.2
Consider a flow past a flat plate of length 30 cm with a steady flow

velocity U = 0.5 m/s. Calculate the boundary layer thickness in the
middle of the plate for two types of fluids, i.e. air and water at
temperature 20C and standard atmospheric pressure.
24
For air at 20C ( = 1.20 kg/m3, = 1.80 105 kg/ms):

Re =
Ux 1.20(0.5)(0.15)
=
1.80 10 5
= 5000
(< 3 10 )
6
Therefore, flow is laminar. Hence, boundary layer thickness:
5
Re x
5
5000
= 0.07071
= 0.07071(0.15)
= 0.01061 m = 1.06 cm
25
For water at 20C ( = 998 kg/m3, = 1.003 103 kg/ms):

Re =
Ux 998(0.5)(0.15)
=
1.003 10 3
= 74646
(< 3 10 )
6
Therefore, flow is laminar. Hence, boundary layer thickness:
5
Re x
5
74626
= 0.01830
= 0.01830(0.15)
= 0.0027455 m = 0.275 cm
26
For turbulent boundary layer, the continuity and 2D Navier-Stokes

equation could be written as:
u v
+
=0
x y
( )
dU
u
u
2u
u
u v
+v
=U
+ 2
dx
x
y
y
y
However, it is much simpler to use the empirical logarithmic law

equation (refer section 8.3):
u
1 yu *
= ln
+B
u*
u* =
with 0.41 and B 5.0 dimensionless quantities.
27
Therefore,
u
=
u*
u *
= Re
2
cf
cf
2
and yielding skin friction law for turbulent flow:
2
= 2.44 ln Re
cf
cf
+ 5.0
2
(3.19)
Prandtl (1904) proposed a solution using a power law approximation:

17
1 6
c f 0.02 Re
u y

U
28
17
y 1 7
1 dy =

Re1 6 = 9.72
7
72
d (Re )
d
= 9.72
(Re x )
dx
c f = 0.02 Re1 6 = 2
d 7
( 72 )
dx
=0 ,x =0
Re 0.16 Re 6x 7
29
Figure 3.8 Comparison of laminar and turbulent profile
30
Therefore, the relationships for turbulent boundary layer are:
cf =
0.16
Re1x 7
(3.20)
0.027
Re1x 7
(3.21)
CD f =
0.031
Re1l 7
(3.22)
*
In addition, = 18 = 1.3 .
31
Schlichting (1979) suggests the following relationships for a flat plate

with upstream velocity parallel to the plate:
1.328
Re l
Laminar:
CD f =
Transition:
CD f =
(Rex,cr = 5 105)
CD f
(Rex,cr = 3 106)
Smooth turbulent:
Completely turbulent:
0.031 1440
Re1l 7
Re l
0.031 8700
=
Re1l 7
Re l
CD f =
CD f
0.031
Re1l 7

= 1.89 1.62 log
l
2.5
32
Figure 3.9 Friction drag coefficient for flat plate

33
EXAMPLE 3.3
A hydrofoil 36 cm in length and 18 cm in width is placed in water

flowing at 12 m/s and temperature 20C.
(a) Estimate the boundary layer thickness at the end of the hydrofoil
(b) Estimate the friction drag for the following cases:
(i) Turbulent with smooth wall,
(ii) Laminar-turbulent transition with Rel = 5 105,
(iii) Turbulent with surface roughness = 0.122 mm.
34
(a) Reynolds number for this flow:

Re l =
Ul 998(12)(0.36)
=
1.003 10 3
= 4.298 10 6
(> 3 10 )
6
Hence, flow is turbulent. Boundary layer thickness:
0.16
0.16
=
l Re 1l 7 (4.298 10 6 )1 7
= 0.01805
= 0.01805(0.36)
= 0.006498 m = 6.50 mm
=
35
(b) Drag needs to be calculated for both surfaces of the hydrofoil:

Case (i) Consider the smooth turbulent curve:
0.031
0.031
=
Re1l 7
4.298 10 6
= 0.003497
CD f =
D f = 2 C D 12 U 2 A
17
= 2(0.003497 )( 12 )(998)(12 ) (0.36 0.18)

2
= 32.6 N
Case (ii) Consider the transition curve Rel = 5 105:

