?? > GRE > ?? ?1??

Passage 1
A mysterious phenomenon is the ability of over-water migrants to travel on cours
e.
Birds, bees, and other species can keep track of time without any sensory cues
from the outside world, and such "biological clocks" clearly contribute to thei
r
"compass sense." For example, they can use the position of the Sun or stars,
along with the time of day, to find north. (But compass sense alone cannot expla
in
how birds navigate the ocean: after a flock traveling east is blown far south by
a storm,
it will assume the proper northeasterly course to compensate). Perhaps, some sc
ientists thought,
migrants determine their geographic position on Earth by celestial navigation,
almost as human navigators use stars and planets, but this would demand of the
animals (a fantastic map sense). Researchers now know that some species have a m
agnetic sense,
which might allow migrants to determine their geographic location by detecting
variations
in the strength of the Earth's magnetic field.
1. The main idea of the passage is that
(A) migration over land requires a simpler explanation than migration over water
does
(B) the means by which animals migrate over water are complex and only partly un
derstood
(C) the ability of migrant animals to keep track of time is related to their mag
netic sense
(D) knowledge of geographic location is essential to migrants with little or no
compass sense
(E) explanations of how animals migrate tend to replace, rather than build on, o
ne another
2. It can be inferred from the passage that if the flock of birds described in l
ines 8-12 were
navigating by compass sense alone, they would, after the storm, fly
(A) east
(B) north
(C) northwest
(D) south
(E) southeast
3. In maintaining that migrating animals would need "a fantastic map sense" (lin
e 17) to
determine their geographic position by celestial navigation, the author intends
to express
(A) admiration for the ability of the migrants
(B) skepticism about celestial navigation as an explanation
(C) certainly that the phenomenon of migration will remain mysterious
(D) interest in a new method of accounting for over-water migration
(E) surprise that animals apparently navigate in much the same way that human be
ings do
4. Of the following descriptions of migrating animals, which most strongly sugge
sts that

the animals are depending on magnetic cues to orient themselves?

(A) Pigeons can properly readjust their course even when flying long distances t
hrough
exceedingly dense fogs.
(B) Bison are able to reach their destination by passing through a landscape tha
t has been
partially altered by a recent fire.
(C) Elephants are able to find grounds that some members of the herd have never
seen before.
(D) Swallows are able to return to a given spot at the same time every year.
(E) Monarch butterflies coming from different parts of North America are able to
arrive at
the same location each winter.
??: BABA

?? > GRE > ?? ?2??

Passage 1
The historian Frederick J. Turner wrote in the 1890's that the agrarian disconte
nt that had
been developing steadily in the United States since about 1870 had been precipit
ated by the
closing of the internal frontier--that is, the depletion of available new land
needed for
further expansion of the American farming system. Not only was Turner's thesis i
nfluential
at the time, it was later adopted and elaborated by other scholars, such as Joh
n D. Hicks
in The Populist Revolt (1931). (Actually, however, new lands were taken up for
farming in
the United States throughout and beyond the nineteenth century. In the 1890's,
when agrarian
discontent had become most acute, 1,100,000 new farms were settled, which was 5
00,000 more than
had been settled during the previous decade. After 1890, under the terms of the
Homestead Act
and its successors, more new land was taken up for farming than had been taken u
p for this
purpose in the United States up until that time. It is true that a high proport
ion of the
newly farmed land was suitable only for grazing and dry farming, but agricultur
al practices
had become sufficiently advanced to make it possible to increase the profitabili
ty of farming
by utilizing even these relatively barren lands).
The emphasis given by both scholars and statesmen to the presumed disappearance
of the American
frontier helped to obscure the great importance of changes in the conditions an
d consequences
of international trade that occurred during the second half of the nineteenth c
entury. In 1869
the Suez Canal was opened and the first transcontinental railroad in the United
States was
completed. An extensive network of telegraph and telephone communications was s

pun: Europe
was connected by submarine cable with the United States in 1866 and with South
America in 1874.
By about 1870 improvements in agricultural technology made possible the full ex
ploitation of
areas that were most suitable for extensive farming on a mechanized basis. Huge
tracts of land
were being settled and farmed in Argentina, Australia, Canada, and in the Ameri
can West,
and these areas were joined with one another and with the countries of Europe i
nto an
interdependent market system.
As a consequence, agrarian depressions no longer were local or national in scope
,
and they struck several nations whose internal frontiers had not vanished or we
re
not about to vanish. Between the early 1870's and the 1890's, the mounting agrar
ian
discontent in America paralleled the almost uninterrupted decline in the prices
of
American agricultural products on foreign markets. Those staple-growing farmers
in
the United States who exhibited the greatest discontent were those who had becom
e most
dependent on foreign markets for the sale of their products. Insofar as America
ns had
been deterred from taking up new land for farming, it was because market condit
ions
had made this period a perilous time in which to do so.
1. The author is primarily concerned with
(A) showing that a certain interpretation is better supported by the evidence th
an is an alternative explanation
(B) developing an alternative interpretation by using sources of evidence that f
ormerly had been unavailable
(C) questioning the accuracy of the evidence that most scholars have used to cou
nter the author's own interpretation
(D) reviewing the evidence that formerly had been thought to obscure a valid int
erpretation
(E) presenting evidence in support of a controversial version of an earlier inte
rpretation.
2. According to the author, changes in the conditions of international trade res
ulted in an
(A) underestimation of the amount of new land that was being famed in the United
States
(B) underutilization of relatively small but rich plots of land
(C) overexpansion of the world transportation network for shipping agricultural
products
(D) extension of agrarian depressions beyond national boundaries
(E) emphasis on the importance of market forces in determining the prices of agr
icultural products
3. The author implies that the change in the state of the American farmer's mora
le during the
latter part of the nineteenth century was traceable to the American farmer's in
creasing
perception that the
(A) costs of cultivating the land were prohibitive within the United States
(B) development of the first transcontinental railroad in the United States occu

rred at the expense of the American farmer

(C) American farming system was about to run out of the new farmland that was re
quired for its expansion.
(D) prices of American agricultural products were deteriorating especially rapid
ly on domestic markets
(E) proceeds from the sales of American agricultural products on foreign markets
were unsatisfactory
4. According to the passage, which of the following occurred prior to 1890?
(A) Frederick J. Turner's thesis regarding the American frontier became influent
ial.
(B) The Homestead Act led to an increase in the amount of newly farmed land in t
he United States.
(C) The manufacturers of technologically advanced agricultural machinery rapidly
increased
their marketing efforts.
(D) Direct lines of communication were constructed between the United States and
South America.
(E) Technological advances made it fruitful to farm extensively on a mechanized
basis.
5. The author implies that, after certain territories and countries had been joi
ned into an
interdependent market system in the nineteenth century, agrarian depressions wit
hin that system
(A) spread to several nations, excluding those in which the internal frontier re
mained open
(B) manifested themselves in several nations, including those in which new land
remained available for farming
(C) slowed down the pace of new technological developments in international comm
unications and transportation
(D) affected the local and national prices of the nonagricultural products of se
veral nations
(E) encouraged several nations to sell more of their agricultural products on fo
reign markets
6. The author provides information concerning newly farmed lands in the United S
tates
(lines 11-27) as evidence in direct support of which of the following?
(A) A proposal by Frederick J. Turner that was later disputed by John D. Hicks
(B) An elaboration by John D. Hicks of a thesis that formerly had been questione
d by Frederick J. Turner
(C) The established view that was disputed by those scholars who adopted the the
sis of Frederick J. Turner
(D) The thesis that important changes occurred in the nature of international tr
ade during the second half of the nineteenth century
(E) The view that the American frontier did not become closed during the ninetee
nth century or soon thereafter
7. The author implies that the cause of the agrarian discontent was
(A) masked by the vagueness of the official records on newly settled farms
(B) overshadowed by disputes on the reliability of the existing historical evide
nce
(C) misidentified as a result of influential but erroneous theorizing
(D) overlooked because of a preoccupation with market conditions
(E) undetected because visible indications of the cause occurred so gradually an
d sporadically
8. The author's argument implies that, compared to the yearly price changes that
actually

occurred on foreign agricultural markets during the 1880's, American farmers wo

uld have
most preferred yearly price changes that were
(A) much smaller and in the same direction
(B) much smaller but in the opposite direction
(C) slightly smaller and in the same direction
(D) similar in size but in the opposite direction
(E) slightly greater and in the same direction
??:
ADEEB ECD

?? > GRE > ?? ?3??

Passage1
Traditionally, pollination by wind has been viewed as a reproductive process mar
ked by random
events in which the vagaries of the wind are compensated for by the generation o
f vast
quantities of pollen, so that the ultimate production of new seeds is assured at
the expense
of producing much more pollen than is actually used. Because the potential haza
rds pollen
grains are subject to as they are transported over long distances are enormous,
windpollinated
plants have, in the view above, compensated for the ensuing loss of pollen thro
ugh happenstance
by virtue of producing an amount of pollen that is one to three orders of magni
tude greater
than the amount produced by species pollinated by insects.
However, a number of features that are characteristic of wind-pollinated plants
reduce pollen waste. (For example, many wind-pollinated species fail to release
pollen when wind speeds are low or when humid conditions prevail. Recent studies
suggest another way in which species compensate for the inefficiency of windpoll
ination.)
These studies suggest that species frequently take advantage of the physics of
pollen
motion by generating specific (aerodynamic environments) within the immediate v
icinity
of their female reproductive organs. It is the morphology of these organs that d
ictates
the pattern of airflow disturbances through which pollen must travel. The speed
and
direction of the airflow disturbances can combine with the physical properties o
f a
species' pollen to produce a species-specific pattern of pollen collision on the
surfaces
of female reproductive organs. Provided that these surfaces are strategically lo
cated,
the consequences of this combination can significantly increase the pollen-capt
ure efficiency
of a female reproductive organ.
A critical question that remains to be answered is whether the morphological att
ributes

of the female reproductive organs of wind-pollinated species are evolutionary a

daptations
to wind pollination or are merely fortuitous. A complete resolution of the ques
tion is as
yet impossible since adaptation must be evaluated for each species within its o
wn unique
functional context. However, it must be said that, while evidence of such evolut
ionary
adaptations does exist in some species, one must be careful about attributing mo
rphology
to adaptation. For example, the spiral arrangement of scale-bract complexes on
ovule-bearing pine cones, where the female reproductive organs of conifers are l
ocated,
is important to the production of airflow patterns that spiral over the cone's
surfaces,
thereby passing airborne pollen from one scale to the next. However, these patt
erns cannot
be viewed as an adaptation to wind pollination because the spiral arrangement oc
curs in a
number of non-wind-pollinated plant lineages and is regarded as a characteristi
c of vascular
plants, of which conifers are only one kind, as a whole. Therefore, the spiral
arrangement
is not likely to be the result of a direct adaptation to wind pollination.
1.The author of the passage is primarily concerned with discussing
(A) the current debate on whether the morphological attributes of wind-pollinate
d plants are evolutionary adaptations
(B) the kinds of airflow patterns that permit wind-pollinated plants to capture
pollen most efficiently
(C) the ways in which the reproductive processes of wind-pollinated plants are c
ontrolled by random events
(D) a recently proposed explanation of a way in which wind-pollinated plants red
uce pollen waste
(E) a specific morphological attribute that permits one species of wind-pollinat
ed plant to capture pollen
2. The author suggests that explanations of wind pollination that emphasize the
production
of vast quantities of pollen to compensate for the randomness of the pollination
process are
(A) debatable and misleading
(B) ingenious and convincing
(C) accurate but incomplete
(D) intriguing but controversial
(E) plausible but unverifiable
3. According to the passage, the "aerodynamic environments" mentioned in line 23
,
when they are produced, are primarily determined by the
(A) presence of insects near the plant
(B) physical properties of the plant's pollen
(C) shape of the plant's female reproductive organs
(D) amount of pollen generated by the plant
(E) number of seeds produced by the plant
4. According to the passage, true statements about the release of pollen by wind
-pollinated
plants include which of the following?
I. The release can be affected by certain environmental factors.

