Indian Physiography

VISIONIAS
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EARTHQUAKE TSUNAMI AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND ASSOCIATED

LANDFORMS
Contents:
1. EARTHQUAKES
1.1.
1.2.
1.3.
1.4.
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKES
SEISMIC WAVES
DEPTH OF EARTHQUAKES
MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES
1.4.1.Magnitude Scale
1.4.2.Intensity Scale
1.4.3.Classification of Earthquakes
1.5. DISTRIBUTION OF EARTHQUAKES
1.5.1.Seismic Belts of the world
1.5.2.Seismic Zones of India
1.6. EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
2. TSUNAMI
2.1.
2.2.
2.3.
2.4.
CAUSES
PROPAGATION
CONSEQUENCES
EARLY WARNING AND MITIGATION
3. VOLCANOES
3.1. VULCANICITY
3.1.1.Causes of Vulcanism
3.2. COMPONENTS OF A VOLCANO
3.2.1.Types of lavas
3.3. TYPES OF VOLCANOES
3.4. VOLCANIC LANDFORMS
3.4.1.Extrusive Landforms
3.4.2.Intrusive Landforms
3.5. DISTRIBUTION OF VOLCANOES
3.6. EFFECTS OF VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
3.7. GEYSERS
3.8. HOT SPRINGS
3.9. FUMAROLES
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Earthquakes
Student Notes:
An earthquake in simple words is shaking of the earth. It is caused due to release of energy,
which generates waves that travel in all directions.
The release of energy occurs along a fault. A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks. Rocks
along a fault tend to move in opposite directions. As the overlying rock strata press them, the
friction locks them together. However, their tendency to move apart at some point of time
overcomes the friction. As a result, the blocks get deformed and eventually, they slide past one
another abruptly. This causes dissipation of energy, and the energy waves travel in all
directions.
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The point where the energy is released is called the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it is
called the hypocentre. The energy waves travelling in different directions reach the surface.
The point on the surface, nearest to the focus, is called epicentre. It is the first one to
experience the waves. It is a point directly above the focus.
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Figure 1: Hypocentre and Epicentre
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Types of Earthquakes
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1. Tectonic Earthquakes: These are generated due to sliding of rocks along a fault plane.
This movement causes imbalance in the crustal rocks which results in earthquakes of
varying magnitude, depending upon the nature of dislocation in the rock strata.
2. Volcanic Earthquakes: Volcanic activity is considered to be one of the main causes of
earthquakes. In fact, volcanic activity and seismic events are so intimately related to
each other that they become cause and effect for each other. Each volcanic eruption is
followed by an earthquake and many of the severe earthquakes can cause volcanic
eruptions.
The explosive violent gases during the process of volcanic activity try to escape upward
and hence they push the crustal surface from below with great force. This leads to
severe tremors of high magnitude, which depend upon the intensity of volcanic
eruptions.
3. Collapse Earthquakes: In areas of intense mining activity, sometimes the roofs of
underground mines collapse causing minor tremors.
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4. Explosion Earthquakes: Ground shaking may also occur due to the explosion of
chemical or nuclear devices.
5. The earthquakes that occur in the areas of large reservoirs are referred to as reservoir
induced earthquakes.
Above may also be referred as various causes of earthquakes with one and two being
the natural causes of earthquakes while three, four and five represent anthropogenic
or man-made causes of earthquakes.
Seismic waves
The waves generated by an earthquake are called the 'seismic waves' or earthquake waves.
These are recorded by an instrument called the seismograph or the seismometer. For further
understanding of earthquake waves, refer to the portion of the notes on Interior of Earth.
Depth of Earthquakes
Earthquake focus depth is an important factor in shaping the characteristics of the waves and
the damage they inflict. The focal depth can be deep (from 300 to 700 km), intermediate (60 to
300 km) or shallow (less than 60 km). Deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because
the wave amplitude is greatly attenuated by the time it reaches the surface. Shallow focus
earthquakes are more common and are extremely damaging because of their close proximity
to the surface
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Measurement of Earthquakes
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The earthquake events are scaled either according to the magnitude or intensity of the shock.
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Magnitude Scale
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Magnitude is the amount of energy released and is based on the direct measurement of the
size of seismic waves. The magnitude scale is known as the Richter Scale.
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The Richter magnitude scale was developed in 1935 by Charles F. Richter as a mathematical
device to compare the size of earthquakes. The magnitude of an earthquake is determined
from the logarithm of the amplitude of waves recorded by seismographs. Because of the
logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a ten fold
increase in measured amplitude; as an estimate of energy, each whole number step in the
magnitude scale corresponds to the release of about 31 times more energy than the amount
associated with the preceding whole number value.
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Intensity Scale
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Intensity of an earthquake is measured in terms of its effects on human life. The intensity of an
earthquake at a specific location depends on a number of factors. Some of them are:
the total amount of energy released,
the distance from the epicentre,
the types of rocks and the degree of consolidation.
The Mercalli intensity scale is a scale used for measuring the intensity of an earthquake. The
scale quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's surface, humans, objects of nature,
and man-made structures on a scale of I through XII, with I denoting not felt, and XII total
destruction. Data is gathered from individuals who have experienced the quake, and an
intensity value will be given to their location.
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Student Notes:
Characteristic Mercalli Scale

The effects caused by
Measures
earthquake
Measuring
Observation
Tool
Quantified
from
observation of effect
on earths surface,
Calculation
human, objects and
man-made structures
I (not felt) to XII (total
destruction)
Scale
Consistency
Richter Scale
The energy released by the earthquake
Student Notes:
Seismograph
Base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating
logarithm of the amplitude of waves.
From 2.0 to 10.0+ (never recorded). A 3.0

earthquake is 10 times stronger than a 2.0
earthquake.
Varies depending on Varies at different distances from the epicentre,

distance
from but one value is given for the earthquake as a
epicentre.
whole.
Table 1: Comparison between Richter and Mercalli Scale
Slight
Upto 4.9
Moderate
5.0 to 6.9
Great
7.0 to 7.9
Very Great
8.0 and more
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Magnitude on Richter Scale
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Category
Classification of Earthquakes
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Table 2: classification of earthquakes based on magnitude
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Distribution of Earthquakes
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Most earthquakes in the world are associated with the following:
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the zones of young fold mountains,

the zones of faulting and fracturing,
the zones representing the junctions of continental and oceanic margins,
the zones of active volcanoes, and
along the different plate boundaries.
Seismic Belts of the world

The main seismic belts are as under:
1. Circum-Pacific Belt: The Belt includes the coastal margins of North America, South
America and East Asia. These are as represent the eastern and western margins of the
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Pacific Ocean respectively, and account for about 65 per cent of the total earthquakes
of the world.
The western marginal zones are represented by the Rockies and the Andes mountain
chains. These are also the zones of convergent plate boundaries where the Pacific
oceanic plate is subducted below the American plates.
The eastern marginal zones are represented by the island arcs of Kamchatka, Sakhalin,
Japan and Philippines. The earthquakes are caused due to collision of the Pacific and
the Asiatic plates and the consequent volcanic activity. Japan records about 1500
seismic shocks every year.
2. Mid-Continental Belt: The Mid-Continental Belt includes the Alpine mountains and
their off shoots in Europe, Mediterranean Sea, northern Africa, eastern Africa and the
Himalayas.
The Mid-Continental Belt extends through Sulaiman and Kirthar zones in the west, the
Himalayas in the north and Myanmar in the east. This belt represents the weaker zone
of Fold Mountains. About 21 per cent of the total seismic events are recorded in this
belt.
3. Mid-Atlantic Ridge Belt: The Mid-Atlantic Ridge Belt includes the Mid-Atlantic ridge
and several islands near the ridge. It records moderate earthquakes which are caused
due to the moving of plates in the opposite directions. Thus the seafloor spreading and
the fissure type of volcanic eruptions cause earthquakes of moderate intensity in this
region.
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Figure 2: Distribution of Earthquake belts
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Seismic Zones of India
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The Indian sub-continent is highly prone to multiple natural disasters including earthquakes,
which is one of the most destructive natural hazards with the potentiality of inflicting huge loss
to lives and property. Earthquakes pose a real threat to India with 59% of its geographical area
vulnerable to seismic disturbance of varying intensities including the capital city of the country.
The varying geology at different locations in the country implies that the likelihood of damaging
earthquakes taking place at different locations is different. Thus, a seismic zone map is required
so that buildings and other structures located in different regions can be designed to withstand
different level of ground shaking. The current zone map divides India into four zones II, III, IV
and V.
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Student Notes:
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Student Notes:
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Figure 3: Seismic Zones of India
Region
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Damage risk
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Zone
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The following table gives the distribution of various regions of the country into various seismic
zones:
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The entire North-east, including the seven sister

states, the Kutch district, parts of Himachal and
Jammu & Kashmir, and the Andaman and Nicobar
islands.
Parts of the Northern belt starting from Jammu and
Kashmir to Himachal Pradesh. Also including Delhi
and parts of Haryana. The Koyna region of
Maharashtra is also in this zone.
Very high damage risk zone
Zone IV
High damage risk zone
Zone III
A large part of the country stretching from the North

including some parts of Rajasthan to the South
Moderate damage risk zone
through the Konkan coast, and also the Eastern parts
of the country.
Zone II
Low damage risk zone
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Zone V
These two zones are contiguous, covering parts of

