calorific value

noun
noun: calorific value; plural noun: calorific values
1. the energy contained in a fuel or food, determined by measuring the heat produced by the
complete combustion of a specified quantity of it. This is now usually expressed in joules
per kilogram
Specific gravity is the ratio of the density of a substance to the density (mass of
the same unit volume) of a reference substance. Apparent specific gravity is the
ratio of the weight of a volume of the substance to the weight of an equal volume of
the reference substance. The reference substance is nearly always water at its
densest, (4C) for liquids and for gases, air at room temperature, (21C). That being
stated temperature and pressure must be specified for both the sample and the
reference. Pressure is nearly always 1 atm equal to 101.325 kPa. Temperatures for
both sample and reference vary from industry to industry. In British beer brewing
practice the specific gravity as specified above is multiplied by 1000. [1] Specific
gravity is commonly used in industry as a simple means of obtaining information
about the concentration of solutions of various materials such as brines,
hydrocarbons, sugar solutions (syrups, juices, honeys, brewers wort, must etc.) and
acids.

The term specific gravity, symbolized sp gr, refers to the ratio of the density of a solid or liquid
to the density of water at 4 degrees Celsius. The term can also refer to the ratio of the density of a
gas to the density of dry air at standard temperature and pressure, although this specification is
less often used. Specific gravity is a dimensionless quantity; that is, it is not expressed in units.
To find the sp gr of a solid or liquid, you must know its density in kilograms per meter cubed
(kg/m3) or in grams per centimeter cubed (g/cm3). Then, divide this density by the density of pure
water in the same units. If you use kg/m3, divide by 1000. If you use g/cm3, divide by 1 (that is,
leave the number alone). It is important to use the same units in the numerator and denominator.

bulk density
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Weight of a unit volume of a loose material (such as a powder or soil) to the same volume of
water. Expressed in kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3) or pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3), it is a

type of relative density and is used mainly in quality control, shipping, and soil analysis. See also
density
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angle of repose
Definition of ANGLE OF REPOSE
1
physics : the angle that the plane of contact between two bodies makes with the horizontal when
the upper body is just on the point of sliding : the angle whose tangent is the coefficient of
friction between the two bodies
2
or angle of rest : the angle of maximum slope at which a heap of any loose solid material (as
earth) will stand without sliding compare angle of slide
Refractive index -- the ratio of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed of light
in a material. The path of light is bent upon passing from one medium to another of
different refractive index (4.2d

In optics the refractive index or index of refraction n of an optical medium is a dimensionless

number that describes how light, or any other radiation, propagates through that medium. It is
defined as

Definition of REFLECTANCE
: the fraction of the total radiant flux incident upon a surface that is reflected and that varies
according to the wavelength distribution of the incident radiation called

Medical Definition of REFLECTANCE

: the fraction of the total radiant flux incident upon a surface that is reflected and that varies
according to the wavelength distribution of the incident radiationcalled also reflection
coefficient, reflection factor

reflectance
(rflktns) or reflection factor
n
1. (Units) a measure of the ability of a surface to reflect light or other electromagnetic radiation,
equal to the ratio of the reflected flux to the incident flux.

weathering,
collective term for the processes by which rock at or near the earth's surface is disintegrated and
decomposed by the action of atmospheric agents, water, and living things. Some of these
processes are mechanical, e.g., the expansion and contraction caused by sudden, large changes in
temperature, the expansive force of water freezing in cracks, the splitting caused by plant roots,
and the impact of running water; others are chemical, e.g., oxidation, hydration, carbonization,
and loss of chemical elements by solution in water. Weathering is important because it aids in the
formation of soil and prepares materials for erosion
. Construction materials for buildings and roads are subject to weathering by water, carbon
dioxide, aerosol gases, freeze-thaw cycles, and salt (see also formation of potholes
). New techniques in road construction, allowing a minimum of weathering, more weatherresistant aggregates, and better building materials have lowered costs for maintenance and repair

Hardgrove Grindability Index. Hardgrove Grindability Index (short HGI) is a

measure for the grindability of coal. Grindability is indicated using the unit H, e.g.
"40H" or "55H". The smaller the HGI, the harder and less grindable is the coal.

roperties affecting coal utilization

Coal rank
The formation of coal from a variety of plant materials via biochemical and geochemical
processes is called coalification. The nature of the constituents in coal is related to the degree of
coalification, the measurement of which is termed rank. Rank is usually assessed by a series of
tests, collectively called the proximate analysis, that determine the moisture content, volatile
matter content, ash content, fixed-carbon content, and calorific value of a coal.