II. The amount of pollen released increases on a rainy day.

III. Pollen is sometimes not released by plants when there is little wind.
(A) II only
(B) III only
(C) I and II only
(D) I and III only
(E) I, II, and III
5. The passage suggests that the recent studies cited in lines 19-21 have not do
ne which
of the following?
(A) Made any distinctions between different species of wind-pollinated plants.
(B) Considered the physical properties of the pollen that is produced by wind-po
llinated plants.
(C) Indicated the general range within which plant- generated airflow disturbanc
es are apt to occur.
(D) Included investigations of the physics of pollen motion and its relationship
to the efficient capture
of pollen by the female reproductive organs of wind-pollinated plants.
(E) Demonstrated that the morphological attributes of the female reproductive or
gans of wind-pollinated
plants are usually evolutionary adaptations to wind pollination.
6. It can be inferred from the passage that the claim that the spiral arrangemen
t of
scale-bract complexes on an ovule-bearing pine cone is an adaptation
to wind-pollination would be more convincing if which of the following were tru
e?
(A) Such an arrangement occurred only in wind-pollinated plants.
(B) Such an arrangement occurred in vascular plants as a whole.
(C) Such an arrangement could be shown to be beneficial to pollen release.
(D) The number of bracts could be shown to have increased over time.
(E) The airflow patterns over the cone's surfaces could be shown to be produced
by such arrangements.
7. Which of the following, if known, is likely to have been the kind of evidence
used to support
the view described in the first paragraph?
(A) Wind speeds need not be very low for wind-pollinated plants to fail to relea
se pollen.
(B) The female reproductive organs of plants often have a sticky surface that al
lows them to trap airborne pollen systematically.
(C) Grasses, as well as conifers, generate specific aerodynamic environments wit
hin the immediate vicinity of their reproductive organs.
(D) Rain showers often wash airborne pollen out of the air before it ever reache
s an appropriate plant.
(E) The density and size of an airborne pollen grain are of equal importance in
determining whether that grain will be captured by a plant.
Passage 2
Scholars often fail to see that music played an important role in the preservati
on of African
culture in the United States. They correctly note that slavery stripped some cul
tural elements
from Black people-their political and economic systems-but they underestimate t
he significance
of music in sustaining other African cultural values. African music, unlike the
music of some
other cultures, was based on a total vision of life in which music was not an (i

solated social
domain). In African culture music was pervasive, serving not only religion, but
all phases of
life, including birth, death, work, and play. The methods that a community devi
ses to perpetuate
itself come into being to preserve aspects of the cultural legacy that that com
munity perceives
as essential. Music, like art in general, was so inextricably a part of African
culture that it
became a crucial means of preserving the culture during and after the dislocati
ons of slavery.
8. The primary purpose of the passage is to
(A) analyze the impact that slavery had on African political and economic system
s
(B) review the attempt of recent scholarship to study the influence of African m
usic on other music
(C) correct the failure of some scholars to appreciate the significance of music
in African culture
(D) survey the ways by which people attempt to preserve their culture against th
e effects of oppression
(E) compare the relative importance of music with that of other art forms in cul
ture
9. In line 9, the phrase "isolated social domain" refers to
(A) African music in relation to contemporary culture as a whole
(B) music as it may be perceived in non-African cultures
(C) a feature of African music that aided in transmitting African cultural value
s
(D) an aspect of the African cultural legacy
(E) the influence of music on contemporary culture
10. Which of the following statements concerning the function of African music c
an be inferred from the passage?
(A) It preserved cultural values because it was thoroughly integrated into the l
ives of the people.
(B) It was more important in the development of African religious life than in o
ther areas of culture.
(C) It was developed in response to the loss of political and economic systems.
(D) Its pervasiveness in African culture hindered its effectiveness in minimizin
g the impact of slavery.
(E) Its isolation from the economic domains of life enabled it to survive the de
structive impact of slavery.
11. According to the author, scholars would err in drawing which of the followin
g conclusions?
I. Slavery stripped the slaves of their political and economic systems.
II. African music was similar to all other traditions of music in that it origin
ated in a total vision of life.
III. Music was a crucial part of the African cultural legacy.
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) I and II only
(D) II and III only
(E) I, II, and III
??:
DCCDE ADCBA B

?? > GRE > ?? ?4??

Passage 1:
Geologists have long known that the Earth's mantle is heterogeneous, but its spa
tial arrangement
remains unresolved is the mantle essentially layered or irregularly heterogeneo
us?
The best evidence for the layered-mantle thesis is the well-established fact tha
t volcanic rocks
found on oceanic islands, islands believed to result from mantle plumes arising
from the lower
mantle, are composed of material fundamentally different from that of the mid-o
cean ridge system
, whose source, most geologists contend, is the upper mantle.
Some geologists, however, on the basis of observations concerning mantle xenolit
hs,
argue that the mantle is not layered, but that heterogeneity is created by flui
ds
rich in incompatible elements (elements tending toward liquid rather than solid st
ate)
percolating upward and transforming portions of the upper mantle irregularly, a
ccording
to the vagaries of the fluids' pathways. We believe, perhaps unimaginatively, t
hat this
ebate can be resolved through further study, and that the under explored mid-oce
an ridge
system is the key.
1. Which of the following best expresses the main idea of the passage?
(A) Current theories regarding the structure of the Earth's mantle cannot accoun
t for new discoveries regarding the composition of mantle xenoliths.
(B) There are conflicting hypotheses about the heterogeneity of the Earth's mant
le because few mantle elements have been thoroughly studied.
(C) Further research is needed to resolve the debate among geologists over the c
omposition of the mid-ocean ridge system.
(D) There is clear-cut disagreement within the geological community over the str
ucture of the Earth's mantle.
(E) There has recently been a strong and exciting challenge to geologists' longs
tanding belief in the heterogeneity of the Earth's mantle.
2. According to the passage, it is believed that oceanic islands are formed from
(A) the same material as mantle xenoliths
(B) the same material as the mid-ocean ridge system
(C) volcanic rocks from the upper mantle
(D) incompatible elements percolating up from the lower mantle
(E) mantle plumes arising from the lower mantle
3. It can be inferred from the passage that the supporters of the layered-mantle t
heory believe which of the following?
I. The volcanic rocks on oceanic islands are composed of material derived from t
he lower part of the mantle.
II. The materials of which volcanic rocks on oceanic islands and mid-ocean ridge
s are composed are typical of the layers from which they are thought to originat
e.
III. The differences in composition between volcanic rocks on oceanic islands an
d the mid-ocean ridges are a result of different concentrations of incompatible

elements.
(A) I only
(B) III only
(C) I and II only
(D) II and III only
(E) I, II, and III
4. The authors suggest that their proposal for determining the nature of the man
tle s heterogeneity might be considered by many to be
(A) pedestrian
(B) controversial
(C) unrealistic
(D) novel
(E) paradoxical
Passage 2
Until about five years ago, the very idea that peptide hormones might be made an
ywhere in the
brain besides the hypothalamus was astounding. Peptide hormones, scientists thou
ght, were made
by endocrine glands and the hypothalamus was thought to be the brains' only end
ocrine gland.
What is more, be-cause peptide hormones cannot cross the blood-brain barrier, re
searchers
believed that they never got to any part of the brain other than the hypothalamu
s,
where they were simply produced and then released into the bloodstream.
But these beliefs about peptide hormones were questioned as laboratory after lab
oratory found
that antiserums to peptide hormones, when injected into the brain, bind in plac
es other than
the hypothalamus, indicating that either the hormones or substances that crossreact with the
antiserums are present. The immunological method of detecting peptide hormones
by means of
antiserums, however, is imprecise. Cross-reactions are possible and this method
cannot determine
whether the substances detected by the antiserums really are the hormones, or m
erely close
relatives. Furthermore, this method cannot be used to determine the location in
the body where
the detected substances are actually produced.
New techniques of molecular biology, however, provide a way to answer these ques
tions.
It is possible to make specific complementary DNA's (cDNA's) that can serve as
molecular
probes to seek out the messenger RNA's (mRNA's) of the peptide hormones. If bra
in cells
are making the hormones, the cells will contain these mRNA's. If the products th
e brain cells
make resemble the hormones but are not identical to them, then the cDNA s should
still bind
to these mRNA s, but should not bind as tightly as they would to mRNA s for the true
hormones.
The cells containing these mRNA s can then be isolated and their mRNA s decoded to
determine
just what their protein products are and how closely the products resemble the
true peptide
hormones.
The molecular approach to detecting peptide hormones using cDNA probes should al

so be much
faster than the immunological method because it can take years of tedious purif
ications to
isolate peptide hormones and then develop antiserums to them. Roberts, expressi
ng the sentiment
of many researchers, states: I was trained as an endocrinologist. But it became c
lear to me
that the field of endocrinology needed molecular biology input. The process of
grinding out
protein purifications is just too slow.
If, as the initial tests with cDNA probes suggest, peptide hormones really are m
ade in the
brain in areas other than the hypothalamus, a theory must be developed that expl
ains their
function in the brain. Some have suggested that the hormones are all growth reg
ulators,
but Rosen' s work on rat brains indicates that this cannot be true. A number of
other
researchers propose that they might be used for intercellular communication in
the brain.
1. Which of the following titles best summarizes the passage?
(A) Is Molecular Biology the Key to Understanding Intercellular Communication in
the Brain?
(B) Molecular Biology: Can Researchers Exploit Its Techniques to Synthesize Pept
ide Hormones?
(C) The Advantages and Disadvantages of the Immunological Approach to Detecting
Peptide Hormones
(D) Peptide Hormones: How Scientists Are Attempting to Solve Problems of Their D
etection and to Understand Their Function
(E) Peptide Hormones: The Role Played by Messenger RNA' s in Their Detection
2. The passage suggests that a substance detected in the brain by use of antiser
ums to peptide hormones may
(A) have been stored in the brain for a long period of time
(B) play no role in the functioning of the brain
(C) have been produced in some part of the body other than the brain
(D) have escaped detection by molecular methods
(E) play an important role in the functioning of the hypothalamus
3. According to the passage, confirmation of the belief that peptide hormones ar
e made in the brain in areas other than the hypothalamus would force scientists
to
(A) reject the theory that peptide hormones are made by endocrine glands
(B) revise their beliefs about the ability of antiserums to detect peptide hormo
nes
(C) invent techniques that would allow them to locate accurately brain cells tha
t produce peptide hormones
(D) search for techniques that would enable them to distinguish peptide hormones
from their close relatives
(E) develop a theory that explains the role played by peptide hormones in the br
ain
4. Which of the following is mentioned in the passage as a drawback of the immun
ological method of detecting peptide hormones?
(A) It cannot be used to detect the presence of growth regulators in the brain.
(B) It cannot distinguish between the peptide hormones and substances that are v
ery similar to them.
(C) It uses antiserums that are unable to cross the blood-brain barrier.
(D) It involves a purification process that requires extensive training in endoc

rinology.
(E) It involves injecting foreign substances directly into the bloodstream.
5. The passage implies that, in doing research on rat brains, Rosen discovered t
hat
(A) peptide hormones are used for intercellular communication
(B) complementary DNA' s do not bind to cells producing peptide hormones
(C) products closely resembling peptide hormones are not identical to peptide ho
rmones
(D) some peptide hormones do not function as growth regulators
(E) antiserums cross-react with substances that are not peptide hormones
6. Which of the following is a way in which the immunological method of detectin
g
peptide hormones differs from the molecular method?
(A) The immunological method uses substances that react with products of hormone
producing cells, whereas the molecular method uses substances that react with a
specific component of the cells themselves.
(B) The immunological method has produced results consistent with long-held beli
efs about peptide hormones, whereas the molecular method has produced results th
at upset these beliefs.
(C) The immunological method requires a great deal of expertise, whereas the mol
ecular method has been used successfully by nonspecialists.
7. The idea that the field of endocrinology can gain from developments in molecu
lar biology is regarded by Roberts with
(A) incredulity
(B) derision
(C) indifference
(D) pride
(E) enthusiasm
Passage 3
It is frequently assumed that the mechanization of work has a revolutionary effe
ct on the lives
of the people who operate the new machines and on the society into which the ma
chines have been
introduced. For example, it has been suggested that the employment of women in i
ndustry took them
out of the household, their traditional sphere, and fundamentally altered their
position in
society. In the nineteenth century, when women began to enter factories, Jules
Simon, a French
politician, warned that by doing so, women would give up their femininity. Frie
drich Engels,
however, predicted that women would be liberated from the "social, legal, and e
conomic
subordination" of the family by technological developments that made possible th
e recruitment of
"the whole female sex. into public industry." Observers thus differed concernin
g the social
desirability of mechanization's effects, but they agreed that it would transform
women's lives.
Historians, particularly those investigating the history of women, now seriously
question this
assumption of transforming power. They conclude that such dramatic technologica
l innovations
as the spinning jenny, the sewing machine, the typewriter, and the vacuum cleane
r have not