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh,
and Rajasthan, known as low risk earthquake zones.
Table 4: Region falling in various zones of the country
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Effects of Earthquakes
Student Notes:
The direct and indirect effects of an earthquake includes:
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1. Deformed Ground Surface: The earthquake tremors and the resultant vibrations, result
in the deformation of the ground surface, due to the rise and subsidence of the ground
surface and faulting activity. The alluvium filled areas of the flood plains may get
fractured at several places.
2. Damage to man-made structures: Man-made structures such as buildings, roads, rails,
factories, dams, bridges, etc., get severely damaged.
3. Damage to towns and cities: The towns and cities are the worst affected due to a high
density of buildings and population. Under the impact of tremors, large buildings
collapse and men and women get buried under the debris. Ground water pipes are
damaged and thus water supply is totally disrupted.
4. Loss of human and animal life: The destructive power of an earthquake depends upon
the loss it can cause in terms of loss of life arid property. The Bhuj earthquake of India
in 2001 (8.1 on the Richter Scale) caused over one lakh human casualties.
5. Devastating fires: The strong vibrations caused by an earthquake can cause fire in
houses, mines and factories due to the bursting of gas cylinders, contact with live
electric wires, churning of blast furnaces, displacement of other electric and fire related
appliances.
6. Landslides: The tremors in hilly and mountainous areas can cause instability of
unconsolidated rock materials. This ultimately leads to landslides, which damage
settlements and transport systems.
7. Flash floods: Very strong seismic events result in the collapse of dams and cause severe
flash floods. Floods are also caused when the debris produced by tremors blocks the
flow of water in the rivers. Sometimes the main course of the river is changed due to
the blockage.
8. Tsunamis: When the seismic waves travel through sea water, high sea waves are
generated, which can cause great loss to life and property, especially in the coastal
areas.
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Tsunami
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Tsunami is a Japanese word which means harbour wave. It is a series of traveling ocean waves
of extremely long length generated by disturbances associated primarily with earthquakes
occurring below or near the ocean floor. Underwater volcanic eruptions and landslides can also
generate tsunamis. Tsunamis are a threat to life and property to anyone living near the
ocean. Large tsunamis have been known to rise over 100 feet, while tsunamis 10 to 20 feet
high can be very destructive and cause many deaths and injuries.
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Causes
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Tsunamis generally are caused by earthquakes. Not all earthquakes generate tsunamis. To
generate tsunamis, earthquakes must occur underneath or near the ocean, be large and create
movements in the sea floor. All oceanic regions of the world can experience tsunamis, but in
the Pacific Ocean there is a much more frequent occurrence of large, destructive tsunamis
because of the many large earthquakes along the margins of the Pacific Ocean.
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Student Notes:
Figure 4: Generation of Tsunami
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Other less common causes of earthquakes are submarine landslides, submarine volcanic
eruptions and very rarely a large meteorite impact in the ocean.
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Propagation
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In the open ocean a tsunami is less than a few feet high at the surface, but its wave height
increases rapidly in shallow water. Tsunamis wave energy extends from the surface to the
bottom in the deepest waters. As the tsunami attacks the coastline, the wave energy is
compressed into a much shorter distance creating destructive, life-threatening waves.
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Where the ocean is over 20,000 feet deep, unnoticed tsunami waves can travel at the speed of
a commercial jet plane, nearly 600 miles per hour. They can move from one side of the Pacific
Ocean to the other in less than a day. This great speed makes it important to be aware of the
tsunami as soon as it is generated. Scientists can predict when a tsunami will arrive since the
speed of the waves varies with the square root of the water depth. Tsunamis travel much
slower in shallower coastal waters where their wave heights begin to increase dramatically.
Figure 5: Rise in Tsunami amplitude near the coast

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Offshore and coastal features can determine the size and impact of tsunami waves. Reefs, bays,
entrances to rivers, under sea features and the slop of the beach all help to modify the tsunami
as it attacks the coastline. When the tsunami reaches the coast and moves inland, the water
level can rise many feet. In extreme cases, water level has risen to more than 50 feet for
tsunamis of distant origin and over 100 feet for tsunami waves generated near the
earthquake's epicentre.
Consequences
The consequences vary from loss of livelihood for fishermen to unknown damages to coral
reefs and flora and fauna. It may take years for the coral reefs to get back the balance and
mangrove stands and coastal tree plantations get destroyed or severely affected.
With so much sea water coming inland, salination is another effect that not only makes the soil
less fertile to support vegetation but also increases vulnerability to erosion, the impacts of
climate change and food insecurity. For humans, on the other hand, fisheries, housing and
infrastructure are the worst affected.
Early Warning and Mitigation

Major tsunami warning centres are:
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1. Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC): The Tsunami Warning System (TWS) in the
Pacific, comprised of 26 participating international Member States, has the functions of
monitoring seismological and tidal stations throughout the Pacific Basin to evaluate
potentially tsunami genic earthquakes and disseminating tsunami warning information. The
Pacific Tsunami Warning Center is the operational center of the Pacific TWS. Located near
Honolulu, Hawaii, PTWC provides tsunami warning information to national authorities in
the Pacific Basin.
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2. The Alaska Tsunami Warning Center (ATWC): in Palmer, Alaska, serves as the regional
Tsunami Warning Center for Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California.
3. Indian Tsunami Early Warning System (ITEWS): The Indian Tsunami Early Warning System
has the responsibility to provide tsunami advisories to Indian Mainland and the Island
regions. Acting as one of the Regional Tsunami Advisory service Providers (RTSPs) for the
Indian Ocean Region, ITEWS also provide tsunami advisories to the Indian Ocean Rim
countries along with Australia and Indonesia.
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In order to confirm whether the earthquake has actually triggered a tsunami, it is essential to
measure the change in water level as near to the fault zone with high accuracy. There are two
basic types of sea level gages: coastal tide gages and open ocean buoys.
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Tide gages are generally located at the land-sea interface, usually in locations somewhat
protected from the heavy seas that are occasionally created by storm systems. Tide gages that
initially detect tsunami waves provide little advance warning at the actual location of the gage,
but can provide coastal residents where the waves have not yet reached an indication that a
tsunami does exist, its speed, and its approximate strength.
Open ocean tsunami buoy systems equipped with bottom pressure sensors are now a reliable
technology that can provide advance warning to coastal areas that will be first impacted by a
tsunami, before the waves reach them and near by tide gages. Open Ocean buoys often
provide a better forecast of the tsunami strength than tide gages at distant locations.
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Student Notes:
Apart from technology, we can also use natural barriers to mitigate the effect of tsunamis.
Coral reefs act as natural breakwaters, providing a physical barrier that reduces the force of a
wave before it reaches the shore, while mangrove forests act as natural shock absorbers, also
soaking up destructive wave energy and buffering against coastal erosion.
Volcanoes
The word volcano is derived from the name of Vulcano, a volcanic island in the Aeolian
Islands of Italy whose name in turn originates from Vulcan, the name of a god of fire in Roman
mythology.
Volcano is a vent or an opening through which heated materials consisting of water, gases,
liquid lava and rock fragments are erupted from the highly heated interior to the surface of the
Earth. The layer below the solid crust of earth is mantle. It has higher density than that of the
crust. The mantle contains a weaker zone called asthenosphere. It is from this that the molten
rock materials find their way to the surface. The material in the upper mantle portion is called
magma. Once it starts moving towards the crust or it reaches the surface, it is referred to as
lava.
Volcanology or vulcanology is the term given to the study of volcanoes, and the scientists
who study them are called the volcanologists or vulcanologists.
Vulcanicity
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Vulcanicity includes all those processes in which molten rock material or magma rises to the
crust to solidify as crystalline or semi-crystalline rocks. Some scientists use vulcanism as a
synonym for vulcanicity.
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Vulcanicity has two components; one of them operates below the crustal surface and the other
above the crust, i.e. the endogenetic mechanism and the exogenous mechanism. The
endogenetic mechanism includes the creation of hot and liquid magma and gases in the
mantle and the crust, their expansion and upward ascent, their intrusion and cooling and
solidification in various forms below the crustal surface. The exogenous mechanism includes
the process of the appearance of lava, volcanic dust and ashes, fragmental materials, mud,
smoke, etc., in different forms on the earths surface.
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Causes of Vulcanism
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The mechanism of vulcanism and the volcanic activity are associated with several processes,
such as:
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1. A gradual increase of temperature with increasing depth at the rate of 1 degree Celsius
for every 32 m.
2. Magma is formed due to the lowering of melting point, which in turn is caused by the
reduction in pressure of the overlying material.
3. Gases and vapour are formed due to heating of water, which reaches underground
through percolation.
4. The ascent of magma forced by vast volume of gases and water vapour.
5. The occurrence of volcanic eruption.
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Student Notes:
Components of a Volcano
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The volcanoes of explosive type have a volcanic cone, which is formed when the erupted
material accumulates around the vent. The vent is an opening of circular or nearly circular
shape at the centre of the cone. The vent is connected to the interior of the earth by a narrow
pipe. The volcanic materials erupt through this pipe. A funnel-shaped hollow at the top of the
cone is called the crater.
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Figure 6: Components of a volcano
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Types of lavas
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There are two main types of lavas:
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1. Basic Lavas: These are the hottest lavas and are highly fluid. They are dark coloured like
basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica. They flow quietly and are not very
explosive. They affect extensive areas, spreading out as thin sheets over great
distances before they solidify. The resultant volcano is gently sloping with a wide
diameter and forms a flattened shield or dome.
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2. Acid Lavas: These lavas are highly viscous with a high melting point. They are light
coloured, of low density and have a high percentage of silica. They flow slowly and
seldom travel far before solidifying. The resultant volcano is therefore steep-sided. The
rapid cooling of lava in the vent obstructs the flow of the outpouring lava, resulting in
loud explosions throwing out many volcanic bombs or pyroclasts.
Note: Pyroclasts are any volcanic fragment that was hurled through the air by volcanic activity.
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Student Notes:
Types of volcanoes
There is a wide variation in the mode of volcanic eruption and their periodicity. Accordingly the
volcanoes can be classified on the basis of the mode of eruption and their periodicity of
eruption.
Classification on the basis of mode of eruption: The volcanoes are classified into two groups
on the basis of their mode of eruption:
1. Violent or Explosive type: The eruption of violent or explosive type is so rapid that
huge quantities of volcanic materials are ejected thousands of metres in the sky. On
falling, these materials accumulate around the volcanic vent and form volcanic cones.
Such volcanoes are very destructive. They are generally associated with acidic lavas.
2. Effusive or Fissure type: The eruption of the fissure type of volcanoes-occurs along a
long fracture, fault or fissure. Magma ejects slowly and the resultant lava spreads on
the surface. The speed of the lava flow depends on the nature and volume of magma,
slope of the ground and the temperature conditions.
Classification on the basis of periodicity of eruption: The volcanoes are divided into three
types on the basis of the periodicity of their eruption:
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1. Active Volcanoes: Volcanoes are said to be active when they frequently erupt or at
least when they have erupted within recent time. Etna and Stromboli are typical
examples.
2. Dormant Volcanoes: Volcanoes that have been known to erupt and show signs of
possible eruption in future are described as dormant. Mt. Vesuvius is the best example.
3. Extinct Volcanoes: Volcanoes that have not erupted at all in historic times but retain
the features of volcanoes are termed extinct. Ship rock in Netherlands is one such
example.
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All volcanoes pass through active, dormant and extinct stages but it is impossible to be
thoroughly sure when a volcano has become extinct.
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Volcanic Landforms
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Various landforms are created due to the cooling and solidification of magma (below the
Earth's surface) and lava (on the Earth's surface). Some relief features are formed due to the
accumulation of volcanic materials. The volcanic landforms are grouped into two broad
categories: Extrusive landforms and Intrusive landforms.
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Extrusive Landforms
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Extrusive landforms are determined by the nature and composition of the lava. Major extrusive
landforms are as under:
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1. Cinder or ash cones are formed due to the accumulation of loose particles around
the vent. Its size increases due to the continuous accumulation of volcanic material
minus lava. The larger particles are arranged near the crater and the finer particles
are deposited at the outer margins of the cone. The lava flows are so viscous that
they solidify after a short distance.
2. Composite cones are the highest and are formed by the accumulation of various
layers of volcanic material. They have alternate layers of lava and fragmented
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Student Notes:
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material, wherein lava acts as the cementing material. These are mainly associated
with cooler and more viscous lava and the volcanoes associated with them are called
composite volcanoes.
3. Shield Volcanoes are built almost entirely of fluid lava flows. They are named for
their large size and low profile, resembling a warrior's shield lying on the ground.
Barring the basalt flows, the shield volcanoes are the largest of all the volcanoes on
the earth. These volcanoes are mostly made up of basalt, a type of lava that is very
fluid when erupted. For this reason, these volcanoes are not steep.
4. Craters are depressions formed at the mouth of the volcanic vent, which is usually
funnel-shaped. Some volcanoes may have greatly enlarged depressions called
calderas. These are the result of violent eruptions accompanied by the subsidence of
much of the volcano into the magma beneath. Water may collect in the crater or the
caldera forming crater or caldera lakes.
5. Flood Basalt Provinces are formed when volcanoes outpour highly fluid lava that
flows for long distances. Some parts of the world are covered by thousands of sq. km
of thick basalt lava flows. There can be a series of flows with some flows attaining
thickness of more than 50 m. Individual flows may extend for hundreds of km. The
Deccan Traps from India, presently covering most of the Maharashtra plateau, are a
much larger flood basalt province.
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Figure 7: Volcanoes based on extrusive landforms
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Intrusive Landforms
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The lava that cools within the crustal portion assumes different forms called intrusive forms.
Some of these forms are:
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Student Notes:
Student Notes:
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Figure 8: Various intrusive landforms formed in volcanic regions
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1. Batholiths are long, irregular, undulating and dome-shaped features. They are a large
body of magmatic material that cools in the deeper depth of the crust and develops in
the form of large domes. They appear on the surface only after the denudational
processes remove the overlying materials. They cover large areas, and at times, assume
depth that may be several km. These are granitic bodies. Batholiths are the cooled
portion of magma chambers.
2. Laccoliths are formed due to the intrusion of magma along the bedding planes of
horizontal sedimentary rocks. They are usually mushroom or dome shaped.
3. Phacoliths are formed due to the intrusion of acidic magma along the anticlines and
synclines in the region of fold mountains.
4. Lapoliths are formed when magma solidifies in shallow basins into a saucer shape.
5. Sills and Sheets are intrusive igneous rocks usually parallel to the bedding planes of
sedimentary rocks. Depending on the thickness of deposits, thinner ones are called
sheets while thick horizontal deposits are called sills.
6. Dykes are wall-like formation of solidified magma. These are vertical to the bed of
sedimentary rocks. The thickness ranges from a few centimetres to several hundred
metres, but the length can be several kilometres.
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Distribution of Volcanoes
The volcanoes are mostly associated with the weaker zones of the Earth's crust which are also
zones of seismic activities like the earthquakes. The weaker zones are mostly found in the areas
of fold mountains. They are also associated with the meeting zones of oceans and continents,
or with the mountain building activity.
Most of the world's active volcanoes are associated with the plate boundaries. About 15 per
cent of the volcanoes are associated with the divergent plate boundaries and about 80 per cent
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with the convergent plate boundaries. Some volcanoes are also found in the intra-plate
regions.
The main volcanic belts are as under:
1. Circum-Pacific Belt: It includes the volcanoes of the eastern and western coastal areas
of the Pacific Ocean. This belt is also known as the Ring of Fire of the Pacific Ocean.
It begins from Erebus mountains of Antarctica and runs northwards through Andes of
South America and Rockies of North America to reach Alaska. From there, it turns
eastwards along the coast of Asia to include the volcanoes of Sakhalin and Kamchatka,
Japan and Philippines respectively. This belt finally merges with the Mid-continental
Belt in Indonesia.
Most of the high volcanic cones and volcanic mountains are found in the Circum-Pacific
Belt. Cotopaxi in Andes (5896 m) is the highest volcanic mountain in the world. The
other famous volcanoes are Fujiyama (Japan), Shasta, Rainier, Mt St Helena (USA).
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2. Mid-Continental Belt: It includes the volcanoes of the Alpine mountains and the
Mediterranean Sea. The volcanic eruptions are caused due to the convergence and
collision of the Eurasian Plates and the African and Indian Plates. Some of the famous
volcanoes of the Mediterranean Sea such as the Stromboli, Vesuvius, Etna, etc., are in
this belt. This belt is not continuous and has several volcanic free zones such as the
Alps and the Himalayas. The important volcanoes in the fault zone of eastern Africa are
Kilimanjaro, Meru, Elgon, Rungwe, etc.
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3. Mid-Atlantic Belt: It includes the volcanoes along the mid-Atlantic ridge which is the
divergent plate zone. They are mainly of the fissure eruption type. Iceland, is the most
active volcanic area.
Figure 9: Distribution of volcanoes
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Student Notes:
Effects of volcanic eruptions