CD f =
0.031 1440
1440
= 0.003497
17
Re l
Re l
4.298 10 6
= 0.003162
36
D f = 2 C D 12 U 2 A
= 2(0.003162 )( 12 )(998)(12 ) (0.36 0.18)

2
= 29.4 N
Case (iii) Consider the relative roughness:

CD f

= 1.89 1.62 log
l
= 0.006467
2.5
D f = 2 C D 12 U 2 A
0.122
= 1.89 1.62 log
360
2.5
= 2(0.006467 )( 12 )(998)(12 ) (0.36 0.18)

2
= 60.2 N
37
3.4
DRAG
In actual situations, distribution of pressure p and shear stress w in
Eq. (3.2) below, are difficult to obtain analytically:
D = p cos dA + w sin dA
2
Alternatively, D is assumed proportional to 12 U with the
proportionality coefficient being the drag coefficient CD obtained from
graphs:
CD =
1
2
D
U 2 A
(3.23)
38
From Eq. (3.2), drag could be divided into two components:

>
Pressure drag
D p = p cos dA = C Dp 12 U 2 A
>
Friction drag
D f = w sin dA = C Df 12 U 2 A
Thus,
C D = C Dp + C Df
39
In the equation above, area A could be either one of the following:

>
Frontal area projected area of the body as seen from the stream
(for stubby bodies with large shape ratio),
>
Planform area projected area of the body as seen from above

(suitable for thin bodies with large surface area or flat-shaped),
>
Wetted area for bodies that float and move on free surfaces.
Factors that influence CD is given by the relationship:

C D = (shape, Re, Ma, Fr, l )
For shape factors, blunt bodies have larger CD compared to

streamlined shaped bodies.
40
Figure 3.10 Effect of geometry on drag coefficient
41
Figure 3.11 Evolution in design of cars with aerodynamic characteristics
For Re factors, D is dependant on upstream velocity U, characteristic

length l and fluid viscosity .
42
For low Re, it could derived:

Dimensional Analysis
D = f (U , l, )
D = CUl
2CUl 2C
D
CD = 1
=
=
2 2
2 2
l
Re
U
U
2
Figure 3.12 Drag coefficient CD for low Re flows
43
Figure 3.13 Relation between the drag coefficient of cylinder/sphere and

Reynolds number Re
44
Figure 3.13 (continued)

45
Figure 3.14 Drag coefficient as a function of Re for other bodies

46
For Ma effects, greater change in density (proportional to Ma refer

chapter 9) increases CD.
Figure 3.15 Drag coefficient as a function of Ma for subsonic flow
47
Figure 3.16 Drag coefficient as a function of Ma for supersonic flow

48
For Fr factors, it only applies to bodies floating on free surfaces.
Figure 3.17 Drag coefficent as a function of Fr

49
For the effect of wall surface roughness, roughness increases CD.
Figure 3.18 Drag coefficient for smooth and rough sphere

50
Figure 3.19 Drag coefficient of some 2D objects for Re 104

51
Figure 3.20 Drag coefficient of some 3D objects for Re 104

52
EXAMPLE 3.4
Wind at 100 km/hr blows past a smooth surfaced water tower as

shown in the figure below. Estimate the reacting moment required to
avoid the tower from tipping over. Use air density = 1.23 kg/m3 and
viscosity of air = 1.79 105 kg/m3.
53
Reynolds No. for the sphere and cylinder:

Re s =
Ud s 1.23(12.5)
1000
=
100
1.79 10 5
3600
= 2.386 10 7
Re c =
Ud c
1.23(4.5)
1000
=
100
1.79 10 5
3600
= 8.589 10 6
Calculation of drag for the sphere and cylinder:
C D s 0.35 , C D c 0.9
D s = C D s 12 U 2 As
2
1000
(12.5)2
= 0.35( )(1.23)100
3600 4
= 20382 N
1
2
54
Dc = C D c 12 U 2 Ac
2
1000
= 0.9( 12 )(1.23)100
(15)(4.5)
3600

= 28828 N
From the free body diagram:

d
b
M = D s b + s + Dc
2
2
12.5
15
= 2038215 +
+ 28828
2
2
= 6.493 10 5 N m
= 649 kN m
55
3.5
LIFT
Similar to drag D, the distribution of pressure p and shear stress w in
Eq. (3.3) shown below, are difficult to obtain analytically:
L = p sin dA + w cos dA
Similar to drag D, the lift L could also be assumed proportional to