resulted in equally dramatic social changes in women's economic position or in t

he prevailing
evaluation of women's work. The employment of young women in textile mills durin
g the Industrial
Revolution was largely an extension of an older pattern of employment of young,
single women
as domestics. It was not the change in office technology, but rather the separa
tion of
secretarial work, previously seen as an apprenticeship for beginning managers, f
rom
administrative work that in the 1880's created a new class of "deadend" jobs, t
henceforth
considered "women's work." The increase in the numbers of married women employed
outside the
home in the twentieth century had less to do with the mechanization of housewor
k and an
increase in leisure time for these women than it did with their own economic nec
essity and
with high marriage rates that shrank the available pool of single women workers
, previously,
in many cases, the only women employers would hire.
Women's work has changed considerably in the past 200 years, moving from the hou
sehold to the
office or the factory, and later becoming mostly white-collar instead of blue-co
llar work.
Fundamentally, however, the conditions under which women work have changed litt
le since
before the Industrial Revolution: the segregation of occupations by gender, lowe
r pay for women
as a group, jobs that require relatively low levels of skill and offer women lit
tle opportunity
for advancement all persist, while women's household labor remains demanding. R
ecent historical
investigation has led to a major revision of the notion that technology is alwa
ys inherently
revolutionary in its effects on society. Mechanization may even have slowed any
change in the
traditional position of women both in the labor market and in the home.
1. Which of the following statements best summarizes the main idea of the passag
e?
(A) The effects of the mechanization of women's work have not borne out the freq
uently held assumption that new technology is inherently revolutionary.
(B) Recent studies have shown that mechanization revolutionizes a society's trad
itional values and the customary roles of its members.
(C) Mechanization has caused the nature of women's work to change since the Indu
strial Revolution.
(D) The mechanization of work creates who-le new classes of jobs that did not pr
eviously exist.
(E) The mechanization of women's work, while extremely revolutionary in its effe
cts , has not, on the whole, had the deleterious effects that some critics had f
eared.
2. The author mentions all of the following inventions as examples of dramatic t
echnological innovations EXCEPT the
(A) sewing machine
(B) vacuum cleaner
(C) typewriter
(D) telephone
(E) spinning jenny

3. It can be inferred from the passage that, before the Industrial Revolution, t
he majority of women's work was done in which of the following settings?
(A) Textile mills
(B) Private households
(C) Offices
(D) Factories
(E) Small shops
4. It can be inferred front the passage that the author would consider which of
the following to be an indication of a fundamental alteration in the conditions
of women's work?
(A) Statistics showing that the majority of women now occupy white-collar positi
ons
(B) Interviews with married men indicating that they are now doing some househol
d tasks
(C) Surveys of the labor market documenting the recent creation of a new class o
f jobs in electronics in which women workers outnumber men four to one
(D) Census results showing that working women's wages and salaries are, on the a
verage, as high as those of working women.
(E) Enrollment figures from universities demonstrating that interesting numbers
of young women are choosing to continue their education beyond the undergraduate
level.
5. The passage states that, before the twentieth century, which of the following
was true of many employers?
(A) They did not employ women in factories.
(B) They tended to employ single rather than married women.
(C) They employed women in only those jobs that were related to women's traditio
nal household work.
(D) They resisted technological innovations that would radically change women's
roles in the family.
(E) They hired women only when qualified men were not available to fill the open
positions.
6. It can be inferred from the passage that the author most probably believes wh
ich of the following to be true concerning those historians who study the histor
y of women?
(A) Their work provides insights important to those examining social phenomena a
ffecting the lives of both sexes.
(B) Their work can only be used cautiously by scholars in other disciplines.
(C) Because they concentrate only on the role of women in the workplace, they dr
aw more reliable conclusions than do other historians.
(D) While highly interesting, their work has not had an impact on most historian
s' current assumptions concerning the revolutionary effect of technology in the
workplace.
(E) They oppose the further mechanization of work, which, according to their fin
dings, tends to perpetuate existing inequalities in society.
7. Which of the following best describes the function of the concluding sentence
of the passage?
(A) It sums up the general points concerning the mechanization of work made in
the passage as a whole.
(B) It draws a conclusion concerning the effects of the mechanization of work wh
ich goes beyond the evidence presented in the passage as a whole.
(C) It restates the point concerning technology made in the sentence immediately
preceding it.
(D) It qualifies the author's agreement with scholars who argue for a major revi
sion in the assessment of the impact of mechanization on society.
(E) It suggests a compromise between two seemingly contradictory views concernin

g the effects of mechanization on society.

Passage 4
Because of its accuracy in outlining the Earth's subsurface, the seismic-reflect
ion method
remains the most important tool in the search for petroleum reserves. In field
practice,
a subsurface is mapped by line arranging a series of wave-train sources, such a
s small
dynamite explosions, in a grid pattern. As each source is activated, it gene-rat
es a wave
train that moves downward at a speed determined uniquely by the rock's elastic c
haracteristics.
As rock interfaces are crossed, the elastic characteristics encountered general
ly change
abruptly, which causes part of the energy to be reflected back to the surface, w
here it is
recorded by seismic instruments. The seismic records must be processed to corre
ct for
positional differences between the source and the receiver, for unrelated wave
trains,
and for multiple reflections from the rock interfaces. Then the data acquired a
t each
of the specific source locations are combined to generate a physical profile of
the subsurface,
which can eventually be used to select targets for drilling.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) describing an important technique
(B) discussing a new method
(C) investigating a controversial procedure
(D) announcing a significant discovery
(E) promoting a novel application
2. According to the passage, in the seismic-reflection method all of the followi
ng have a significant effect on the signal detected by the seismic instruments E
XCEPT the
(A) presence of unrelated wave trains
(B) placement of the seismic instruments
(C) number of sources in the grid pattern
(D) nature of the reflectivity of the rock interfaces
(E) properties of rocks through which the wave train has traveled
3. It can be inferred from the passage that the seismic-reflection method would
be likely to yield an inaccurate physical profile of the subsurface in which of
the following circumstances?
(A) If the speed at which the wave train moved downward changed
(B) If the receiver were not positioned directly at the wave-train source
(C) If the rock on one side of a rock interface had similar elastic characterist
ics to those of the rock on the other side
(D) If the seismic records obtained for the different sources in a grid were hig
hly similar to each other
(E) If there were no petroleum deposits beneath the area defined by the grid of
wave-train sources
4. Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage?
(A) A method is criticized, and an alternative is suggested.
(B) An illustration is examined, and some errors are exposed.
(C) An assertion is made, and a procedure is outlined.
(D) A series of examples is presented, and a conclusion is drawn.

(E) A hypothesis is advanced, and supporting evidence is supplied.

??:
Passage
Passage
Passage
Passage

1:
2:
3:
4:

DECA
DCEBD AE
ADBDB AB
ACCC

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Passage 1
Some recent historians have argued that life in the British colonies in America
from approximately 1763 to 1789 was marked by internal conflicts among colonists
. Inheritors of some of the viewpoints of early twentieth century Progressive (h
istorians such as Beard and Becker), these recent historians have put forward ar
guments that deserve evaluation.
The kind of conflict most emphasized by these historians is class conflict. Yet
with the Revolutionary War dominating these years, how does one distinguish clas
s conflict within that larger conflict? Certainly not by the side a person suppo
rted. Although many of these historians have accepted the earlier assumption tha
t Loyalists represented an upper class, new evidence indicates that Loyalists, l
ike rebels, were drawn from all socio-economic classes. (It is nonetheless proba
bly true that a larger percentage of the well-to-do joined the Loyalists than jo
ined the rebels.) looking at the rebel side, we find little evidence for the con
tention that lower-class rebels were in conflict with upper-class rebels. Indeed
, the war effort against Britain tended to suppress class conflicts. Where it di
d not, the disputing rebels of one or another class usually became Loyalists. Lo
yalism thus operated as a safety valve to remove socioeconomic discontent that e
xisted among the rebels. Disputes occurred, of course, among those who remained
on the rebel side, but the extraordinary social mobility of eighteenth-century A
merican society (with the obvious exception of slaves) usually prevented such di
sputes from hardening along class lines. Social structure was in fact so fluid-t
hough recent statistics suggest a narrowing of economic opportunity as the latte
r half of the century progressed-that to talk about social classes at all requir
es the use of loose economic categories such as rich, poor, and middle class, or
eighteenth-century designations like "the better sort." Despite these vague cat
egories, one should not claim unequivocally that hostility between recognizable
classes cannot be legitimately observed. Outside of New York, however, there wer
e very few instances of openly expressed class antagonism.
Having said this, however, one must add that there is much evidence to support t
he further claim of recent historians that sectional conflicts were common betwe
en 1763 and 1789. The "Paxton Boys" incident and the Regulator movement are repr
esentative examples of the widespread, and justified, discontent of western sett
lers against colonial or state governments dominated by eastern interests. Altho
ugh undertones of class conflict existed beneath such hostility, the opposition
was primarily geographical. Sectional conflict which also existed between North
and South-deserves further investigation.
In summary, historians must be careful about the kind of conflict they emphasize
in eighteenth-century America. Yet those who stress the achievement of a genera
l consensus among the colonists cannot fully understand that consensus without u
nderstanding the conflicts that had to be overcome or repressed in order to reac
h it.
1. The author considers the contentions made by the recent historians discussed
in the passage to be
(A) potentially verifiable
(B) partially justified

(C) logically contradictory

(D) ingenious but flawed
(E) capricious and unsupported
2. The author most likely refers to "historians such as Beard and Becker" (lines
5-6) in order to
(A) isolate the two historians whose work is most representative of the viewpoin
ts of Progressive historians
(B) emphasize the need to find connections between recent historical writing and
the work of earlier historians
(C) make a case for the importance of the views of the Progressive historians co
ncerning eighteenth-century American life
(D) suggest that Progressive historians were the first to discover the particula
r internal conflicts in eighteenth-century American life mentioned in the passag
e
(E) point out historians whose views of history anticipated some of the views of
the recent historians mentioned in the passage
3. According to the passage, Loyalism during the American Revolutionary War serv
ed the function of
(A) eliminating the disputes that existed among those colonists who supported th
e rebel cause
(B) drawing upper, as opposed to lower, socioeconomic classes away from the rebe
l cause
(C) tolerating the kinds of socioeconomic discontent that were not allowed to ex
ist on the rebel side
(D) channeling conflict that existed within a socioeconomic class into the war e
ffort against the rebel cause
(E) absorbing members of socioeconomic groups on the rebel side who felt themsel
ves in contention with members of other socioeconomic groups
4. The passage suggests that the author would be likely to agree with which of t
he following statements about the social structure of eighteenth-century America
n society?
I. It allowed greater economic opportunity than it did social mobility.
II. It permitted greater economic opportunity prior to 1750 than after 1750.
III. It did not contain rigidly defined socioeconomic divisions.
IV. It prevented economic disputes from arising among members of the society.
(A) I and IV only
(B) II and III only
(C) III and IV only
(D) I, II, and III only
(E) I, II, III, and IV
5. It can be inferred from the passage that the author would be most likely to a
gree with which of the following statements regarding socioeconomic class and su
pport for the rebel and Loyalist causes during the American Revolutionary War?
(A) Identifying a person's socioeconomic class is the least accurate method of a
scertaining which side that person supported.
(B) Identifying a person as a member of the rebel or of the Loyalist side does n
ot necessarily reveal that person's particular socioeconomic class.
(C) Both the rebel and the Loyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic
classes, although there were fewer disputes among socioeconomic classes on the L
oyalist side.
(D) Both the rebel and the Loyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic
classes, although the Loyalist side was made up primarily of members of the upp
er classes.
(E) Both the rebel and the Loyalist sides contained members of all socioeconomic
classes, although many upper-class rebels eventually joined the Loyalists.