Volcanic eruption causes heavy damage to human life and property. Some of them are as
under:
Large volumes of hot lava moving at a fast speed can bury man-made buildings, kill
people and animals, destroy agricultural farms and pastures, burn and destroy forests.
The fall out of large quantities of fragmented materials, dust, ash, smoke, etc., creates
health hazards due to poisonous gases emitted during eruption. It also causes acid rain.
If the explosive eruption has occurred suddenly, the human beings get no time to
escape to safer places. Heavy rains mixed with volcanic dust and ash cause enormous
mud-flow on the steep slopes of the cones.
Earthquakes caused due to explosive eruptions can generate destructive tsunamis,
seismic waves, etc. These can cause loss of life and property in the affected coastal
regions.
The volcanic eruptions can change the heat balance of the Earth and the atmosphere,
causing climatic changes.
But there are many positive effects also. Some of them are:
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Lava can give rise to fertile soils. Most of the precious stones are formed due to
volcanic activity.
Geysers and springs are tourist attraction and are also important from the medical
point of view due to the chemicals dissolved in them.
Some crater lakes are source of rivers and often offer scenic attraction for tourists.
Most of the volcanic rocks when exposed on the surface are a storehouse of metals
and minerals.
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Geysers
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Geysers are fountains of hot water and superheated steam that may spout up to a height of
150 feet from the earth beneath. The phenomena are associated with a thermal or volcanic
region in which the water below is being heated beyond boiling point. The jet of water is
usually emitted with an explosion, and is often triggered by gases seeping out of the heated
rocks.
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Hot Springs
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Almost all the worlds geysers are confined to three major areas: Iceland, New Zealand and
Yellowstone park of U.S.A.
Hot springs or thermal springs are more common, and may be found in any part of the earth
where water sinks deep enough beneath the surface to be heated by the interior forces. The
water rises to the surface without any explosion. Such springs contain dissolved minerals which
have medical value.
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Student Notes:
Iceland has thousands of hot springs. Hot springs are common in many parts of India, especially
in the hilly and mountainous parts. Some of them are in Manikaran (Kulu), Tattapani (Shimla),
Jwalamukhi (Kangra), Rajgir (Patna), Sitakund (Munger) and in Yamunotri and Gangotri.
Fumaroles
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A fumarole is a vent in the Earth's surface which emits gases and water vapour. Sometimes the
emission is continuous, but in majority of cases emission occurs after intervals. It is widely
believed that gases and water vapour are generated due to cooling and contraction of magma
after the eruption. Fumaroles are the last signs of the activeness of a volcano.

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recording or otherwise, without prior permission of Vision IAS
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Student Notes:
Mrunal (http://mrunal.org/)
[Geography] El Nino, Its Impact on Indian monsoon, Indian

Agriculture (+points from Economic survey)
Geography (http://mrunal.org/category/geography) / 5 months Ago /
61 Comments (http://mrunal.org/2014/08/geography-el-nino-impact-indian-monsoon-indian-agri
1.
Prologue
2.
What happens in a Normal Year?
3.
What happens in La Nina Year?
4.
What happens in an El Nino year?
5.
What is Southern Oscillation?
6.
How does El Nino affect Indian Monsoon?
7.
El Nino 2014 and India
8.
Will El Nino 2014 hurt Indian GDP?
9.
Do we really need to fear El Nino 2014?

1.
Arguments: why we dont need to fear El Nino?
2.
Arguments: why we should worry about El Nino?
10.
Economic Survey Points on El-Nino
Prologue
This is an old article from Current Affairs from April Week3 (16th to 22nd). Ive updated it
further with points from Economic Survey Ch.8 on agriculture to create a separate
standalone article.
before reading further, practice following questions:
UPSC General Studies (Mains) Answer following in 200 words each.
1. (GS1) What is El Nino? How does it affect India and World?
2. (GS1) Explain in brief, the impact of La Nina on Indian monsoon
3. (GS3) Discuss the structure and functions of Biodiversity Management Committees under
Biodiversity Act 2002? Evaluate their success in India.
Interview
1. The fear about El Nino on Indian Economy is overhyped. Do you agree?
What happens in a Normal Year?
Peru Current = Humboldt Current = Cold Current.

During normal year two things are STRONG
Cold Peru Current
Trade Winds
As a result, cold water is dragged from Peru towards Australia. (observe following image)
(https://www.flickr.com/photos/97816112@N02/13925251440)
Result of this exchange?
In above image, the red (warm) water region around Australia is called Western Pacific
Pool (WPP)
WPP = low pressure = warm air ascends = cloud formation = rain over North Australia
This air also joins walker cell and begins descending near Peru.
Descending air = anti-cyclonic condition = high pressure = stability = no cloud/rain =
Drought in Atacama Desert.
So in a way two cycles are created
below
the
water
Moving of water
from Peru to
Australia.
@Peru cold water upwelling brings nutrient to surface=

more lunch for Plankton= more fishes = good for Peru
fishermen.
above
water
Moving of air from

Australia towards
Peru.
Warm water + low atmospheric pressure = good rainfall

over Australia & Indonesia.
Ok, we learned what happens in Normal year. Now lets check
What happens in La Nina Year?

same things as in a normal year, but those two things become even stronger
1. Cold Peru Current
2. Trade Winds
Result?
Too many fishes @Peru coast, oversupply of fishes= prices become dirt cheap
Too much rain / flood over Australia and Indonesia.
Now coming to the main topic:
What happens in an El Nino year?
Observe following image:
two things become WEAK
1. Cold Peru Current
2. Trade Winds
As result, cold water is not dragged from Peru to Australia.
But reverse happens warm water is dragged from Australia towards Peru.
Consequently, warm water + low pressure condition develops in the Eastern Pacific (Peru)
and Cold condition + high pressure in Western Pacific (Australia).
Since Pressure is inversely related with amount of rainfall, the results are following
1. Rain & Floods @Peru, Atkama and even Southern USA

2. Drought @Northern Australia, Indonesia- even bushfires.
3. Storms and Hurricanes in East Pacific.
4. Coral bleaching (high temperature coral dies)
5. (for MCQ) El Nino decreases earths rotation rate, decreases Coriolis force and increases
length of day. (La Nina creates opposite). How? Because El Nino changes the wind pattern,
hence Earth needs change speed to conserve its angular momentum of EarthAtmospheric system.
What is El Nino?
Warming of Pacific Ocean
Near Western coast of Peru and Ecuador.
Occurs @every 3-4 years; [In theory, it should occur @every 12 years].
Its impact usually lasts for 9-12-18-24 months.
It weakens the trade winds and changes in Southern Oscillation, thereby affects the
rainfall pattern across the world.
What is Southern Oscillation?

Alternating of (tropical) sea level pressure
Between the eastern and western hemispheres.
We measure Southern Oscillation by observing the pressure difference between
1. Tahiti (French Polynesia) and
2. Darwin (Australia).
Impact of Southern Oscillation (SO)?
Low Index
Smaller pressure difference between (tropical) oceans
of Eastern vs. Western Hemisphere
High SO
Higher pressure
difference
associated with El Nino hence the name ENSO = El Nino-Sothern

Oscillation
La Nina
Weak trade winds
Strong trade winds
poor monsoon
good monsoon
How does El Nino aect Indian Monsoon?