Moisture content
Moisture content is determined by heating an air-dried coal sample at 105110 C (221230 F)
under specified conditions until a constant weight is obtained. In general, the moisture content
increases with decreasing rank and ranges from 1 to 40 percent for the various ranks of coal. The
presence of moisture is an important factor in both the storage and the utilization of coals, as it
adds unnecessary weight during transportation, reduces the calorific value, and poses some
handling problems.

Volatile matter content

Volatile matter is material that is driven off when coal is heated to 950 C (1,742 F) in the
absence of air under specified conditions. It is measured practically by determining the loss of
weight. Consisting of a mixture of gases, low-boiling-point organic compounds that condense
into oils upon cooling, and tars, volatile matter increases with decreasing rank. In general, coals
with high volatile-matter content ignite easily and are highly reactive in combustion applications.

Mineral (ash) content

Coal contains a variety of minerals in varying proportions that, when the coal is burned, are
transformed into ash. The amount and nature of the ash and its behaviour at high temperatures
affect the design and type of ash-handling system employed in coal-utilization plants. At high
temperatures, coal ash becomes sticky (i.e., sinters) and eventually forms molten slag. The slag
then becomes a hard, crystalline material upon cooling and resolidification. Specific ash-fusion

temperatures are determined in the laboratory by observing the temperatures at which successive
characteristic stages of fusion occur in a specimen of ash when heated in a furnace under
specified conditions. These temperatures are often used as indicators of the clinkering potential
of coals during high-temperature processing.

Fixed-carbon content
Fixed carbon is the solid combustible residue that remains after a coal particle is heated and the
volatile matter is expelled. The fixed-carbon content of a coal is determined by subtracting the
percentages of moisture, volatile matter, and ash from a sample. Since gas-solid combustion
reactions are slower than gas-gas reactions, a high fixed-carbon content indicates that the coal
will require a long combustion time.

Calorific value
Calorific value, measured in British thermal units or megajoules per kilogram, is the amount of
chemical energy stored in a coal that is released as thermal energy upon combustion. It is directly
related to rank; in fact, the ASTM method uses calorific value to classify coals at or below the
rank of high-volatile bituminous (above that rank, coals are classified by fixed-carbon content).
The calorific value determines in part the value of a coal as a fuel for combustion applications.

Coal type
Coal is a complex material composed of microscopically distinguishable, physically distinctive,
and chemically different organic substances called macerals. Based on their optical reflectance,
mode of occurrence, and physical appearance under the microscope, macerals are grouped into
three major classes: (1) Liptinite or exinite macerals, with low reflectance and high hydrogen-tocarbon ratios, are derived from plant spores, cuticles, resins, and algal bodies. (2) Vitrinite
macerals, with intermediate reflectance and high oxygen-to-carbon ratios, are derived from
woody tissues. (3) Inertinite macerals, with high reflectance and carbon contents, are derived
from fossil charcoal or decayed material.
Although the various macerals in a given group are expected to have similar properties, they
often exhibit different behaviour in a particular end use. For example, combustion efficiency is
reported to be inversely related to inertinite content, yet micrinite, which is classified as an
inertinite maceral, is found to be highly reactive in combustion applications. Correlations
between petrographic composition and coal reactivity have not yet been well established.

Physical properties
Grindability
The grindability of a coal is a measure of its resistance to crushing. Two factors affecting
grindability are the moisture and ash contents of a coal. In general, lignites and anthracites are

more resistant to grinding than are bituminous coals. One commonly used method for assessing
grindability is the Hardgrove test, which consists of grinding a specially prepared coal sample in
a laboratory mill of standard design. The percent by weight of the coal that passes through a 200mesh sieve (a screen with openings of 74 micrometres, or 0.003 inch) is used to calculate the
Hardgrove grindability index (HGI). The index is used as a guideline for sizing the grinding
equipment in a coal-preparation plant.

Porosity
Porosity is the fraction of the volume of an apparent solid that is actually empty space. Owing to
porosity, the surface area inside a coal particle is far higher than the external surface area. In any
gas-solid or liquid-solid reaction, the rate of reaction depends on the available surface area on
which the reaction can occur; therefore, the porosity of a coal affects its rate of reaction in a
conversion process. The accessibility of a reactant to the internal surface of a coal particle also
depends on the size and shape of the pores and the extent of porosity