6. The author suggests which of the following about the representativeness of co

lonial or state governments in America from 1763 to 1789 ?
(A) The governments inadequately represented the interests of people in western
regions.
(B) The governments more often represented class interests than sectional intere
sts.
(C) The governments were less representative than they had been before 1763 .
(D) The governments were dominated by the interests of people of an upper socioe
conomic class.
(E) The governments of the northern colonies were less representative than were
the governments of the southern colonies.
7. According to the passage, which of the following is a true statement about se
ctional conflicts in America between 1763 and 1789 ?
(A) These conflicts were instigated by eastern interests against western settler
s.
(B) These conflicts were the most serious kind of conflict in America.
(C) The conflicts eventually led to openly expressed class antagonism.
(D) These conflicts contained an element of class hostility.
(E) These conflicts were motivated by class conflicts.
Passage 2.
In The Women of Mexico City, 1796-1857, Sylvia Marina Arrom argues that the stat
us on women in Mexico City improved during the nineteenth century. According to
Arrom, households headed by females and instances of women working outside the h
ome were much more common than scholars have estimated; efforts by the Mexican g
overnment to encourage female education resulted in increased female literacy; a
nd influential male writers wrote pieces advocating education, employment, and i
ncreased family responsibilities for women, while deploring women's political an
d marital inequality. Mention of the fact that the civil codes of 1870 and 1884
significantly advanced women's rights would have further strengthened Arrom's ar
gument.
Arrom does not discuss whether women's improved status counteracted the effects
on women of instability in the Mexican economy during the nineteenth century. Ho
wever, this is not so much a weakness in her work as it is the inevitable result
of scholars' neglect of this period Indeed, such gaps in Mexican history are pr
ecisely what make Arrom's pioneering study (an important addition to Latin Ameri
can women's history).
1. The passage is primarily concerned with doing which of the following?
(A) Reviewing a historical study of the status of women in Mexico City during th
e nineteenth century.
(B) Analyzing the effects of economic instability on the status of women in Mexi
co during the nineteenth century
(C) Advancing a thesis explaining why women's status in Mexico City improved dur
ing the nineteenth century
(D) Rejecting the thesis that the status of women in Mexico City during the nine
teenth century actually improved
(E) Praising an author for a pioneering attempt to bridge significant gaps in Me
xico's economic history prior to 1790
2. According to the author of the passage, Arrom's study can be characterized as a
n important addition to Latin American women s history (lines 21-22) because it
(A) offers a radical thesis concerning the status of women's civil rights in Mex
ican society during the nineteenth century
(B) relies on a new method of historical analysis that has not previously been a
pplied to Latin American history
(C) focuses only on the status of women in Mexican society
(D) addresses a period in Mexican history that scholars have to some extent negl
ected

(E) is the first study to recognize the role of the Mexican government in encour
aging women's education
3. It can be inferred from the passage that Arrom would agree with which of the
following assertions?
(A) Efforts by the Mexican government to encourage education for women during th
e nineteenth century were hampered by the economic instability of that period.
(B) The most significant advances in the rights of Mexican women during the nine
teenth century occurred prior to 1857.
(C) Improvements in the status of women in Mexico City during the nineteenth cen
tury were accompanied by similar improvements in the status of women in other la
rge Latin American cities.
(D) Scholars have in the past accorded the most significance to nineteenth-centu
ry Mexi Mexican literature that supported the status quo in women's political an
d marital rights.
(E) Scholars have in the past underestimated the number of households headed by
females in Mexico City.
4. Which of the following best describes the author's attitude toward Arrom's wo
rk?
(A) Uncritical approval
(B) Enthusiasm tempered by minor reservations
(C) Praise for her thesis, despite skepticism regarding the sources of her evide
nce
(D) Reluctant acceptance, despite lingering doubts regarding the accuracy of her
thesis
(E) Rejection, despite admiration for her attempt to break new ground in a hithe
rto neglected field
Passage 3
Biologists have long maintained that two groups of pinnipeds, sea lions and walr
uses, are descended from a terrestrial bearlike animal, whereas the remaining gr
oup, seals, shares an ancestor with weasels. But the recent discovery of detaile
d similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in all three groups und
ermines the attempt to explain away superficial resemblance as due to convergent
evolution the independent development of similarities between unrelated groups
in response to similar environmental pressures. Flippers may indeed be a necessa
ry response to aquatic life, turtles, whales, and dugongs also have them. But th
e common detailed design found among the pinnipeds probably indicates a common a
ncestor. Moreover, walruses and seals drive themselves through the water with th
rusts of their hind flippers, but sea lions use their front flippers. If anatomi
cal similarity in the flippers resulted from similar environmental pressures, as
posited by the convergent-evolution theory, one would expect walruses and seals
, but not seals and sea lions, to have similar flippers.
1. According to the passage, it has been recently discovered that
(A) there are detailed skeletal similarities in the flippers of pinnipeds
(B) sea lions, seals, and walruses are all pinnipeds
(C) pinnipeds are descended from animals that once lived on land
(D) animals without common ancestors sometimes evolve in similar ways
(E) animals that have flippers do not all use them in the same way
2. The author implies that which of the following was part of the long-standing
view concerning pinnipeds?
(A) Pinnipeds are all descended from a terrestrial bearlike animal.
(B) Pinnipeds share a common ancestor with turtles, whales, and dugongs
(C) Similarities among pinnipeds are due to their all having had to adapt to aqu
atic life.
(D) There are detailed similarities in the skeletal structure of the flippers in
all pinnipeds.

(E) Convergent evolution cannot account for the similarities among pinnipeds.
3. The author implies which of the following about the fact that turtles, whales
, and dugongs all have flippers?
(A) It can be explained by the hypothesis that turtles, whales, and dugongs are
very closely related.
(B) It can be explained by the idea of convergent evolution.
(C) It suggests that turtles, whales, and dugongs evolved in separate parts of t
he world.
(D) It undermines the view that turtles, whales, and dugongs are all descended f
rom terrestrial ancestors.
(E) It is the primary difference between turtles, whales, and dugongs, on the on
e hand, and pinnipeds, on the other.
4. In presenting the argument in the passage, the author does which of the follo
wing?
(A) Contends that key terms in an opposing view have been improperly used.
(B) Contends that opponents have purposely obscured important evidence.
(C) Shows that two theories thought to be in conflict are actually complementary
.
(D) Shows that advocates of a theory have not always stated their view in the sa
me manner.
(E) Shows that an implication of a theory is contradicted by the facts.
Passage 4
In a recent study, David Cressy examines two central questions concerning Englis
h immigration to New England in the 1630's: what kinds of people immigrated and
why? Using contemporary literary evidence, shipping lists, and customs records,
Cressy finds that most adult immigrants were skilled in farming or crafts, were
literate, and were organized in families. Each of these characteristics sharply
distinguishes the 21,000 people who left for New England in the 1630's from most
of the approximately 377,000 English people who had immigrating, to America by
1700.
With respect to their reasons for immigrating, Cressy does not deny the frequent
ly noted fact that some of the immigrants of the 1630's, most notably the organi
zers and clergy, advanced religious explanations for departure, but he finds tha
t such explanations usually assumed primacy only in retrospect When he moves bey
ond the principal actors, he finds that religious explanations were less frequen
tly offered and he concludes that most people immigrated because they were recru
ited by promises of material improvement.
1.In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with
(A) summarizing the findings of an investigation
(B) analyzing a method of argument
(C) evaluating a point of view
(D) hypothesizing about a set of circumstances
(E) establishing categories
2. According to the passage, Cressy would agree with which of the following stat
ements about the organizers among the English immigrants to New England in the 1
630's?
I. Most of them were clergy.
II. Some of them offered a religious explanation for their immigration.
III. They did not offer any reasons for their immigration until some time after
they had immigrated.
IV. They were more likely than the average immigrant to be motivated by material
considerations.
(A) I only
(B) II only
(C) II and III only

(D) I, III, and IV only

(E) II, III, and IV only
3. According to the passage, Cressy has made which of the following claims about
what motivated English immigrants to go to New England in the 1630's?
(A) They were motivated by religious considerations alone.
(B) They were motivated by economic considerations alone.
(C) They were motivated by religious and economic considerations equally.
(D) They were motivated more often by economic than by religious considerations.
(E) They were motivated more often by religious than by economic considerations.
4. The passage suggests that the majority of those English people who had immigr
ated to America by the late seventeenth century were
(A) clergy
(B) young children
(C) organized in families
(D) skilled in crafts
(E) illiterate
Passage 5
The 1960's witnessed two profound social movements: the civil rights movement an
d the movement protesting the war in Vietnam. Although they overlapped in time,
they were largely distinct. For a brief moment in 1967, however, it appeared tha
t the two movements might unite under the leadership of Martin Luther King, Jr.
King's role in the antiwar movement appears to require little explanation, since
he was the foremost advocate of nonviolence of his time. (But (King's stance on
the Vietnam War cannot be explained in terms of pacifism alone). After all, he
was something of a latecomer to the antiwar movement, even though by 1965 he was
convinced that the role of the United States in the war was indefensible). Why
then the two years that passed before he translated his private misgivings into
public dissent? Perhaps he believed that he could not criticize American foreign
policy without endangering the support for civil rights that he had won from th
e federal government.
1. According to the passage, the delay referred to in (lines 12-15) is perhaps a
ttributable to which of the following?
(A) King's ambivalence concerning the role of the United States in the war in Vi
etnam
(B) King's attempts to consolidate support for his leadership within the civil r
ights
movement
(C) King's desire to keep the leadership of the civil rights movement distinct f
rom that of the antiwar movement
(D) King's desire to draw support for the civil rights movement from the leaders
hip of the antiwar movement
(E) King's reluctance to jeopardize federal support for the civil rights movemen
t
2. The author supports the claim that "King's stance on the Vietnam War cannot b
e explained in terms of pacifism alone" (lines 10-12) by implying which of the f
ollowing?
(A) There is little evidence that King was ever a student of pacifist doctrine.
(B) King, despite pacifist sympathies, was not convinced that the policy of the
federal government in Vietnam was wrong.
(C) King's belief in nonviolence was formulated in terms of domestic policy rath
er than in terms of international issues.
(D) Had King's actions been based on pacifism alone, he would have joined the an
tiwar movement earlier than he actually did.
(E) Opponents of United States foreign policy within the federal government conv
inced King of their need for support.