El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) water circulation happens between Australia and
Peru
But the wind movement is part of larger atmospheric circulation hence affects the rainfaill
over India. But how?
We learned that During normal year, the warm water moves towards Australia, this pool of
warm water is called Western Pacific Pool (WPP). From WPP air rises above and moves
towards two walker cells
1. Towards Peru coast = this affects rainfall in South America.
2. Towards Mascarene High Pressure zone near East Africa. = This affect Indian monsoon.
DURING NORMAL YEAR
DURING EL NINO YEAR
strong WPP
weak WPP
strong trade winds
weak trade winds
strong Mascarene High
weakening of winds flowing towards Mascarene
Strong push for moisture laden
high
winds towards India
weak push to Monsoon winds towards India
good rain
Less rainfall / weak monsoon.
During La Nina years, this push is

even stronger = heavy rain and
floods.
El Nino= Little boy in Spanish.
Hence its opposite is called
La Nina (little girl)
El Vejo= old man, but La Nina
more popular term nowadays.
El Nino 2014 and India
El Nino caused severe drought in India (2009-10).

Sugar price were highest in 30 year history.
Similar drought situation in Australia, Southeast

Asia and Africa. (And floods in Brazil and USA
Midwest.)
Such condition prevails for 9-24 months.
India Meteorological Department (IMD) has predicted below normal monsoon for 2014.
RBI Governor Raghuram Rajan too has warned about the negative impact of El Nino (in
his last monetary policy press conference.) (http://mrunal.org/2014/04/current-aprilweek1-p2-economy-monetary-policy-updategi-tagging-kanauj-attarpredatory-pricingspicejet-bis-new-labelling-guidlines-electronics.html#11)
Poor monsoon / drought like condition = commodities prices will rise especially sugar,
pulses and edible oil. Government needs to stock them up, put restriction on exports,
before black marketers start hoarding.
Farmers need to device alternate farming strategy, change the seeds and irrigation
strategy for the drought like situation.
NEED TO WORRY
DONT NEED TO WORRY
Area without irrigation, and totally dependent on

monsoon.
Western India region especially oilseeds, pulses
and cotton=> high cost of raw material will have
negative impact on their manufacturing sectors
also.
Area depending on Ganga for

irrigation. Because so far
Gangas water is above its 10
year average.
Area with alternative irrigation
solutions (bore well,
watersheds, drip irrigation)
Oilseed and pulses- will have to import them.
wheat price, because FCI has

more than sufficient stock
Will El Nino 2014 hurt Indian GDP?

Merrill Lynch predicated following:
2014 (without El Nino)
2014 with El Nino
good rainfall
poor rainfaill / drought like condition
inflation declines to ~7%
inflation raises to ~10%
if inflation declines=> RBI will

reduce repo rate=>cheaper
loans=>more business
expansion =>more GDP.
To combat inflation, RBI will further increase REPO rate

(OR RBI will not decrease REPO Rate) => either way
expensive loans => less business expansion => low
GDP growth.
GDP growth rate will increase
low GDP growth rate
2013 = 4.7%
2013 = 4.7%
2014 = 5.4%
2014 = ~3.95%
Do we really need to fear El Nino 2014?

answer is both YES and NO.
Arguments: why we dont need to fear El Nino:

1. Only Strong El Nino affects India negatively. But this time WMO predicted Weak El
Nino.
2. Private Weather Agencies predict only 30% chance of El nino.
3. Not Every El Nino year caused drought in India in the past.
4. Under British Raj and even in 50s era, a drought under El Nino = Millions would die in
starvation and suicide because of moneylenders.
5. But thats not the same India we live in today. ~40% of the farmlands are irrigated; FCI has
large buffer stock of foodgrains; Government has sufficient money to announce financial
packages to drought hit farmers; RBI has sufficient Forex reserve to finance any
emergency food imports; we enjoy goodwill among all developed countries for even foodaid free of cost.
6. Only IF terrorists blowup all FCI godowns, Black maketeers hoard every last gram of
remaining onions and foodgrains, RBIs forex reserve gets completely empty because of
Fed Tapering..THEN and only THEN El Nino can create havoc on India.
7. El Nino Southern Oscillation = natural phenomenon for redistribution of excess heat.
Humans cannot control or modify this cycle. In theory we can stop El Nino by dropping
10m thick iceberg size of a United States, into the Peru coast- but thats impractical. So,
Instead of fearing El Nino, we must learn to predict and adapt to its consequences.
Arguments: why we should worry about El Nino 2014

Even if El Nino doesnt happen, the mere rumor of El Nino drives up the prices in
commodity market because of the speculative investors. For example, global prices of
Cocoa are high right now- not because of less production but because of El Nino
speculation.
It is true we enjoy good will among developed countries for getting free food aid. But this
time,
Australia- second largest export of wheat theyre already facing drought because of
Pre-El Nino type condition.

US Midwest =called Granary of the world for wheat and corn. But they too face flood
danger from El Nino.
India is second largest producer of sugar, rice and wheat in the world. 90% of Rice comes
from Asia.
Combine all these isolated facts with IPCCs latest report on climate change
(http://mrunal.org/2014/04/current-april-week1-p3-environment-polity-culture-ipcc-latestreportcess-diesel-carssahara-dust-storm-ipc-376-e-death-penalty-rape-anavaal-pidi-gangaurangkor-wat.html#415)
Erratic Rainfall, melting of Himalayan glaciers, frequent flooding, draughts, storms and
cyclones => Food insecurity for large population.
United Nations World Meteorological Organization predicted a weak El Nino by the
middle of 2014.
It depends on when exactly during mid 2014 this happens because
IF El Nino happens by summer
IF El Nio happens by fall season

(August to October.)
Then India will be worst affected because of low

monsoon during June- September.
Then India will escape without

injuries.
Economic Survey Points on El Nino

From Ch8. Agriculture
What is El-Nino?
1. El Nio effect occurs when surface temperatures in the Pacific Ocean continuously rise
above average for several months, which in turn adversely affects weather in many parts
of the world.
2. El Nino occurs every 3-5 years.
3. South-west (SW) monsoon (from June to September) accounts for ~75% rainfall. Any
shortage here.
4. El Nino often begins to form during June-August, and typically lasts 9-12 months.
Where India should worry?

El Ninos impact will be felt the most at
1. rainfed regions of central, south, and north-west India
2. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Jharkhand, and Bihar.
3. rice, soybean, cotton, maize, jowar, groundnut, and sugarcane will be affected.
4. kharif pulses and oilseed
Why India shouldnt worry?
1. While the majority of drought years in India coincide with the occurence of the El Nio,
the reverse link is not that strong. (meaning, El nino doesnt always lead to Drought)
2. For example, in 1997, when the impact of El Nio was reported to be the worst, India had
2 per cent higher than normal rainfall
3. In the past decade, the El Nio occurred in 2002, 2004, 2006, and 2009
4. But 2002-03 was the only year that India showed negative agri sector growth with average
rainfall dropping 20 per cent below normal.
5. The last four occurrences of El Nio reveals that the impact was more in the kharif
season.
6. Government has placed contingency measures in about 500 districts.
7. Central Water Commission (CWC) reflect a better status of water availability.
Mock question
Q1. What is El Nino? How does it affect India and World? (200 words)
El Nino is an Oceanic and Atmospheric phenomenon that leads to unusual warming of
water in the Peru coast.
Consequently, warm water + low pressure condition develops in the Eastern Pacific (Peru)
and Cold condition + high pressure in Western Pacific (Australia).
Since Pressure is inversely related with amount of rainfall, El Nino causes draught
situation in Australia and South East Asia.
El Nino also leads to reversal of pressure difference between Indian and Pacific Oceanknown as Southern Oscillation.
El Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO) weakens the Trade winds, consequently less push to
the South Western Monsoon Winds from Mascarene High to India, and therefore poor
monsoon.
To India
Drought condition decreases the agriculture output, leads to food inflation.
Declined supply of cotton, oilseeds and sugarcane negatively affects the textile, edible oil
and food processing industries respectively.
To World
Drought situation over South East Asia and Australia hurts rice and wheat cultivation
respectively.
Warm condition over Peru coast: unsuitable for Plankton population, thus bad for fishing
industry. Birds migrate in search of fishes, thus less guano dropping for Fertilizer industry
in Peru and Ecuador.
Flood situation in South America & US Midwest lead to decline in coffee-cocoa and cornwheat production respectively.
~220 words
Q2. Explain in brief, the impact of La Nina on Indian monsoon (200 words)
Thats your homework.
Tags: Economic Survey 2013 (http://mrunal.org/tag/economic-survey-2013),

Rajtanil (http://mrunal.org/tag/rajtanil)
Mrunal recommends
ACIO Intel Officer
UPSC Civil Service
SSC CGL: Staff selection
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CDS: Defense Services
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165
VISIONIAS
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NATURAL VEGETATION
Contents:
1
Natural vegetation
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests

Tropical Deciduous Forests
Tropical Thorn Forests
The Montane Forests
Littoral and Swamp Forests
Forest Cover in India
Forest Conservation
National Forest Policy 1988
Social Forestry
Community forestry
Farm Forestry
Wildlife and Its Conservation
Protected Area Network in India
10 Biosphere Reserves
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
11
Functions of biosphere reserve

Structure and Design of Biosphere Reserves
Difference between Biosphere reserve and Protect Area(National Park, Sanctuary etc.)
Difference between Biosphere reserve and a natural World Heritage site?
Benefits of biosphere reserves
UPSC Questions Covered

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without prior permission of Vision IAS
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Student Notes:
1] Natural vegetation
Nature has gifted our country with a large variety of natural resources. Natural vegetation is an
important natural resource which refers to a plant community that has grown naturally without
human aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. The natural vegetation
adapts to the constraints of natural environment in size, structure and requirements. As India is
situated in tropical latitudes and has diverse temperature and rainfall regimes, Indian climate
and relief has made natural vegetation and animal life interdependent on each other and they
form a single ecosystem which has evolved through thousands of years. The overall climate of
India is suitable for the growth of forests1. The natural vegetation in India ranges from the one
that is found in the tropical region to that found in the Arctic region. However, in the past
thousand years, various types of human activities have altered these natural climatic
formations in the country to a large extent.
On the basis of climate and relief the natural vegetation of India can be divided in the following
types:
i. Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen forests
ii. Tropical Deciduous forests
iii. Tropical Thorn forests
iv. Montane forests
v. Littoral and Swamp forests
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1.1 Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests
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Tropical Evergreen and Semi Evergreen Forests are found mainly in the areas where the annual
rainfall is more than 200 cm, with a short dry season. The average annual temperature should
be above 22 C. The relative humidity should also be high, approx around 70 percent. The
general climatic conditions should be hot and humid.
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The trees in these regions are generally evergreen and do not shed their leaves. These forests
are very dense and composed of tall trees reaching upto the height of about 60 metres. The
trees have a multi-storeyed structure with good canopy. Due to dense growth of trees, the
sunlight cannot reach the ground. Thus, the undergrowth mainly consists of canes, bamboos,
ferns, climbers, etc.
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The semi evergreen forests are found in the less rainy parts of these regions. Such forests have
a mixture of evergreen and moist deciduous trees. The under-growing climbers provide an
evergreen character to these forests. These forests are less dense and can be easily exploited.
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The timber from the tropical evergreen and semi- evergreen a forest is hard, durable, finegrained and of high economic value. The important trees of these forests are rosewood,
ebony, mahogany, rubber, cinchona, bamboo, coconut, palms, canes, lianas, etc. The main
species in the semi-evergreen forests are cedar, hillock, kail, etc. The true evergreen forests are
mostly found along the western side of the Western Ghats, in the northern states and in the
Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The semi-evergreen forests which are more gregarious are
found along the lower slopes of eastern Himalaya Mountains, Assam, Orissa coast, Western
coast and neighbouring hills.
The original natural vegetation, which are purely native are called the endemic plants, but those which
have come from outside are called the exotic plants.
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Student Notes:
1.2 Tropical Deciduous Forests