2
1
with the proportionality constant being the lift coefficient CL:
2 U
CL =
1
2
L
U 2 A
(3.24)
The equation to determine L was developed by Kutta (1902) and

Joukowski (1906), known as Kutta-Joukowski lift theorem:
L = Ub
(3.25)
56
with being the circulation as described in Chapter 2:

= V ds = (u dx + v dy + w dz )
C
(3.26)
The factors that influence CL is similar as those factors effecting CD:

C L = (shape, Re, Ma, Fr, l )
Figure 3.22 Symetrical and nonsymmterical aerofoil

57
A symmetrical body produces L = 0, and L 0 could only happen if

angle of attack > 0.
Most applications involved with the principle of lift operates at high

Re ( 104) flows where w effects could be neglected.
Therefore, lift L is more dependant on the distribution of surface

pressure p.
58
Figure 3.23 Distribution of surface pressure on a car
In aerofoils, the reference area is the projected plan area A = bc, where
c is the chord dimension and b is the span dimension.
59
Figure 3.24 Configuration of an aerofoil
In general, increase in angle of attack increases CL and CD.
However, that is too large generates turbulent wakes (L , D )

causing aerofoils to stall.
60
Figure 3.25 Relationship of CL and CD with angle of attack
61
Figure 3.26 Relationship between CL and CD
62
Addition of wing structures (flap/aileron) could alter the lift and drag
characteristics of an aerofoil.
Figure 3.27 Effect of wing structures to an aerofoil

63
EXAMPLE 3.5
Given below is the data for a glider flying through the atmospheric
space:
Glider velocity
Wing size
Weight (including pilot)
Drag coefficient
Efficiency of glide power
U = 5 m/s
b = 30 m, c = 2.5 m (average)
W = 950 N
CD = 0.046 (based on plan area)
= 0.8 (for drag resistance)
Determine the lift coefficient and required power of the glider to

maintain the velocity at similar altitude. Use density of air
= 1.23 kg/m3.
64
Equilibrium at the same altitude level:
W = L = C L 12 U 2 A
Hence, the lift coefficient:
2W
2(950 )
=
U 2 bc 1.23(5)2 (30)(2.5)
= 0.824
CL =
Power/efficiency relation for glider:
P = DU = (C D 12 U 2 A)U
C D U 3 A 0.046(1.23)(5)3 (30 )(2.5)
=
P=
2
2(0.8)
= 332 W
65

Chapter 3: Flows Around Submerged Bodies

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Chapter

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Characteristics of External Flows

Boundary Layer Theory for Flat Plate

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

CHARACTERISTICS OF EXTERNAL FLOWS

Figure 3.1 External flow for 2D, axisymmetric and 3D cases

The characteristics of the flow is determined by the local Reynolds

where U is the upstream velocity and x the characteristic length.

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 3.2 Pressure and wall shear stress distribution of an airfoil

The fluid-body interaction on the surface of the body leads to wall

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Shear and pressure force distribution on area dA

The force analysis on an elemental area dA in the above figure yields:

dFy = ( p dA) sin + ( w dA) cos

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Therefore, drag D and lift L could be obtained:

D = dFx = p cos dA + w sin dA

L = dFy = p sin dA + w cos dA

Forces D and L are known as aerodynamic (for air/gas) or

Experimentally, p, w, D and L can be made related to dynamic

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Local Friction Coefficient:

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

= p cos 180 dA + p cos 60 dA + p cos( 60) dA

= cos 180 p dA + 2 cos 60 p dA

= 0.25U 2 A + 0.25U 2 A = 0.5U 2 A

Since body is symmetry:

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Figure 3.4 Boundary layers for 3 different values of Rel

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

Boundary layer is the region around the surface of a body where

Outside of the boundary layer, the flow could be assumed inviscid.

For a blunt body, such as cylinders, flow separation could occur

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

There are 3 parameters used to represent boundary layer:

Boundary layer thickness value of y where V < 0.99U ,

Displacement effect of boundary layer

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

The boundary layer displacement thickness * could be derived from

Density , width b and velocity U are constants, hence

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES

KKKJ3123 FLUID MECHANICS

The boundary layer momentum thickness could be derived from

with Uh = 0 u dy (von Krmn, 1921):

FLOWS AROUND SUBMERGED BODIES