Passage 6
Aided by the recent ability to analyze samples of air trapped in glaciers, scien
tists now have a clearer idea of the relationship between atmospheric compositio
n and global temperature change over the past 160,000 years. In particular, dete
rmination of atmospheric composition during periods of glacial expansion and ret
reat (cooling and warming) is possible using data from the 2,000-meter Vostok ic
e core drilled in Antarctica. The technique involved is similar to that used in
analyzing cores of marine sediments, where the ratio of the two-common isotopes
of oxygen, 12O and 16O, accurately reflects past temperature changes. Isotopic a
nalysis of oxygen in the Vostok core suggests mean global temperature fluctuatio
ns of up to 10 degrees centigrade over the past 160,000 years.
Data from the Vostok core also indicate that the amount of carbon dioxide has fl
uctuated with temperature over the same period: the higher the temperature, the
higher the concentration of carbon dioxide and the lower the temperature, the lo
wer the concentration. Although change in carbon dioxide content closely follows
change in temperature during periods of deglaciation it apparently lags behind
temperature during periods of cooling .The correlation of carbon dioxide with te
mperature, of course, does not establish whether changes in atmospheric composit
ion caused the warming and cooling trends or were caused by their.
Other data from the Vostok core show that methane gas also correlates closely wi
th temperature and carbon dioxide. The methane concentration nearly doubled, for
example, between the peak of the penultimate glacial period and the following i
nterglacial period. Within the present interglacial period it has more than doub
led in just the past 300 years and is rising rapidly. Although the concentration
of atmospheric methane is more than two orders of magnitude lower than that of
carbon dioxide, it cannot be ignored: the radiative properties of methane make i
t 20 times more effective, molecule for molecule, than carbon dioxide in absorbi
ng radiant heat. On the basis of a simulation model that climatological research
ers have developed, methane appears to have been about 25 per.
??:
Passage
Passage
Passage
Passage
Passage

1:
2:
3:
4:
5:

BEEBB AD
ADEB
ACBE
ABDE
ED

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Passage 1
Although, recent years have seen substantial reductions in noxious pollutants fr
om individual motor vehicles, the number of such vehicles has been steadily incr
easing consequently, more than 100 cities in the United States still have levels
of carbon monoxide, particulate matter, and ozone (generated by photochemical,
reactions with hydrocarbons from vehicle exhaust) that exceed legally establishe
d limits. There is a growing, realization that the only effective way to achieve
, further reductions in vehicle emissions-short of a massive shift away from the
private automobile-is to replace conventional diesel fuel and gasoline with cle
aner-burning fuels such as compressed natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas, etha
nol, or methanol.
All of these alternatives are carbon-based fuels whose molecules are smaller and
simpler than those of gasoline. These molecules burn more cleanly than gasoline
, in part because they have fewer, if and , carbon-carbon bonds, and the hydroca
rbons they do emit are less likely to generate ozone. The combustion of larger m
olecules, which have multiple carbon-carbon bonds, involves a more complex serie

s of reactions. These reactions increase the probability of incomplete combustio

n and are more likely to release uncombusted and photochemically active hydrocar
bon compounds into the atmosphere. On the other hand, alternative fuels do have
drawbacks. Compressed natural gas would require that vehicles have a set of heav
y fuel tanks-a serious liability in terms of performance and fuel efficiency--an
d liquefied petroleum gas faces fundamental limits on supply.
Ethanol and methanol, on the other hand, have important advantages over other ca
rbon-based alternative fuels: they have a higher energy content per volume and w
ould require minimal changes in the existing network for distributing motor fuel
. Ethanol is commonly used as a gasoline supplement, but it is currently about t
wice as expensive as methanol, the low cost of which is one of its attractive fe
atures. Methanol's most attractive feature, however, is that it can reduce by ab
out 90 percent the vehicle emissions that form ozone, the most serious urban air
pollutant.
Like any alternative fuel, methanol has its critics, Yet much of the criticism i
s based on the use of "gasoline clone" vehicles that do not incorporate even the
simplest design improvements that are made possible with the use of methanol. I
t is true, for example, that a given volume of methanol provides only about onehalf of the energy that gasoline and diesel fuel do; other things being equal, t
he fuel tank would have to be somewhat larger and heavier. However, since methan
ol- fueled vehicles could be designed to be much more efficient than "gasoline c
lone" vehicles fueled with methanol, they would need comparatively less fuel. Ve
hicles incorporating only the simplest of the engine improvements that methanol
makes feasible would still contribute to an immediate lessening of urban air pol
lution.
1. The author of the passage is primarily concerned with
(A) countering a flawed argument that dismisses a possible solution to a problem
(B) reconciling contradictory points of view about the nature of a problem
(C) identifying the strengths of possible solutions to a problem.
(D) discussing a problem and arguing in favor of one solution to it
(E) outlining a plan of action to solve a problem and discussing the obstacles b
locking that plan.
2.According to the passage, incomplete combustion is more likely to occur with g
asoline than with an alternative fuel because
(A) the combustion of gasoline releases photochemically active hydrocarbons
(B) the combustion of gasoline involves an intricate series of reactions
(C) gasoline molecules have a simple molecular structure
(D) gasoline is composed of small molecules.
(E) gasoline is a carbon-based fuel
3.The passage suggests which of the following about air pollution?
(A) Further attempts to reduce emissions from gasoline-fueled vehicles will not
help lower urban air-pollution levels.
(B) Attempts to reduce the pollutants that an individual gasoline-fueled vehicle
emits have been largely unsuccessful.
(C) Few serious attempts have been made to reduce the amount of pollutants emitt
ed by gasoline-fueled vehicles.
(D) Pollutants emitted by gasoline-fueled vehicles are not the most critical sou
rce of urban air pollution.
(E) Reductions in pollutants emitted by individual vehicles have been offset by
increases in pollution from sources other than gasoline-fueled vehicles.
4. which of the following most closely parallels the situation described in the
first sentence of the passage?
(A) Although a town reduces its public services in order to avoid a tax increase
, the town's tax rate exceeds that of other towns in the surrounding area.
(B) Although a state passes strict laws to limit the type of toxic material that
can be disposed of in public landfills, illegal dumping continues to increase.

(C) Although a
water supplies
ulation of the
(D) Although a
a tax to

town's citizens reduce their individual use of water, the town's

continue to dwindle because of a steady increase in the total pop
town.
country attempts to increase the sale of domestic goods by adding

5.The author describes which of the following as the most appealing feature of m
ethanol?
(A) It is substantially less expensive than ethanol.
(B) It could be provided to consumers through the existing motor fuel distributi
on system.
(C) It has a higher energy content than other alternative fuels.
(D) Its use would make design improvements in individual vehicles feasible.
(E) Its use would substantially reduce ozone levels.
6. It can be inferred from the passage that a vehicle specifically designed to u
se methanol for fuel would
(A) be somewhat lighter in total body weight than a conventional vehicle fueled
with gasoline
(B) be more expensive to operate than a conventional vehicle fueled with gasolin
e
(C) have a larger and more powerful engine than a conventional vehicle fueled wi
th gasoline
(D) have a larger and heavier fuel tank than a "gasoline clone" vehicle fueled w
ith methanol
(E) average more miles per gallon than a "gasoline clone" vehicle fueled with me
thanol
7. It can be inferred that the author of the passage most likely regards the cri
ticism of methanol in the last paragraph as
(A) flawed because of the assumptions on which it is based
(B) inapplicable because of an inconsistency in the critics' arguments.
(C) misguided because of its exclusively technological focus
(D) inaccurate because it ignores consumers' concerns
(E) invalid because it reflects the personal bias of the critics
Passage 2
In the fields of Delano. California, in 1965. Luis Valdez started the Teatro Cam
pesino (Farm- worker's Theater), and with it initiated the renaissance of Mexica
n American theater. The Teatro Campesino had an avowedly political purpose: to r
ally campesinos (farm-workers) in support of the farm workers' strike then being
organized by Cesar Chavez Valdez' dramatic presentations, called actors, spoke
to a campesino audience and addressed topics and themes directly related to the
strike. Valdez' early actors were composed of a series of scenes about the strik
e experience acted by campesino volunteers. His later actors were presented by a
newly constituted professional company, still called the Teatro Campesino, and
addressed such themes as the impact of the Vietnam War on Mexican Americans and
the dangers of assimilation, themes relevant to urban Mexican Americans as well
as to campesinos. All Valdez' actors contained elements of song and dance. relie
d little on stage effects or props, and featured the use of masks. These dramati
c elements, along with an intensely social or political purpose and the use of a
mixture of Spanish, English, and Mexican American dialects in the dialogues. wh
ich realistically capture the flavor of Mexican American conversation, are still
characteristic both of the actor and of most other forms of Mexican American th
eater today.
Innovative as it is, the actor owes much to the theater traditions or other peri
ods and regions. (Like early Spanish American religious dramas, secular folk dra
mas, and the Mexica an carpas of a somewhat later period, actors are usually per
formed outdoors by traveling groups of players or by local theater groups). The
improvised comic satire of the actors is often attributed to Valdez' study of th

e Italian commedia dell' arte of the sixteenth century, although some critics se
e it as a direct reflection of the comic and improvisational qualities of the mo
re contemporary and local carpas of Mexican theater. The Italian influence is li
kely, whatever Valdez immediate source: the Mexican carpas themselves are said t
o have originated from the theater pieces of a sixteenth-century Spanish writer
inspired by encounters with Italian commedia dell'arte troupes on tour in Spain.
The English-language theater has provided elements as well: Valdez himself has
acknowledged his debt to the agitprop socialist theater that appeared in the Uni
ted States during the 1920's and 1930's. In particular, his actors contain the s
ame assortment of semiallegorical characters and the same blend of music, chorus
, and dialogue found in some of the agitprop pieces, as well as the same fierce
spirit of social and political critique. Finally, many of Valdez' later theater
pieces freely incorporate characters, plots and symbols drawn from the indigenou
s myths and rituals of the pre-Hispanic peoples of Latin America. In fact, no ot
her art form illustrates more clearly the depth and complexity of the Mexican Am
erican heritage itself than does the actor of Luis Valdez and the Teatro Campesi
no.
1. According to the passage, the original impetus behind the establishment of th
e Teatro Campesino was which of the following?
(A) To help urban Mexican Americans understand the problems confronting striking
campesinos in California
(B) To promote an attitude of pride in the depth and richness of the Mexican Ame
rican heritage among striking campesinos.
(C) To provide striking campesinos an opportunity to use their creative talents
to express their political opinions.
(D) To allow its founder to express his personal support of the campesinos' stri
ke effort.
(E) To mobilize compesinos to support the farm workers' strike in California
2. The author cites all of the following as probable influences on Valdez' devel
opment of the acto EXCEPT the
(A) theater of sixteenth-century Italy
(B) carpas of Mexico
(C) drama of classical Greece
(D) English-language theater of the United States
(E) myths and rituals of pre-Hispanic America
3. The passage suggests that which of the following was true of the later actors
of the Teatro Campesino?
(A) They were more politically effective than were earlier actos.
(B) They were presented primarily outdoors, whereas earlier actos were presented
inside theaters.
(C) They used a greater mixture of dialects than did the earlier acros.
(D) They addressed a broader audience than did the earlier actos.
(E) They differed from earlier actos in that they contained fewer improvisationa
l elements.
4.Which of the following best describes the author's evaluation of the views of
the critics cited in line 36-39?
(A) Their views, if correct, do not preclude the existence of an Italian influen
ce on the acto.
(B) Their views are unlikely to be correct, given the differences existing betwe
en Mexican and Mexican American theater.
(C) Their views concerning the Mexican carpa are essentially correct, but they l
ack familiarity with the actor.
(D) Their views are probably more correct than the views of those who have attri
buted the comic and improvisational elements of the actor to earlier sources.
(E) Their views betray a lack of familiarity with the commedia dell'arte.

5. The passage suggests that which of the following explains the characteristic
use of a mixture of Spanish, English. and Mexican American dialects in the works
of Mexican American playwrights?
(A) Mexican American playwrights wish to include in their works elements drawn f
rom the traditions and history of pre-Hispanic America.
(B) Mexican American playwrights try to guarantee that their works are fully und
erstood by the broadest possible audience, including those who may speak only on
e language.
(C) Such a linguistic mix faithfully reflects the linguistic diversity of Mexica
n American culture, and is easily understood by most Mexican Americans.
6. According to the passage, which of the following elements characteristic of t
he acto are also found in some agitprop theater pieces?
(A) The use of masks
(B) Comic improvisation
(C) An outdoor setting
(D) Minimal use of complex stage effects or props
(E) An assortment of semiallegorical characters
7. Which of the following, if true, most strengthens the author's argument conce
rning the debt of the acto to the theater traditions of other periods and region
s?
(A) Many popular forms of theater rely heavily on improvisation.
(B) Plays resembling the actor in structure were written in the 1970's by West A
frican playwrights who are interested in dramatizing the richness of their own c
ultures.
(C) The use of masks has, at one time or another, been characteristic of the the
ater traditions of almost all cultures, even those most isolated from outside in
fluences.
(D) During a strike, it is common for union members to present musical skits dra
matizing the values of solidarity and resistance.
(E) Before 1965 Luis Valdez had attended many performances of traditional Mexica
n theater groups touring the western United States.
Passage 3
The two claws of the mature American lobster are decidedly different from each o
ther. The crusher claw is short and stout; the cutter claw is long and slender.
Such bilateral asymmetry, in which the right side of the body is, in all other r
espects, a mirror image of the left side, is not unlike handedness in humans .Bu
t where the majority of humans are right-handed, in lobsters the crusher claw ap
pears with equal probability on either the right or left side of the body.
Bilateral asymmetry of the claws comes about gradually. In the juvenile fourth a
nd fifth stages of development, the paired claws are symmetrical and cutterlike.
Asymmetry begins to appear in the juvenile sixth stage of development, and the
paired claws further diverge toward well-defined cutter and crusher claws during
succeeding stages. An intriguing aspect of this development was discovered by V
ictor Emmel. He found that if one of the paired claws is removed during the four
th or fifth stage, the intact claw invariably becomes a crusher, while the regen
erated claw becomes a cutter. Removal of a claw during a later juvenile stage or
during adulthood, when asymmetry is present, does not alter the asymmetry; the
intact and the regenerate claws retain their original structures.
These observations indicate that the conditions that trigger differentiation mus
t operate in a random, manner when the paired claws are intact but in a nonrando
m manner when one of the claws is lost. One possible explanation is that differe
ntial use of the claws determines their asymmetry. Perhaps the claw that is used
more becomes the crusher. This would explain why, when one of the claws is miss
ing during the fourth or fifth stage, the intact claw always becomes a crusher.
With two intact claws, initial use of one claw might prompt the animal to use it
more than the other throughout the juvenile fourth and fifth stages, causing it
to become a crusher.