Tropical Deciduous Forests are the monsoon forests and are found mainly in the areas where
the average annual rainfall ranges between 70 cm and 200 cm, with mean annual temperature
of about 27 C. The average annual relative humidity should be 60 to 75 per cent. The tropical
deciduous forests are most widespread in India.
On the basis of availability of water, these forests are further divided into moist and dry
deciduous forests. The moist deciduous forests are found in areas receiving rainfall between
100 cm and 200 cm, while the dry deciduous forests are found in areas having 70 cm to 100 cm
of average annual rainfall.
The trees in the deciduous forests shed their leaves for about 6 to 8 weeks during the spring
and early summer seasons (March-April). During this period sufficient moisture is not available
for the leaves. Enough light reaches the ground to permit the growth of grasses and climbers.
The tropical deciduous forests are commercially most important as they yield valuable timber
and a variety of other forest products. The important trees in the moist deciduous forests are
teak, sal, shisham, sandalwood, khair, kusum, arjun, mahua, mulberry, etc. The dry deciduous
forests are more open stretches and also have pipal, neem, tendu, bamboo, apart from those
in the moist deciduous forests.
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The tropical deciduous forests are commercially most exploited. Large tracts of these forests
have been cleared to provide more land for agricultural purposes and have also suffered from
severe biotic factors, such as over-cutting, overgrazing, fires, etc.
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The moist deciduous forests are found mainly in the north-eastern states, along the foothills of
the Himalaya Mountains, Jharkhand, west Orissa, Chhattisgarh and on the eastern slopes of the
Western Ghats. The dry deciduous forests are found mainly in the rainier parts of the
peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
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1.3 Tropical Thorn Forests
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Tropical Thorn Forests are found mainly in those areas where the average annual rainfall is less
than 50 cm, with a long dry season. The average annual temperature ranges between 25 C and
30 C and the relative humidity is low, i.e. less than 50 per cent. The natural vegetation is thorny
trees and bushes. There is not much scope for thick and tall forests due to the shortage of
moisture. The trees are scattered and have long roots. The roots penetrate deep into the soil to
get moisture. The leaves are mostly thick and small, which retards evaporation. The trees have
thick bark and their wood is generally used as fuel.
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The main trees found in the tropical thorn forests are acacias, palms, euphorbias and cacti.
Other important trees include khair, babul, neem, kheijra, kanju, palas, nirmali, dharman,
khagri, etc. The tropical thorn forests are found in the northwestern parts of the country,
including semi-arid areas of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, southwestern
Punjab and western Haryana. These forests also grow on the leeward side of Western Ghats,
covering large areas in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
1.4 The Montane Forests

The natural vegetation in the mountains is greatly influenced by the decrease in temperature
with increase in height above sea level. The mountain forests can be broadly classified into two
major categories the forests in the Himalayan ranges and the forests in the peninsular plateaus
and hill ranges.
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Student Notes:
In the Himalaya Mountains, one can notice a succession of natural vegetation belts, as we see
in the tropical to the tundra region. Between the height of 1000 m and 2000 m, the evergreen
broad-leaf trees such as oak and chestnut predominate. Between the height of 1500 m and
3000 m, the coniferous trees, such as pine, deodar, silver fir, spruce and cedar are found. The
coniferous forests cover the southern slopes of Himalayas and parts of northeast India. At
higher elevations (about 3600 m above sea level) temperate grasslands are common. At
attitudes above 3600 m, coniferous forests and grasslands give way to the alpine vegetation.
Silver firs, junipers, pines and birches are common varieties of trees.
Ultimately these forests merge into alpine grasslands, through the shrubs and scrubs. The
grasslands are extensively used by the nomadic tribes like the Gujjars and the Bakarwals for
grazing livestock. The southern slopes of the Himalaya Mountains have denser forests than the
north facing areas. This is due to relatively higher precipitation. At higher altitudes, mosses and
lichens form part of vegetation.
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In the peninsular India, the mountain forests are found in the three district areasthe Western
Ghats, the Vindhyas and the Nilgiris. As they are closer to the tropics, and only 1,500 m above
the sea level, vegetation is temperate in the higher regions and subtropical on the lower
regions of the Western Ghats, especially in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka. The temperate
forests are called Sholas in the Nilgiris, Annamalai and Palani hills. The word 'shola' is probably
derived from the Tamil language word colai meaning grove. The shola-forest and grassland
complex has been described as a climatic climax vegetation. Some of the other trees of this
forest of economic significance include magnolia, laurel, cinchona and wattle. Now the tea
plantations have been developed and many useful trees have been planted in recent years. As a
result of these efforts the former bare areas today have vegetal cover.
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1.5 Littoral and Swamp Forests
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These forests are found in and around the deltas of the Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna
and Kaveri rivers. These areas are prone to tidal influences. They also occur in tidal creeks and
coastal areas where mud, silt and saline water have accumulated. Mangroves grow along the
coasts in the salt marshes, tidal creeks, mud flats and estuaries. They are highly developed in
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Sunder bans of West Bengal. These forests too, are
being encroached upon, and hence, need conservation.
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Wetlands
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Mangrove ecosystem acts as Buffer Zone between the land and sea. Mangroves protect the
coast against erosion due to wind, waves, and water currents and protect coral reefs, sea-grass
bed and shipping lanes against siltation. They are also known to absorb pollutants. Mangroves
host a number of threatened or endangered species, different animal species- mammals,
reptiles, amphibians and bird- offer nutrients to the marine food web and provide spawning
grounds to a variety of fish and shellfish, including several commercial species. Mangrove
forests are also important in terms of aesthetics and tourism. Many people visit these areas for
sports fishing, boating, bird watching, snorkelling, and other recreational pursuits.
Wetlands are lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic system where the water table is
usually or near the water surface and land is covered by shallow water.
Identification of wetlands can be attributed to the following three main factors, viz., (i) When an
area is permanently or periodically inundated; (ii) When an area supports hydrophytic
vegetation; (iii) When an area has hydric soils that are saturated or flooded for a sufficiently
long period to become anaerobic in the upper layers.
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Student Notes:
On these criteria, Ramsar Convention defines Wetlands as areas of marsh or fen, peat-land or
water, whether artificial or natural, permanent or temporary, with the water that is static or
flowing, a fresh brackish or salt including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low tide
does not exceed six meter. Mangroves, corals, estuaries, bays, creeks, flood plans, sea grasses,
lakes, etc., are covered under this definition.
Wetlands in India: The countrys wetlands have been grouped into eight categories, viz. (i) the
reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau in the south together with the lagoons and other wetlands of
the southern west coast; (ii) the vast saline expanses of Rajasthan, Gujarat and the Gulf of
Kachchh; (iii) freshwater lakes and reservoirs from Gujarat eastwards through Rajasthan
(Keoladeo National Park) and Madhya Pradesh; (iv) the delta wetlands and lagoons of Indias
east coast (Chilika Lake); (v) the freshwater marshes of the Gangetic Plain; (vi) the floodplains of
the Brahmaputra; the marshes and swamps in the hills of northeast India and the Himalayan
foothills; (vii) the lakes and rivers of the Montane region of Kashmir and Ladakh; and (viii) the
mangrove forest and other wetlands of the island arcs of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Two sites Chilika Lake (Odisha) and Keoladeo National Park (Bharatpur) are protected as
water-fowl habitats under the Convention of Wetlands of International Importance (Ramsar
Convention).
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Wetlands are essential ecological features in any landscape. They are primary habitat for
hundreds of species of waterfowl as well as many other birds, fish, mammals and insects.
Wetlands naturally filter and recharge the water that later comes out of our faucets
downstream. They act like giant sponges, slowing the flow of surface water and reducing the
impact of flooding. Wetlands also prevent soil erosion, and they buffer water bodies from
potentially damaging land use activities such as agriculture. And wetlands can remove and
store greenhouse gases from the Earths atmosphere, slowing the onset of global warming.
Apart from that, they are valuable for their educational and scientific interest and provide
durable timber, fuelwood, protein rich fodder for cattle, edible fruits, vegetables and traditional
medicines.
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2] Forest Cover in India
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According to the records of the Government of India, the forest area covers 23.812 per cent of
the total land area of the country, which is much below the average of about 30.4 per cent for
the world. The forest area is the area notified and recorded as the forest land irrespective of the
existence of trees, while the actual forest cover is the area occupied by forests with canopy.
While the former is based on the records of the State Revenue Department, the latter is based
on aerial photographs and satellite imageries.
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Both forest area and forest cover varies from state to state. India has only 2% of the total
worlds forest. The state of Madhya Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country at
77,700 square km followed by Arunachal Pradesh at 67, 410 square km. In terms of percentage
of forest cover in relation to total geographical area, Mizoram tops with 90.68% followed by
Lakshadweep with 84.56%.
India State of Forest Report 2011 Forest Cover (21.05%) + Tree Cover(2.76%)
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Student Notes:
India State of Forest Report 2011 Released
The Forest Survey of India (FSI) has been publishing a series of biennial assessment report the
forest cover in the country since 1987. As per the present assessment, the Forest and Tree
cover of the country is 78.29 million ha, which is 23.81% of the geographical area of the
country. In comparison to the 2009 assessment, after taking into account the interpretational
changes, there is a decrease of 367 square km in countrys forest cover. 15 states have
registered aggregate increase of 5000sqkm in their forest cover with Punjab leading with
increase of 100sqkm. 12 states/UTs (mainly the NE states) have shown decrease to the extent of
867sqkm. Decline of 281 sqkm in Forest cover of Andhra Pradesh is mainly attributed to
harvesting of mature plantation of Eucalyptus & other species. Decline in Forest cover of NE is
particularly due to prevailing practice of shifting cultivation in this region. The state of Madhya
Pradesh has the largest forest cover in the country at 77,700 square km followed by Aruncachal
Pradesh at 67, 410 square km. In terms of percentage of forest cover in relation to total
geographical area, Mizoram tops with 90.68% followed by Lakshadweed with 84.56%. The total
growing stock of Indias forests and trees outside forests is estimated as 6047.15 million cu m
i.e. 4498.73 million cu m inside the recorded forest area and 1548.42 million cu m outside the
recorded forests.
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On the basis of the percentage of the actual forest cover, the states have been grouped into
four regions:
States
av
high Mizoram (90.68%), Lakshadweep (84.56%), A & N Islands

(81.51%), Arunachal Pradesh (80.5%), Nagaland (80.33%),
Meghalaya (77.02%), Manipur (76.54%)
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(i) The region

concentration
> 40
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The Region and Percentage

Cover of the Forest
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Tripura (76.04%), Goa (59.94%), Sikkim (47.34%), Uttarakhand

(45.8%), Kerala (44.52%), Dadra & Nagar Haveli (42.97%),
Chhattisgarh (41.18%)
en
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low Karnataka (18.87%), Tamil Nadu (18.16%), Andhra Pradesh

(16.86%), Maharashtra (16.46%), Chandigarh(14.72%)
cu
of
West Bengal (14.64%), Delhi (11.88%), Puducherry (10.43%),

Jammu & Kashmir (10.14%)
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(iii) The region

concentration
10-20
pe
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is
(ii) The region of medium Assam (35.28%), Orissa (31.41%), Jharkhand (28.82%),
concentration
20Himachal Pradesh (26.37%), Madhya Pradesh (25.21%)
40
(iv)The region of very low Gujarat (7.46%), Bihar (7.27%), Uttar Pradesh (5.95%), Daman
concentration
& Diu (5.49%), Rajasthan (4.7%), Haryana (3.64%), Punjab
< 10
(3.5%)
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Student Notes:
3] Forest Conservation
Forests have an intricate interrelationship with life and environment. These provide numerous
direct and indirect advantages to our economy and society. Hence, conservation of forest is of
vital importance to the survival and prosperity of humankind.
4] National Forest Policy 1988

India adopted a forest policy in 1952, which was further modified in 1988.The forest policy of
the Government of India aims at: (i) bringing 33 per cent of the geographical areas under forest
cover; (ii) maintaining environmental stability and to restore forests where ecological balance
was disturbed; (iii) conserving the natural heritage of the country, its biological diversity and
genetic pool; (iv) checks soil erosion, extension of the desert lands and reduction of floods and
droughts; (v) increasing the forest cover through social forestry and afforestation on degraded
land; (vi) increasing the productivity of forests to make timber, fuel, fodder and food available
to rural population dependant on forests, and encourage the substitution of wood; (vii) creating
of a massive peoples movement involving women to encourage planting of trees, stop felling of
trees and thus, reduce pressure on the existing forest.
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5] Social Forestry:
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Social forestry means the management and protection of forests and afforestation on barren
lands with the purpose of helping in the environmental, social and rural development. The
National Commission on Agriculture (1976) has classified social forestry into three categories.
These are urban forestry, rural forestry and Farm forestry.
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Urban forestry pertains to the raising and management of trees on public and privately owned
lands in and around urban centres such as green belts, parks, roadside avenues, industrial and
commercial green belts, etc. Rural forestry lays emphasis on promotion of agro-forestry and
community-forestry. Agro-forestry is the raising of trees and agriculture crops on the same land
inclusive of the waste patches. It combines forestry with agriculture, thus, altering the
simultaneous production of food, fodder, fuel, timber and fruit.
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6] Community forestry:
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It involves the raising of trees on public or community land such as the village pasture and
temple land, roadside, canal bank, strips along railway lines, and schools etc. Community
forestry programme aims at providing benefits to the community as a whole. Community
forestry provides a means under which the people of landless classes can associate themselves
in tree raising and thus, get those benefits which otherwise are restricted for landowners.
7] Farm Forestry:
It is a term applied to the process under which farmers grow trees for commercial and noncommercial purposes on their farm lands. Forest departments of various states distribute
seedlings of trees free of cost to small and medium farmers.
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Student Notes:
8] Wildlife and Its Conservation

About 4-5 per cent of all known plant and animal species on the earth are found in India. The
main reason for this remarkable diversity of life forms is the great diversity of the ecosystem
which this country has preserved and supported through the ages. Over the years, their habitat
has been disturbed by human activities and as a result, their numbers have dwindled
significantly. There are certain species that are at the brink of extinction.
Some of the important reasons of the declining of wildlife are as follows:
(i) Industrial and technological advancement brought about a rapid increase in the exploitation
of forest resources.
(ii) More and more lands were cleared for agriculture, human settlement, roads, mining,
reservoirs, etc.
(iii) Pressure on forests mounted due to lopping for fodder and fuel wood and removal of small
timber by the local people.
(iv) Grazing by domestic cattle caused an adverse effect on wildlife and its habitat.
(v) Hunting was taken up as a sport by the elite and hundreds of wild animals were killed in a
single hunt. Now commercial poaching is rampant.
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(vi) Incidence of forest fire.
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9] Protected Area Network in India
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A National Board for Wildlife (NBWL), chaired by the Prime Minister of India provides for policy
framework for wildlife conservation in the country. The National Wildlife Action Plan (20022016) was adopted in 2002, emphasizing the peoples participation and their support for
wildlife conservation. Indias conservation planning is based on the philosophy of
identifying and protecting representative wild habitats across all the ecosystems. The
Indian Constitution entails the subject of forests and wildlife in the Concurrent list. The Federal
Ministry acts as a guiding torch dealing with the policies and planning on wildlife
conservation, while the provincial Forest Departments are vested with the responsibility of
implementation of national policies and plans.
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A network of 668 Protected Areas (PAs) has been established, extending over 1,61,221.57 sq.
kms. (4.90% of total geographic area), comprising 102 National Parks, 515 Wildlife Sanctuaries,
47 Conservation Reserves and 4 Community Reserves. 39 Tiger Reserves and 28 Elephant
Reserves have been designated for species specific management of tiger and elephant
habitats. UNESCO has designated 5 Protected Areas as World Heritage Sites. As the ecosystems
and species do not recognise political borders, the concept of Trans- boundary Protected Areas
has been initiated for coordinated conservation of ecological units and corridors with bilateral
and/or multilateral cooperation of the neighbouring nations. There are 4 categories of the
Protected Areas viz, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Conservation Reserves and Community
Reserves.
Sanctuary is an area which is of adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or
zoological significance. The Sanctuary is declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating or
developing wildlife or its environment. Certain rights of people living inside the Sanctuary
could be permitted. Further, during the settlement of claims, before finally notifying the
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Student Notes:
Sanctuary, the Collector may, in consultation with the Chief Wildlife Warden, allow the
continuation of any right of any person in or over any land within the limits of the Sanctuary.
National Park is an area having adequate ecological, faunal, floral, geomorphological, natural or
zoological significance. The National Park is declared for the purpose of protecting, propagating
or developing wildlife or its environment, like that of a Sanctuary. The difference between a
Sanctuary and a National Park mainly lies in the vesting of rights of people living inside. Unlike a
Sanctuary, where certain rights can be allowed, in a National Park, no rights are allowed. No
grazing of any livestock shall also be permitted inside a National Park while in a Sanctuary, the
Chief Wildlife Warden may regulate, control or prohibit it. In addition, while any removal or
exploitation of wildlife or forest produce from a Sanctuary requires the recommendation of the
State Board for Wildlife, removal etc., from a National Park requires recommendation of the
National Board for Wildlife (However, as per orders of Honble Supreme Court dated 9th May
2002 in Writ Petition (Civil) No. 337 of 1995, such removal/ exploitation from a Sanctuary also
requires recommendation of the Standing Committee of National Board for Wildlife).
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Conservation Reserves can be declared by the State Governments in any area owned by the
Government, particularly the areas adjacent to National Parks and Sanctuaries and those
areas which link one Protected Area with another. Such declaration should be made after
having consultations with the local communities. Conservation Reserves are declared for
the purpose of protecting landscapes, seascapes, flora and fauna and their habitat. The
rights of people living inside a Conservation Reserve are not affected.
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Community Reserves can be declared by the State Government in any private or community
land, not comprised within a National Park, Sanctuary or a Conservation Reserve, where an
individual or a community has volunteered to conserve wildlife and its habitat. Community
Reserves are declared for the purpose of protecting fauna, flora and traditional or cultural
conservation values and practices. As in the case of a Conservation Reserve, the rights of
people living inside a Community Reserve are not affected.
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Regulations/ laws relating to Protected Areas (PAs):
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The PAs are constituted and governed under the provisions of the Wild Life (Protection) Act,
1972, which has been amended from time to time, with the changing ground realities
concerning wildlife crime control and PAs management. Implementation of this Act is further
complemented by other Acts viz. Indian Forest Act, 1927, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980,
Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and Biological Diversity Act, 2002 and the Scheduled Tribes
and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006. The Wildlife
Crime Control Bureau of the Central Government supplements the efforts of provincial
governments in wildlife crime control through enforcement of CITES and control of wildlife
crimes having cross-border, inter- state and international ramifications. In order to strengthen
and synergise global wildlife conservation efforts, India is a party to major international
conventions viz. Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of wild fauna
and flora (CITES), International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), International
Convention for the Regulation of Whaling, UNESCO-World Heritage Committee and Convention
on Migratory Species (CMS).
Main issues concerning the management of Protected Areas: Wildlife conservation and
management in India is currently facing a myriad of complex challenges that are both
ecological and social in nature. Issues such as habitat loss/fragmentation, overuse of
biomass resources in the context of biotic pressures, increasing human-wildlife conflicts,
livelihood dependence on forests and wildlife resources, poaching and illegal trade in wildlife
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Student Notes:
parts and products, need for maintaining a broad base of public support for wildlife
conservation exemplify and characterize the contemporary wildlife conservation scenario in
India. The government and the civil society are taking several measures to address these
issues. Improved synergies and better coordination amongst the wide array of stakeholders are
needed to meet the challenges of conserving Indias diverse wilderness resources.
10] Biosphere Reserves

The origin of Biosphere Reserves goes back to the "Biosphere Conference" organized by
UNESCO in 1968. A Biosphere Reserve is a unique and representative ecosystem of terrestrial
and coastal areas which are internationally recognised within the framework of UNESCOs
Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme. Collectively, biosphere reserves form a world network:
the World Network of Biosphere Reserves (WNBR).
10.1 Functions of biosphere reserve