To test this hypothesis, researchers raised lobsters in the juvenile fourth and
fifth stages of development in a laboratory environment in which the lobsters c
ould manipulate oyster chips. (Not coincidentally, at this stage of development
lobsters typically change from a habitat where they drift passively, to the ocea
n floor where they have the opportunity to be more active by burrowing in the su
bstrate.) Under these conditions, the lobsters developed asymmetric claws, half
with crusher claws on the left, and half with crusher claws on the right. In con
trast, when juvenile lobsters were reared in a smooth tank without the oyster ch
ips, the majority developed two cutter claws. This unusual configuration of symm
etrical cutter claws did not change when the lobsters were subsequently placed i
n a manipulatable environment or when they lost and regenerated one or both claw
s.
1.The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) drawing an analogy between asymmetry in lobsters and handedness in humans
(B) developing a method for predicting whet-her crusher claws in lobsters will a
ppear on the left or right side
(C) explaining differences between lobsters' crusher claws and cutter claws
(D) discussing a possible explanation for the way bilateral asymmetry is determi
ned in lobsters
(E) summarizing the stages of development of the lobster
2.Each of the following statements about the development of a lobster's crusher
claw is supported by information in the passage EXCEPT:
(A) It can be stopped on one side and begun on the other after the juvenile sixt
h stage.
(B) It occurs gradually over a number of stages.
(C) It is initially apparent in the juvenile sixth stage.
(D) It can occur even when a prospective crusher claw is removed in the juvenile
sixth stage.
(E) It is less likely in the absence of a manipulatable environment.
3.Which of the following experimental results, if observed, would most clearly c
ontradict the findings of Victor Emmel?
(A) A left cutterlike claw is removed in the fifth stage and a crusher claw deve
lops on the right side.
(B) A left cutterlike claw is removed in the fourth stage and a crusher claw dev
elops on the left side.
(C) A left cutterlike claw is removed in the sixth stage and a crusher claw deve
lops on the right side.
(D) Both cutterlike claws are removed in the fifth stage and a crusher claw deve
lops on the left side.
(E) Both cutterlike claws are removed in the fourth stage and a crusher claw dev
elops on the right side.
4. It can be inferred that of the two laboratory environments mentioned in the p
assage, the one with oyster chips was designed to
(A) prove that the presence of oyster chips was not necessary for the developmen
t of a crusher claw.
(B) prove that the relative length of time that the lobsters were exposed to the
oyster-chip environment had little impact on the development of a crusher claw
(C) eliminate the environment as a possible influence in the development of a cr
usher claw
(D) control on which side the crusher claw develops
(E) simulate the conditions that lobsters encounter in their natural environment
5. It can be inferred from the passage that one difference between lobsters in t
he earlier stages of development and those in the juvenile fourth and fifth stag
es is that lobsters in the early stages are
(A) likely to be less active

(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)

likely to be less symmetrical

more likely to lose a claw
more likely to replace a crusher claw with a cutter claw
more likely to regenerate a lost claw

6.Which of the following conditions does the passage suggest is a possible cause
for the failure of a lobster to develop a crusher claw?
(A) The loss of a claw during the third or earlier stage of development
(B) The loss of a claw during the fourth or fifth stage of development
(C) The loss of a claw during the sixth stage of development
(D) Development in an environment devoid of material that can be manipulated
(E) Development in an environment that changes frequently throughout the stages
of development
7.The author regards the idea that differentiation is triggered randomly when pa
ired claws remain intact as
(A) irrefutable considering the authoritative nature of Emmel's observations
(B) likely in view of present evidence
(C) contradictory to conventional thinking on lobster-claw differentiation
(D) purely speculative because it is based on scattered research and experimenta
tion
(E) unlikely because of apparent inconsistencies with theories on handedness in
humans
Passage 4
One advantage of breeding African bees with other bee types (Africanization) may
be resistance to the parasitic mite Varroa jacobsoni, a major threat to modern
bee-keeping. (In parts of Europe, this mite is devastating honeybees and killing
many colonies despite preventive measures by beekeepers). But in Brazil Varroa
jacobsoni has been present in Africanized bees since 1972 without the loss of a
single colony, even though beekeepers there undertook no preventive measures. Th
e mites lay eggs within the brood cells of immature bees, and developing mites f
eed on the hemolymph (blood) of bee pupae. But fewer mites reproduce in Africani
zed bees than in European bees. Some researchers point out that this resistance
may be related to the Africanized worker bee's shorter development period, which
prevents some mites from reaching maturity. Recently the mite has become a seri
ous problem in colonies of European bees in North America. Africanization of the
se bees may be the best safeguard against this parasite.
1. The passage suggests that which of the following was true of the honeybee col
onies described in line 4-6?
(A) Their life expectancy, when free of disease ,was shorter than that of Europe
an bee colonies In North America.
(B) They were not Africanizcd.
(C) Their life cycle did not accommodate the feeding, habits of Varroa jacobsoni
.
(D) They responded well to measures to control Varroa jacobsoni.
(E) They were managed using methods that were more modern than those employed
in Brazil.
2. The author cites all of the following as evidence that Africanized bees' resi
stance to Varroa jacobsoni is superior to that of European bees EXCEPT:
(A) Fewer Varroa jacobsoni mites reproduce in Africanized bees.
(B) Varroa jacobsoni is killing many bee colonies in Europe.
(C) Beekeepers in Brazil have not used preventive measures to protect their colo
nies.
(D) Brazilian bee colonies have endured Varroa jacobsoni since 1972.
(E) At least some European bee colonies have been saved by preventive measures.
3. According to the passage, research suggests that one possible reason the Afri

canized bees in Brazil have successfully resisted Varroa jacobsoni is that

(A) the life cycle of the Africanized bee may limit the Varroa jacobsoni mite's
opportunity to reach full development
(B) the Africanized bees may have had an opportunity to develop a chemical resis
tance to Varroa jacobsoni
(C) the location of bee colonies in Brazil may provide a natural deterrent to Va
rroa jacobsoni
(D) Varroa jacobsoni may be relatively new to Brazil and may not have had time t
o become widespread
(E) beekeepers may have developed effective control techniques for Varroa jacobs
oni
4. The author's argument regarding the resistance of Africanized bees to Varroa
jacobsoni would be most weakened if which of the following were true?
(A) The bees in Brazil were resistant before being Africanized.
(B) The number of bee colonies in North American increased dramatically whereas
the n-umber in Brazil remained unchanged.
(C) Mites found in European bees reproduce at a faster rate than mites of identi
cal species found in the bees in Brazil.
(D) Africanized bees retain many of the characteristics of European bees.
(E) Bee colonies in Europe continue to produce greater quantities of honey than
do those in Brazil.
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1:
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Passage 1
The defoliation of millions of acres of trees by massive infestations of gypsy m
oth cater-pillars is a recurring phenomenon in the northeastern United States. I
n studying these outbreaks, scientists have discovered that affected trees fight
back by releasing toxic chemicals, mainly phenols, into their foliage. These no
xious substances limit caterpillars' growth and reduce the number of eggs that f
emale moths lay. Phenols also make the eggs smaller, which reduces the growth of
the following year's caterpillars. (Because the number of eggs a female moth pr
oduces is directly related to her size, and because her size is determined entir
ely by her feeding success as a caterpillar, the trees' defensive mechanism has
an impact on moth fecundity).
The gypsy moth is also subject to attack by the nucleopolyhedrosis virus, or wil
t disease, a particularly important killer of the caterpillars in outbreak years
. Caterpillars contract wilt disease when they eat a leaf to which the virus, en
cased in a protein globule, has become attached. Once ingested by a caterpillar,
the protein globule dissolves, releasing thousands of viruses, or virions, that
after about two weeks multiply enough to fill the entire body cavity. When the
caterpillar dies, the virions are released to the outside, encased in a new prot
ein globule synthesized from the caterpillar's tissues and ready to be picked up
by other caterpillars.
Knowing that phenols, including tannins, often act by associating with and alte
ring the activity of proteins researchers focused on the effects on caterpillars
of ingesting the virus and leaves together. They found that on tannin-rich oak
leaves, the virus is considerably less effective at killing caterpillars than wh
en it is on aspen leaves, which are lower in phenols. In general, the more conce
ntrated the phenols in tree leaves, the less deadly the virus. Thus, while highl

y concentrated phenols in tree leaves reduce the caterpillar population by limit

ing the size of caterpillars and, consequently, the size of the female's egg clu
ster, these same chemicals also help caterpillars survive by disabling the wilt
virus. Forest stands of red oaks, with their tannin-rich foliage, may even provi
de caterpillars with safe havens from disease. In stands dominated by trees such
as aspen, however, incipient gypsy moth outbreaks are quickly suppressed by vir
al epidemics.
Further research has shown that caterpillars become virtually immune to the wilt
virus as the trees on which they feed respond to increasing defoliation. The tr
ees' own defenses raise the threshold of caterpillar vulnerability to the diseas
e, allowing populations to grow denser without becoming more susceptible to infe
ction. For these reasons, the benefits to the caterpillars of ingesting phenols
appear to outweigh the costs. Given the presence of the virus, the trees' defens
ive tactic apparently has backfired.
1. Which of the following statements best expresses the main point of the passag
e?
(A) Recurring outbreaks of infestation by gypsy moth caterpillars have had a dev
astating impact on trees in the northeastern United States.
(B) A mechanism used by trees to combat the threat from gypsy moth caterpillars
has actually made some trees more vulnerable to that threat.
(C) Although deadly to gypsy moth caterpillars, wilt disease has failed to signi
ficantly affect the population density of the caterpillars.
(D) The tree species with the highest levels of phenols in their foliage are the
most successful in defending themselves against gypsy moth caterpillars.
(E) In their efforts to develop new methods for controlling gypsy moth caterpill
ars, researchers have focused on the effects of phenols in tree leaves on the in
sects' growth and reproduction
2. In lines 12-14, the phrase "the trees" defensive mechanism has an impact on m
oth fecundity" refers to which of the following phenomena?
(A) Female moths that ingest phenols are more susceptible to wilt virus, which c
auses them to lay smaller eggs.
(B) Highly concentrated phenols in tree leaves limit caterpillars' food supply,
thereby reducing the gypsy moth population.
(C) Phenols attack the protein globule that protects moth egg clusters, making t
hem vulnerable to wilt virus and lowering their survival rate.
(D) Phenols in oak leaves drive gypsy moths into forest stands dominated by aspe
ns, where they succumb to viral epidemics.
(E) The consumption of phenols by caterpillars results in undersized female gyps
y moths, which tend to produce small egg clusters.
3. It can be inferred from the passage that wilt disease virions depend for thei
r survival on
(A) protein synthesized from the tissues of a host caterpillar
(B) aspen leaves with high concentrations of phenols
(C) tannin-rich oak leaves
(D) nutrients that they synthesize from gypsy moth egg clusters
(E) a rising threshold of caterpillar vulnerability to wilt disease
4. Which of the following, if true, would most clearly demonstrate the operation
of the trees' defensive mechanism as it is described in the first paragraph of
the passage?
(A) Caterpillars feeding on red oaks that were more than 50 percent defoliated g
rew to be only two thirds the size of those feeding on trees with relatively int
act foliage.
(B) Oak leaves in areas unaffected by gypsy moths were found to have higher leve
ls of tannin on average than aspen leaves in areas infested with gypsy moths.
(C) The survival rate of gypsy moth caterpillars exposed to the wilt virus was 4
0 percent higher for those that fed on aspen leaves than for those that ate oak