Each biosphere reserve is intended to fulfil 3 basic functions, which are complementary and
mutually reinforcing:
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1. conservation function - to contribute to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems,

species and genetic variation;
2. development function - to foster economic and human development which is socioculturally and ecologically sustainable;
3. logistic function - to provide support for research, monitoring, education and
information exchange related to local, national and global issues of conservation and
development.
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10.2 Structure and Design of Biosphere Reserves
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In order to undertake complementary activities of biodiversity conservation and development

of sustainable management aspects, Biosphere Reserves are demarcated into three interrelated zones. These are (I) natural or core zone (ii) manipulation or buffer zone and (iii) a
transition zone outside the buffer zone.
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The Core Zone: The core zone is kept absolutely undisturbed. Only the core area requires legal
protection and hence can correspond to an existing protected area such as a nature reserve or
a national park. It must contain suitable habitat for numerous plant and animal species,
including higher order predators and may contain centres of endemism. Core areas often
conserve the wild relatives of economic species and also represent important genetic
reservoirs. Management and research activities that do not affect natural processes and wildlife
are allowed inside core zone.
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The Buffer Zone: In the Buffer Zone, which adjoins or surrounds core zone, uses and activities
are managed in ways that protect the core zone. These uses and activities include restoration,
demonstration sites for enhancing value addition to the resources, limited recreation, tourism,
fishing and grazing, which are permitted to reduce its effect on core zone. Research and
educational activities are to be encouraged. Human activities, if natural within Biosphere
Reseve, are likely to be permitted to continue if these do not adversely affect the ecological
diversity.
The Transition Zone: The Transition Zone is the outermost part of a Biosphere Reserve. This is
usually not delimited one and is a zone of cooperation where conservation, knowledge and
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Student Notes:
management skills are applied and uses are managed in harmony with the purpose of the
Biosphere Reserve. This includes settlements, crop lands, managed forests and area for
intensive recreation, and other economic uses characteristic of the region.
10.3 Difference between Biosphere reserve and Protect Area(National Park,

Sanctuary etc.)
Biosphere reserve and Protected Areas are complementary concepts. However, the Biosphere
Reserves differ from protected areas due to their emphasis on Conservation of overall
biodiversity and landscape (rather than some specific flagship species) to allow natural and
evolutionary processes to continue without any hindrance, and enhancement of local peoples
participation and their Training.
10.4 Difference between Biosphere reserve and a natural World Heritage site?
UNESCO designates Natural World Heritage sites status to natural sites having outstanding
universal value in accordance with the UNESCO Convention on the Protection of the World
Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972). Efforts to enhance local development and to promote
scientific understanding are means to ensure the protection of the natural World Heritage
values.
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In some instances, a core area of a biosphere reserve can meet World Heritage criteria: the
usually larger biosphere reserve can therefore serve as a complementary means to protect the
integrity of the World Heritage site.
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10.5 Benefits of biosphere reserves
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The designation of a site as a biosphere reserve can raise awareness among local people,
citizens and government authorities on environmental and development issues. It can help to
attract additional funding from different sources. At the national level, biosphere reserves can
serve as pilot sites or learning places to explore and demonstrate approaches to conservation
and sustainable development, providing lessons which can be applied elsewhere. In addition,
they are a concrete means for countries to implement Agenda 21, the Convention on Biological
Diversity (for example the Ecosystem Approach), many Millennium Development Goals (for
example on environmental sustainability), and the UN Decade of Education for Sustainable
Development. In the case of large natural areas which straddle national boundaries, trans
boundary biosphere reserves can be established jointly by the countries concerned, testifying
to long-term cooperative efforts.
Name
Location
19
86
2000
Nilgiri
Biosphere
Reserve
ti
s
UNESCO
Recogni
tion in
States
Type
Key Fauna
Tamil
Nadu,
Kerala
and
Karnata
ka
Wester
n Ghats
Nilgiri Tahr,
Lion-tailed
macaque
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There are eighteen biosphere reserves in India. Nine of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a
part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and the
Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.
Th
Part of Waynad, Nagarhole,

Bandipur and Mudumalai,
Nilambur, Silent Valley and
Anaimalai Hills
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Student Notes:
2001
Nanda
Parts of Chamoli District, Uttarak
Devi
Pithoragarh
District
& hand
National
Bageshwar District
Park
&
Biosphere
Reserve
Wester
n
Himala
yas
19
88
2009
Nokrek
East
Himala
yas
Red Panda
19
89
2001
Gulf
of Indian part of Gulf of Tamil
Mannar
Mannar extending from Nadu
Rameswaram island in the
North to Kanyakumari in the
South of Tamil Nadu and Sri
Lanka
Coasts
Dugong or
Sea Cow
19
89
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19
88
2013
Great
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Reserve
Southern most islands of Andama Islands

Andaman and Nicobar n and
Islands
Nicobar
Islands
19
94
2008
Simlipal
Part of Mayurbhanj district
19
97
DibruSaikhowa
Part of Dibrugarh
Tinsukia districts
19
98
DihangDibang
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Valley
al
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Pachmarhi
Biosphere
Reserve
Parts of Betul District, Madhya

Hoshangabad District and Pradesh
Chhindwara District
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Giant
Squirrel,
Flying
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Parts of Kanchanjunga Hills
East
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09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

11
www.visionias.in
Vision IAS
Student Notes:
20
01
20
05
Agasthyam
alai
Biosphere
Reserve
2012
Neyyar,
Peppara
and Kerala,
Shenduruny
Wildlife Tamil
Sanctuary
and
their Nadu
adjoining areas
Achanaka
Part of Annupur, Dindori
mar
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n ghats
Madhya
Pradesh
,
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garh
Nilgiri Tahr,
Elephants
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Hills
Great Rann Part of Kutch, Rajkot, Gujarat

of Kutch
Surendranagar and Patan
Districts
Desert
Indian Wild
Ass
20
09
Cold Desert Pin Valley National Park and Himacha Wester

surroundings;
Chandratal l
n
and Sarchu & Kibber Wildlife Pradesh Himalay
Sancturary
as
20
10
Seshachala
m Hills
Seshachalam Hill Ranges Andhra

covering parts of Chittoor Pradesh
and Kadapa districts
Eastern
Ghats
20
11
Panna
Part
of
Panna
Chattarpur Districts
catchm
ent
area of
the Ken
River
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Leopard
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bear
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.9
and Madhya
Pradesh
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ee
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11] UPSC Questions Covered
Th
is
do
cu
en
ti
s
pe
rs
on
al
is
ed
fo
rN
av
n
1. Discuss the wetlands and their role in ecological conservation in India. (UPSC 2009/15
Marks)
2. Mention the area of Shola forests in India. (UPSC 2003/2 Marks)
3. What are mangroves and in what way are they useful to us? (UPSC 2001/10 Marks)
4. What is waste land? Write a note on prospects of waste land development in India.
(UPSC 2000/10 Marks)
5. Which parts of India have been identified as draught-prone? Mention the norms for
such identification. (UPSC 1998/15 Marks)
6. Why has there been opposition from the North-Eastern States to the Supreme Court
ban on all activities inside forests? (UPSC 1997/10 Marks)
7. Where do mangrove forests occur in India? Describe their main characteristics. (UPSC
1996/15 Marks)
8. Which parts of India are described as arid zones? Comment on the characteristics and
economic activities prevalent in these regions? (UPSC 1993/15 Marks)
9. Where do we find large desert areas in India? What steps have been taken by the
Government for their development? (UPSC 1985/20 Marks)
10. Which is the largest expanse of tidal forests in India and in which State is it located?
(UPSC 1981/3 Marks)
nd
Rajinder
Nagar:
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by1/8-B,
Vision2IASFloor, stApsara Arcade, Near Gate 6, Karol Bagh Metro, Delhi
Mukherjee
Nagar:No
103,
1 Floor,
Ansal may
Building,
Behind UCOstored
Bank, Delhi-9
All rights
are reserved.
part
of thisB/1-2,
document
be reproduced,
in a retrieval
09650617807,
09968029039,
09717162595
system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
12 or otherwise, without prior
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recording
permission of Vision IAS
India- Physiography
India can be divided into four physical divisions. They are:
1) The Northern Mountains
2) The North Indian Plain
3) The Peninsular Plateau
4) The Coastal regions and Islands
1
VISION IAS
1. THE NORTHERN MOUNTAINS: The Himalayan mountains form the northern mountain region of India. They
are the highest mountain ranges in the world. They have the highest peaks, deep valleys, glaciers etc. These
mountain ranges start from Pamir Knot in the west and extend up to Purvanchal in the east. They extend over
2,500 km. They have been formed during different stages of continental drift of the Gondwanaland mass. There
are three parallel ranges in the Himalayas. They are (a) The Greater Himalayas or Himadri, (b) The Lesser
Himalayas or Himachal and (c) The Outer Himalayas or Siwaliks.
2. NORTH INDIAN PLAIN: The North Indian plain is also called the Gangetic plain. The total area of this plain is
about 6,52,000 sq. km. This plain is situated between the Himalayan Mountains in the north and the Peninsular
plateau in the south and is formed by the alluvium brought down by the rivers. The plain is very fertile and
agriculture is the main occupation of the people. Many perennial rivers flow across the plain. Since the land is
almost flat, it is very easy to construct irrigation canals and have inland navigation. It has excellent roads and
railways, which are helpful for the establishment of many industries. 40% of the total population of India lives
here and it is called The heart of India.
3. PENINSULAR PLATEAU: It is the largest of Indias physical divisions. It is the oldest and is formed of hard rocks.
The Narmada rift valley divides the peninsular plateau into two parts. They are the Malwa plateau and the
Deccan plateau. The Malwa plateau is bounded by the Aravalli hills in the north-west and the Vindhya Mountains
in the south. The total area of both these plateaus is 7,05,000 sq. km. and the shape is triangular. The Malwa
plateau slopes towards the Gangetic Plain. The highest peak on the Aravallis is Mt. Guru Shikhar. The Deccan
plateau is surrounded by the Satpura hills, the Mahadeo hills, the Maikala range, the Amarkantak hills and the
Rajmahal hills in the north and the Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east. The Western
Ghats are called Sahyadris in Maharashtra and Karnataka and further south they are called Nilgiris in Kerala and
Annamalai range, Cardamom and Palani hills in Tamilnadu. Anaimudi in Annamalai range (2,695 mts.) is the
highest peak in South India. The Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats meet in the Nilgiri hills. The Peninsular
plateau has economic importance because of its rich mineral resources and many rivers, which have waterfalls.
They help in the generation of hydroelectric power. The plateau is also suitable for the cultivation of cotton and
the dense forests are the home of many wild animals.
4. COASTAL PLAINS AND ISLANDS: Excluding the islands, the mainland of India has 6,100 kms length of coastline.
It extends from Kachchh in Gujarat in the west to the Gangetic delta in the east. The coast of India is divided into
western coast and eastern coastal plains. The western coastal plain lies between the Western Ghats and the
Arabian Sea and from the Gulf of Kachchh in the north upto Cape Comorin (Kanyakumari) in the south, with a
length of about 1,500 km. It is divided into Malabar coast, Karnataka coast(Canara), Konkan coast, Gujarat coast
and Kachchh and Kathiawad peninsulas. The coast is straight and affected by the South-West Monsoon winds
over a period of six months. So, there are only a few good harbours Mumbai, Marmagoa, Cochin, Mangalore,
Karwar, Nhava-Sheva and Kandla are the important ports on the West Coast. The eastern coast extends from
Kanyakumari to the Gangetic delta and between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It consists of the
deltas of rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. It is a broad and flat land. There are some salt water
lakes or lagoons. Chilka Lake of Orissa and Pulicat Lake of Tamilnadu are the best examples. The Eastern Coast is
divided into Coromandel coast in the south and Utkal coast in the north. The coastal regions of India are noted
for agriculture, trade, industrial centres, tourist centres, fishing and salt making. They provide important
hinterlands for the ports. These coastal plains play a very important role in the economic development of India.
2
VISION IAS
ISLANDS OF INDIA: There are 247 islands in India, out of which there are 204 islands in the Bay of Bengal and 43
islands in the Arabian Sea. There are a few coral islands in the Gulf of Mannar also. The Andaman and Nicobar
Islands in the Bay of Bengal consist of hard volcanic rocks. The middle Andaman and Great Nicobar Islands are
the largest islands of India. Lakshadweep islands in the Arabian Sea are formed by corals. The southern - most
point of India is in the Greater Nicobar Island. It is called Indira Point (formerly it was called Pigmalion Point),now
submerged after 2004 Tsunami.
********************************************************************************
SIGNIFICANCE OF HIMALAYAS1) Strategic significance. A natural frontier of India with other countries(China, Pakistan,
Afghanistan,etc)
2) Climatic significance. Prevent further northward movement of summer monsoon and also
prevent cold northern winds from Siberia to enter into India.
3) Agricultural significance. Formation of Himalayas created a trough to its south which is later
filled by the sediments from the Himalayan rivers which is today known as northern plains-Indogangetic plains- Rich agricultural grounds.
4) Economic significance- Himalayan rivers have huge hydro-electric power potential. Moreover,
Himalyan timber and medicinal plants have economic significance.
5) Tourist spot- large ecological diversity and hill stations
SIGNIFICANCE OF INDIAN OCEAN FOR INDIA1) Strategic significance- India overlooks some of the most important sea lanes viz suez canal, Malacca
strait.
2) Economic significance- Long coastline, 2.02 million sq km EEZ ( exclusive economic zone)- Hydrocarbons,
fishery potential, wave energy, tidal energy, OTEC.
3) Marine biodiversity and rich ecosystem with coral reefs, mangroves- Tourist attraction.
4) SW monsoon generates in Indian ocean.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WESTERN GHATS AND EASTERN GHATSWESTERN GHATS
-
More continuous
Higher in elevation
Sahayadris, anamalai, nilgiri and cardamom hills
Form excellent escarpments