leaves.
(D) Female gypsy moths produced an average of 25 percent fewer eggs in areas whe
re the wilt virus flourished than did moths in areas that were free of the virus
.
(E) Gypsy moth egg clusters deposited on oak trees were found to have relatively
large individual eggs compared to those deposited on aspen trees.
5. Which of the following best describes the function of the third paragraph of
the
passage?
(A) It resolves a contradiction between the ideas presented in the first and sec
ond paragraphs.
(B) It introduces research data to support the theory outlined in the second par
agraph.
(C) It draws a conclusion from conflicting evidence presented in the first two p
aragraphs.
(D) It shows how phenomena described in the first and second paragraphs act in c
ombination.
(E) It elaborates on the thesis introduced in the first paragraph after a digres
sion in the second paragraph.
6. It can be inferred from the passage that gypsy moth caterpillars become immun
e to the wilt virus as a result of
(A) consuming a wide range of nutrients from a variety of leaf types
(B) feeding on leaves that contain high levels of phenols
(C) producing fewer offspring, which favors the survival of the hardiest individ
uals
(D) ingesting the virus together with leaves that do not contain tannin
(E) growing population density, which outstrips the ability of the virus to mult
iply and spread
7. Which of the following statements about gypsy moth caterpillars is supported
by information presented in the passage?
(A) Wilt disease is more likely to strike small gypsy moth caterpillars than lar
ge ones.
(B) The concentration of phenols in tree leaves increases as the gypsy moth cate
rpillar population dies off.
(C) Female gypsy moth caterpillars stop growing after they ingest leaves contain
ing phenols.
(D) Differing concentrations of phenols in leaves have differing effects on the
ability of the wilt virus to kill gypsy moth caterpillars.
(E) The longer a gypsy moth population is ex-posed to wilt disease, the greater
the likelihood that the gypsy moth caterpillars will become immune to the virus.
Passage 2
The sweep of narrative in A. N. Wilson's biography of C.S. Lewis is impressive a
nd there is much that is acute and well argued. But much in this work is careles
s and unworthy of its author. Wilson, a novelist and an accomplished biographer,
has failed to do what any writer on such a subject as Lewis ought to do, namely
work out a coherent view of how the various literary works by the subject are t
o be described and commented on. Decisions have to be made on what to look at in
detail and what to pass by with just a mention. Wilson has not thought this pro
blem out. For instance, Till We Have Faces, Lewis' treatment of the Eros and Psy
che story and one of his best-executed and most moving works, is merely mentione
d by Wilson, though it illuminates Lewis' spiritual development, whereas Lewis'
minor work Pilgrim's Regress is looked at in considerable detail.
1. The author of the passage implies that Wilson's examination of Pilgrim's Regr
ess
(A) is not as coherent as his treatment of Till We Have Faces

(B) would have been more appropriate in a separate treatise because of the scope
of Pilgrim's Regress
(C) demonstrates how Wilson's narrow focus ignores the general themes of Lewis'
works
(D) was more extensive than warranted because of the relative unimportance of Pi
lgrim's Regress
(E) was disproportionately long relative to the amount of effort Lewis devoted t
o writing Pilgrim's Regress.
2. The author of the passage would be most likely to agree with which of the fol
lowing statements regarding Till We Have Faces?
(A) It is an improvement over the Eros and Psyche story on which it is based.
(B) It illustrated Lewis' attempt to involve his readers emotionally in the stor
y of Eros and Psyche.
(C) It was more highly regarded by Wilson than by Lewis himself.
(D) It is one of the outstanding literary achievements of Lewis' career.
(E) It is probably one of the most popular of Lewis' works.
3.Which of the following best describes the organization of the passage?
(A) An evaluation is made, and aspects of the evaluation are expanded on with su
pporting evidence.
(B) A theory is proposed, and supporting examples are provided.
(C) A position is examined, analyzed, and rejected.
(D) A contradiction is described, then the points of contention are evaluated an
d reconciled.
(E)Opposing views are presented and evaluated, then modifications are advocated.
4. Which of the following best describes the content of the passage?
(A) A critique of A. N. Wilson as a biographer
(B) An evaluation of the significance of several works by C. S. Lewis
(C) An appraisal of a biography by A. N. Wilson
(D) A ranking of the elements necessary for a well-structured biography
(E) A proposal for evaluating the literary merits of the works of C. S. Lewis
Passage 3
Influenced by the view of some twentieth-century feminists that women's position
within the family is one of the central factors determining women's social posi
tion, some historians have underestimated the significance of the woman suffrage
movement. These historians contend that nineteenth-century suffragist was less
radical and, hence, less important than, for example, the moral reform movement
or domestic feminism-two nineteenth century movements in which women struggled f
or more power and autonomy within the family. True, by emphasizing these struggl
es, such historians have broadened the conventional view of nineteenth-century f
eminism, but they do a historical disservice to suffragism. Nineteenth-century f
eminists and antifeminist alike perceived the suffragists' demand for enfranchis
ement as the most radical element in women's protest, in part because suffragist
s were demanding power that was not based on the institution of the family, wome
n's traditional sphere. When evaluating nineteenth-century feminism as a social
force, contemporary historians should consider the perceptions of actual partici
pants in the historical events.
1.The author asserts that the historians discussed in the passage have
(A) influenced feminist theorists who concentrate on the family
(B) honored the perceptions of the women who participated in the women suffrage
movement
(C) treated feminism as a social force rather than as an intellectual tradition
(D) paid little attention to feminist movements
(E) expanded the conventional view of nineteenth-century feminism
2.The author of the passage asserts that some twentieth-century feminists have i

nfluenced some historians view of the

(A) significance of the woman suffrage movement
(B) importance to society of the family as an institution
(C) degree to which feminism changed nineteenth-century society
(D) philosophical traditions on which contemporary feminism is based
(E) public response to domestic feminism in the nineteenth century
3.The author of the passage suggests that which of the following was true of nin
eteenth-century feminists?
(A) Those who participated in the moral reform movement were motivated primarily
by a desire to reconcile their private lives with their public positions.
(B) Those who advocated domestic feminism, although less visible than the suffra
gists, were in some ways the more radical of the two groups.
(C) Those who participated in the woman suffrage movement sought social roles fo
r women that were not defined by women's familial roles.
4.The author implies that which of the following is true of the historians discu
ssed in the passage?
(A) They argue that nineteenth-century feminism was not as significant a social
force as twentieth-century feminism has been.
(B) They rely too greatly on the perceptions of the actual participants in the e
vents they study.
(C) Their assessment of the relative success of nineteenth-century domestic femi
nism does not adequately take into account the effects of antifeminist rhetoric.
(D)Their assessment of the significance of nineteenth-century suffragism differs
considerably from that of nineteenth-century feminists.
(E) They devote too much attention to nineteenth-century suffragism at the expen
se of more radical movements that emerged shortly after the turn of the century.
Passage 4
Many objects in daily use have clearly been influenced by science, but their for
m and function, their dimensions and appearance, were determined by technologist
s artisans, designers, inventors, and engineers---using nonscientific modes of t
hought. Many features and qualities of the objects that a technologist thinks ab
out cannot be reduced to unambiguous verbal descriptions; they are dealt with in
the mind by a visual, nonverbal process. In the development of Western technolo
gy, it has been nonverbal thinking, by and large, that has fixed the outlines an
d filled in the details of our material surroundings. Pyramids, cathedrals, and
rockets exist not because of geometry or thermodynamics, but because they were f
irst a picture in the minds of those who built them.
The creative shaping process of a technologist's mind can be seen in nearly ever
y artifact that exists. For example, in designing a diesel engine, a technologis
t might impress individual ways of nonverbal thinking on the machine by continua
lly using an intuitive sense of rightness and fitness. What would be the shape o
f the combustion chamber? Where should the valves be placed? Should it have a lo
ng or short piston? Such questions have a range of answers that are supplied by
experience, by physical requirements, by limitations of available space, and not
least by a sense of form. Some decisions, such as wall thickness and pin diamet
er, may depend on scientific calculations, but the nonscientific component of de
sign remains primary.
Design courses, then, should be an essential element in engineering curricula. N
onverbal thinking, a central mechanism in engineering design, involves perceptio
ns, the stock-in-trade of the artist, not the scientist. Because perceptive proc
esses are not assumed to entail "hard thinking," nonverbal thought is sometimes
seen as a primitive stage in the development of cognitive processes and inferior
to verbal or mathematical thought. But it is (paradoxical) that when the staff
of the Historic American Engineering Record wished to have drawings made of mach
ines and isometric views of industrial processes for its historical record of Am
erican engineering, the only college students with the requisite abilities were
not engineering students, but rather students attending architectural schools.

It courses in design, which in a strongly analytical engineering curriculum prov

ide the background required for practical problem-solving, are not provided, we
can expect to encounter silly but costly errors occurring in advanced engineerin
g systems. For example, early models of high-speed railroad cars loaded with sop
histicated controls were unable to operate in a snowstorm because a fan sucked s
now into the electrical system. Absurd random failures that plague automatic con
trol systems are (not merely trivial aberrations): they are a reflection of the
chaos that results when design is assumed to be primarily a problem in mathemati
cs.
1. In the passage, the author is primarily concerned with
(A) identifying the kinds of thinking that are used by technologists
(B) stressing the importance of nonverbal thinking in engineering design
(C) proposing a new role for nonscientific thinking in the development of techno
logy
(D) contrasting the goals of engineers with those of technologists
(E) criticizing engineering schools for emphasizing science in engineering curri
cula.
2. It can be inferred that the author thinks engineering curricula are
(A) strengthened when they include courses in design
(B) weakened by the substitution of physical science courses for courses designe
d to develop mathematical skills
(C) strong because nonverbal thinking is still emphasized by most of the courses
(D) strong despite the errors that graduates of such curricula have made in the
development of automatic control systems
(E) strong despite the absence of nonscientific modes of thinking
3. Which of the following statements best illustrates the main point of lines 128 of the passage?
(A) When a machine like a rotary engine mal-functions, it is the technologist wh
o is best equipped to repair it.
(B) Each component of an automobile-for ex-ample, the engine or the fuel tank ha
s a shape that has been scientifically determined to be best suited to that comp
onent's function
(C) A telephone is a complex instrument designed by technologists using only non
verbal thought
(D) The designer of a new refrigerator should consider the designs of other refr
igerators before deciding on its final form.
(E) The distinctive features of a suspension bridge reflect its designer's conce
ptualization as well as the physical requirements of its site.
4. Which of the following statements would best serve as an introduction to the
passage?
(A) The assumption that the knowledge incorporated in technological developments
must be derived from science ignores the many nonscientific decisions made by t
echnologists.
(B) Analytical thought is no longer a vital component in the success of technolo
gical development.
(C) As knowledge of technology has increased, the tendency has been to lose sigh
t of the important role played by scientific thought in making decisions about f
orm, arrangement, and texture.
(D) A movement in engineering colleges toward a technician's degree reflects a d
emand for graduates who have the nonverbal reasoning ability that was once commo
n among engineers.
(E) A technologist thinking about a machine, reasoning through the successive st
eps in a dynamic process, can actually turn the machine over mentally.
5. The author calls the predicament faced by the Historic American Engineering R
ecord "paradoxical" (lines 36-37) most probably because

(A) the publication needed drawings that its own staff could not make
(B) architectural schools offered but did not require engineering design courses
for their students
(C) college students were qualified to make the drawings while practicing engine
ers were not
(D) the drawings needed were so complicated that even students in architectural
schools had difficulty making them.
(E) engineering students were not trained to make the type of drawings needed to
record the development of their own discipline
6.According to the passage, random failures in automatic control systems are "no
t merely trivial aberrations" (lines 53) because
(A) automatic control systems are designed by engineers who have little practica
l experience in the field
(B) the failures are characteristic of systems designed by engineers relying too
heavily on concepts in mathematics
(C) the failures occur too often to be taken lightly
(D) designers of automatic control systems have too little training in the analy
sis of mechanical difficulties
(E) designers of automatic control systems need more help from scientists who ha
ve a better understanding of the analytical problems to be solved before such sy
stems can work
7. The author uses the example of the early models of high-speed railroad cars p
rimarily to
(A) weaken the argument that modern engineering systems have major defects becau
se of an absence of design courses in engineering curricula
(B) support the thesis that the number of errors in modern engineering systems i
s likely to increase
(C) illustrate the idea that courses in design are the most effective means for
reducing the cost of designing engineering systems
(D) support the contention that a lack of attention to the nonscientific aspects
of design results in poor conceptualization by engineers
(E) weaken the proposition that mathematics is a necessary part of the study of
design
Passage 5
One explanation for the tendency of animals to be more vigilant in smaller group
s than in larger ones assumes that the vigilant behavior-looking up, for example
is aimed at predators. If individuals on the edge of a group are more vigilant
because they are at greater risk of being captured, then individuals on average
would have to be more vigilant in smaller groups, because the animals on the per
iphery of a group form a greater proportion of the whole group as the size of th
e group diminishes.
However, a different explanation is necessary in cases where the vigilant behavi
or is not directed at predators. J. Krebs has discovered that great blue herons
look up more often when in smaller flocks than when in larger ones, solely as a
consequence of poor feeding conditions. Krebs hypothesizes that the herons in sm
aller flocks are watching for herons that they might follow to better feeding po
ols, which usually attract larger numbers of the birds.
1. It can be inferred from the passage that in species in which vigilant behavio
r is directed at predators, the tendency of the animals to be more vigilant in s
maller groups than in larger ones would most likely be minimized if which of the
following were true?
(A) The vigilance of animals on the periphery of a group always exceeded that of
animals located in its interior, even when predators were not in the area.
(B) The risk of capture for individuals in a group was the same, whether they we
re located in the interior of the group or on its periphery.
(C) Animals on the periphery of a group tended to be less capable of defending t

hemselves from attack by predators than animals located in the interior of the g
roup.
2. Which of the following best describes the relationship of the second paragrap
h to
the first?
(A) The second paragraph relies on different evidence in drawing a conclusion si
milar to that expressed in the first paragraph.
(B) The second paragraph provides further elaboration on why an assertion made a
t the end of the first paragraph proves to be true in most cases.
(C) The second paragraph provides additional information in support of a hypothe
sis stated in the first paragraph.
(D) The second paragraph provides an example of a case in which the assumption d
escribed in the first paragraph is unwarranted.
3. It can be inferred from the passage that the author of the passage would be m
ost likely to agree with which of the following assertions about vigilant behavi
or?
(A) The larger the group of animals, the higher the probability that individuals
in the interior of the group will exhibit vigilant behavior.
(B) Vigilant behavior exhibited by individuals in small groups is more effective
at warding off predators than the same behavior exhibited by individuals in lar
ger groups.
(C) Vigilant behavior is easier to analyze in species that are preyed upon by ma
ny different predators than in species that are preyed upon by relatively few of
them.
(D) The term "vigilant," when used in reference to the behavior of animals, does
(E) The term "vigilant, " when used in reference to the behavior of animals, usu
ally refers to behavior exhibited by large groups of animals
4. The passage provides information in support of which of the following asserti
ons?
(A) The avoidance of predators is more important to an animal's survival than is
the quest for food.
(B) Vigilant behavior aimed at predators is seldom more beneficial to groups of
animals than to individual animals.
(C) Different species of animals often develop different strategies for dealing
with predators.
(D) The size of a group of animals does not necessarily reflect its success in f
inding food.
(E) Similar behavior in different species of animals does not necessarily serve
the same purpose.
Passage
Passage
Passage
Passage
Passage

1:
2:
3:
4:
5:

BEAAD BD
DDAC
EACD
BAEAB BD
BDDE

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Passage 1
Over the years, biologists have suggested two main pathways by which sexual sele
ction may have shaped the evolution of male bird-song. In the first, male compet
ition and intrasexual selection produce relatively short, simple songs used main
ly in territorial behavior. In the second, female choice and intersexual selecti
on produce longer, more complicated songs used mainly in mate attraction; (like

such visual ornamentation as the peacock's tail, elaborate vocal characteristics

increase the male's chances of being chosen as a mate, and he thus enjoys more
reproductive success than his less ostentatious rivals). The two pathways are no
t mutually exclusive, and we can expect to find examples that reflect their inte
raction. Teasing them apart has been an important challenge to evolutionary biol
ogists.
Early research confirmed the role of intrasexual selection. In a variety of expe
riments in the field, males responded aggressively to recorded songs by exhibiti
ng territorial behavior near the speakers. The breakthrough for research into in
tersexual selection came in the development of a new technique for investigating
female response in the laboratory. When female cowbirds raised in isolation in
sound-proof chambers were exposed to recordings of male song, they responded by
exhibiting mating behavior. By quantifying the responses, researchers were able
to determine what particular features of the song were most important. (In furth
er experiments on song sparrows, researchers found that when exposed to a single
song type repeated several times or to a repertoire of different song types, fe
males responded more to the latter. The beauty of the experimental design is tha
t it effectively rules out confounding variables; acoustic isolation assures tha
t the female can respond only to the song structure itself).
If intersexual selection operates as theorized, males with more complicated song
s should not only attract females more readily but should also enjoy greater rep
roductive success. At first, however, researchers doing fieldwork with song spar
rows found no correlation between larger repertoires and early mating, which has
been shown to be one indicator of reproductive success; further, common measure
s of male quality used to predict reproductive success, such as weight, size, ag
e, and territory, also failed to correlate with song complexity.
The confirmation researchers had been seeking was finally achieved in studies in
volving two varieties of warblers. Unlike the song sparrow, which repeats one of
its several song types in bouts before switching to another, the warbler contin
uously composes much longer and more variable songs without repetition. For the
first time, researchers found a significant correlation between repertoire size
and early mating, and they discovered further that repertoire size had a more si
gnificant effect than any other measure of male quality on the number of young p
roduced. The evidence suggests that warblers use their extremely elaborate songs
primarily to attract females, clearly confirming the effect of intersexual sele
ction on the evolution of birdsong.
1. The passage is primarily concerned with
(A) showing that intrasexual selection has a greater effect on birdsong than doe
s intersexual selection
(B) contrasting the role of song complexity in several species of birds
(C) describing research confirming the suspected relationship between intersexua
l selection and the complexity of birdsong
(D) demonstrating the superiority of laboratory work over field studies in evolu
tionary biology
(E) illustrating the effectiveness of a particular approach to experimental desi
gn in evolutionary biology
2.The author mentions the peacock's tail in line 8 most probably in order to
(A) cite an exception to the theory of the relationship between intrasexual sele
ction and male competition
(B) illustrate the importance of both of the pathways that shaped the evolution
of birdsong
(C) draw a distinction between competing theories of intersexual selection
(D) give an example of a feature that may have evolved through intersexual selec
tion by female choice
(E) refute a commonly held assumption about the role of song in mate attraction
3. According to the passage, which of the following is specifically related to i
ntrasexual selection?

(A)
(B)
(C)
(D)
(E)

Female choice
Territorial behavior
Complex song types
Large song repertoires
Visual ornamentation

4.Which of the following, if true, would most clearly demonstrate the interactio
n mentioned in lines 11-13?
(A) Female larks respond similarly both to short, simple songs and to longer, mo
re complicated songs.
(B) Male canaries use visual ornamentation as well as elaborate song repertoires
for mate attraction.
(C) Both male and female blackbirds develop elaborate visual and vocal character
istics.
(D) Male jays use songs to compete among themselves and to attract females.
(E) Male robins with elaborate visual ornamentation have as much reproductive su
ccess as rivals with elaborate vocal characteristics.
5. The passage indicates that researchers raised female cowbirds in acoustic iso
lation in order to
(A) eliminate confounding variables
(B) approximate field conditions
(C) measure reproductive success
(D) quantify repertoire complexity
(E) prevent early mating
6. According to the passage, the song sparrow is unlike the warbler in that the
song sparrow
(A) uses songs mainly in territorial behavior
(B) continuously composes long and complex songs
(C) has a much larger song repertoire
(D) repeats one song type before switching to another
(E) responds aggressively to recorded songs
7.The passage suggests that the song sparrow experiments mentioned in lines 37-4
3 failed to confirm the role of intersexnal selection because
(A) females were allowed to respond only to the song structure
(B) song sparrows are unlike other species of birds
(C) the experiments provided no evidence that elaborate songs increased male rep
roductive success
(D) the experiments included the songs of only a small number of different song
sparrows
(E) the experiments duplicated some of the limitations of previous field studies
Passage 2
For many years, Benjamin Quarles' seminal account of the participation of Africa
n Americans in the American Revolution has remained the standard work in the fie
ld. According to Quarles, the outcome of this conflict was mixed for African Ame
rican slaves who enlisted in Britain's fight against its rebellious American col
onies in return for the promise of freedom: the British treacherously resold man
y into slavery in the West Indies, while others obtained freedom in Canada and A
frica. Building on Quarles' analysis of the latter group, Sylvia Frey studied th
e former slaves who emigrated to British colonies in Canada. According to Frey,
these refugees-the most successful of the African American Revolutionary War par
ticipants-viewed themselves as the ideological heirs of the American Revolution.
Frey sees this inheritances reflected in their demands for the same rights that
the American revolutionaries had demanded from the British: land ownership, lim
its to arbitrary authority and burdensome taxes, and freedom of religion.
1. According to the passage, which of the following is true about the African Am

erican Revolutionary War participants who settled in Canada after the American R
evolution?
(A) Although they were politically unaligned with either side, they identified m
ore with British ideology than with American ideology.
(B) While they were not immediately betrayed by the British, they ultimately suf
fered the same fate as did African American Revolutionary. War participants who
were resold into slavery in the West Indies.
(C) They settled in Canada rather than in Africa because of the greater religiou
s freedom available in Canada.
(D) They were more politically active than w-ere African American Revolutionary
War participants who settled in Africa.
(E) They were more successful than were African American Revolutionary War parti
cipants who settled Africa.
2. Which of the following is most analogous to the relationship between the Afri
can American Revolutionary War participants who settled in Canada after the Amer
ican Revolution and the American revolutionaries, as that relationship is descri
bed in the passage?
(A) A brilliant pupil of a great musician rebels against the teacher, but adopts
the teacher's musical style after the teacher's unexpected death.
(B) Two warring rulers finally make peace after a lifetime of strife when they r
ealize that they have been duped by a common enemy.
(C) A child who has sided with a domineering parent against a defiant sibling la
ter makes demands of the parent similar to those once made by the sibling.
(D) A writer spends much of her life popularizing the work of her mentor, only t
o discover late in life that much of the older writer's work is plagiarized from
the writings of a foreign contemporary.
(E) Two research scientists spend much of their careers working together toward
a common goal, but later quarrel over which of the-m should receive credit for t
he training of a promising student.
3. The author of the passage suggests that which of the following is true of Ben
jamin Quarles' work?
(A) It introduced a new and untried research methodology.
(B) It contained theories so controversial that they gave rise to an entire gene
ration of scholarship
(C) It was a pioneering work that has not yet been displaced by subsequent schol
arship.
(D) It launched the career of a scholar who later wrote even more important work
s.
(E) At the time it appeared, its author already enjoyed a well-established reput
ation in the field.
4. Which of the following can be inferred from the passage concerning Britain's
rule in its Canadian colonies after the American Revolution?
(A) Humiliated by their defeat by the Americans, the British sharply curtailed c
ivil rights in their Canadian colonies.
(B) The British largely ignored their Canadian colonies.
(C) The British encouraged the colonization of Canada by those African Americans
who had served on the American side as well as by those who had served on the B
ritish side.
(D) Some of Britain's policies in its Canadian colonies were similar to its poli
cies in its American colonies before the American Revolution.
(E) To reduce the debt incurred during the war, the British imposed even higher
taxes on the Canadian colonists than they had on the American colonists.
Keys:
Passage 1: CDBDA DC
Passage 2: ECCD