3
VISION IAS
Rich watersheds give birth to large peninsular rivers like Godavari and Krishna.
Separated from coast by narrow coastal plains.
EASTERN GHATS
-
Discontinuous
Lower in elevation
Do not develop steep escarpments, lack well developed peaks.
Do not give birth to important rivers like western ghats.
Separated from coast by very wide coastal plains.
Geologically older than western ghats.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BOB ISLANDS AND ARABIAN SEA ISLANDSANDAMAN & NICOBAR ISLANDS- These are volcanic islands representing submarine volcanism. These island
represent the surfaces of submerged folds.( extension of Himalayas- and precisely Arakan yoma fold mountains
of Myanmar). These islands are formed of granitic rocks. Have hills and tall peaks like saddle peak. Climate is
equatorial. Andd comprise of tropical rain-forests.
LAKSHADWEEP ISLANDS- These are a union of coral islands, entirely different from A & N islands, comprising of
large number of dead corals, fringing, barrier coral reefs and atolls. Thus these islands have calcium rich soilsorganic limestones. Have scattered vegetation of palm species.
DECCAN TRAP AND ITS CHARACTERISTICSIt is the deccan plateau region which includes Kathiawar plateau of Gujarat and most of Maharashtra, south west
MP and NW Karnataka.
It is a volcanic plateau made up of horizontal layers of solidified lava forming trap structure which have a step
like appearance. In between the layers of solidified lava, sedimentary layers are also found thus making it intertrappean in structure. The deccan plateau slopes towards east and south and descends abruptly towards west
making sahayadri ranges.
COASTAL ECOSYSTEM & ITS POLLUTION IN INDIAThe coastal domain is from 200 m above to 200m below sea level. Coastal ecosystem presents a delicate
equilibrium among different components, viz. estuaries, coral reefs, salt marshes, mangrove swamps,
macrophyte dominated regions, continental shelves, etc. at a given time.
Most pollution in India arises from land-based sources - industrial & domestic wastes and agricultural run-off.
Shipping and associated ship-building, breaking and port activities are becoming increasingly significant. The
crop of recently started coastally located industries use sea-water as a resource and the coastal domain as a sink
of altered sea-water [temperature and density]. These pose newer, more direct threats to sensitive eco areas.
4
VISION IAS
A compilation of the type and quantum of pollutants into the coastal ecosystem of India are given below:
Sr. No.
Input / pollutant
Quantum - Annual
1.
Sediments
1600 million tonnes
2.
Industrial effluents
50 x 106 m3
3.
Sewage - largely untreated
0.41 x 109 m3
4.
Garbage and other solids
34 x 106 tonnes
5.
Fertilizer residue
5 x 106
6.
Synthetic detergents - residue
1,30,000 tonnes
7.
Pesticides residue
65, 000 tonnes
8.
Petroleum hydrocarbons (Tar balls residue)
3,500 tonnes
9.
Mining rejects, dredged spoils & sand extractions
0.2 x 106 tonnes
Indian coasts have a large variety of sensitive eco-systems. Sand dunes, coral reefs, mangroves, seagrass beds 7
wet lands are some that deserve special mention. Some of these are the spawning grounds and nurseries of a
number of commercially important fishes, gastropods and crustaceans. A critical feature of these ecosystems are
the variety of bioactive molecules that they host.
Thus, sustainable development of the coastal ecosystem is must. Sustainable development can be described as
"the proper use and care of the coastal environment borrowed from future generations".
SHORT NOTES ONBhabhar- a zone of porous and rocky soils made up of debris washed down from the higher ranges. The rivers
usually disappear in this belt. The Bhabhar and the lower Shiwalik ranges have a subtropical climate. This belt is
just above terai.
Terai- Above the alluvial plain lies the Terai strip, a seasonally marshy zone of sand and clay soils. The Terai has
higher rainfall than the plains, and the downward-rushing rivers of the Himalaya slow down and spread out in
the flatter Terai zone, depositing fertile silt during the monsoon season and receding in the dry season. The Terai
has a high water table due to groundwater percolating down from the adjacent zone.
5
VISION IAS
Natural Vegetation of India
The following are the principal types of natural vegetation in India: (1) Tropical Evergreen Rain Forests, (2)
Deciduous or Monsoon Type of Forests, (3) Dry Deciduous Forests and Scrubs, (4) SemiSemi Desert and Desert
Vegetations, (5) Tidal or Mangrove Forests and (6) Mountain Forests.
Tropical evergreen rain forests:: These forests
forests grow in areas where rainfall is more than 200 cm. They are mainly
found on the slopes of the Western Ghats and the Northeastern regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya,
Assam, Nagaland, the Tarai areas of the Himalayas and the Andaman groups of Islands.
Islan The trees in these belts
have dense growth. Important varieties of trees are sishu, chap lash, rosewood, mahogany, bamboos, garjan and
sandalwood.
Deciduous or Monsoon type of forests:
forests: These forests are found in areas where the rainfall is between 100 cm
and 200 cm. These forests grow on the lower slope of the Himalayas, Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand,
Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Karnataka and the adjoining regions. The trees of these
forests shed their leaves during dry winter
winter and dry summer. The main trees are teak, sal, sandalwood, deodar,
blue gum, ebony, sis am, jackfruit, mahua, pal ash, arjun, khair and bamboo.
Dry deciduous forests and Scrubs:: These forests grow in areas where the rainfall is between 50 cm and 100 cm.
These are found in areas of central Deccan plateau, South-east
South east of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and parts of Uttar
6
VISION IAS
Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Dwarf Deciduous trees and long- grasses grow in these regions. Most of the areas
are used for agriculture.
Semi- deserts and Deserts vegetations: These types of vegetation grow in areas where rainfall is less than 50
cm. Mostly thorny bushes, acacia, babul and sand binding grasses are found in this vegetation zone. The Indian
wild date is common in these deserts. These plants grow far apart from each other. They have long roots and
thick fleshy stems in which they store water ti survive during the long drought. These vegetations are found in
Rajasthan and parts of Gujarats, Punjab and Karnataka.
Tidal or Mangrove forests: These forests grow along the coast and on the edges of the deltas e.g., the deltas of
the Ganga, Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna and Kaveri. They are called Tidal Forests. In West Bengal these forests
are known as Sundarbans. The sundari is most significant tree in these forests. The other notable trees of
these forests are hogla, garan, gewa, golpata, gilepata, pasur etc. These forests are supply timber and fire wood.
Palm and coconut trees adorn the coastal strip.
Mountain forests: Mountain forests vary considerably along the slopes of mountain. On the foothills of the
Himalayas unto a height of 1500 meters, evergreen trees, (Sal, teak, bamboo and cane) grow abundantly. On
higher slope between 1,500 meters to 3,500 meters, temperate conifer trees, (pine, fir, oak, maple, deodar,
laurel spruce, ceder) grow. At the higher altitude of the Himalayas, rhododendrons and junipers are found.
Beyond these vegetation belts, alpine grasslands appear up to snowfield.
MANGROVE FORESTSUses-
Obstruct oncoming high waves and tides thus protect coastal erosion
Absorb pollutants
Reduce coastal erosion
Absorb storm energy
Rich breeding grounds for fish
WASTELAND AND WASTELAND DEVELOPMENTWasteland is barren & highly degraded land not fit for agriculture.
Dept of Land resources, GOI , divides wasteland into 16 categories:
2. Upland with or without Scrub
3. Waterlogged and Marshy

Land
5. Shifting Cultivation Area
6.Under
utilised/Degraded
notified Forest Land
7. Degraded Pastures/Grazing Land
8. Degraded Land under Plantation crop
9. Sands-Inland/Coastal
10. Mining/Industrial Wastelands
11.Barren Rocky/Stony Waste/Sheet Rock

12. Steep Sloping Area
Area
1. Gullied and/or Ravinous Land

4. Land Affected by Salinity/Alkalinity
Coastal/Inland
13. Snow Covered and/or Glacial Area 14. Total Wastelands
15.Total Geographical Area
16. Percentage of total Geographical

Area.
7
VISION IAS
INTEGRATED WASTELAND DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (IWDP)Objectives:

The basic objective of this scheme is an integrated wastelands development based on village/micro watershed
plans. These plans are prepared after taking into consideration the land capability, site condition and local needs
of the people.
The scheme also aims at rural employment besides enhancing the contents of people's participation in the
wastelands development programmes at all stages, which is ensured by providing modalities for equitable and
sustainable sharing of benefits and usufructs arising from such projects.
Activities:
The major activities taken up under the scheme are:
In situ soil and moisture conservation measures like terracing, bunding, trenching, vegetative barriers
and drainage line
treatment.
Planting and sowing of multi-purpose trees, shrubs, grasses, legumes and pasture land development.
Encouraging natural regeneration.
Promotion of agro-forestry & horticulture.
Wood substitution and fuel wood conservation measures.
Awareness raising, training & extension.
Encouraging people's participation through community organization and capacity building.
Drainage Line treatment by vegetative and engineering structures
Development of small water Harvesting Structures.
Afforestation of degraded forest and non forest wasteland.
Development and conservation of common Property Resources.
Approach
Wasteland Development through holistic development of Degraded watershed.
Employment of people through Institutional arrangements
Planning from below bottom up approach.
Sustainability through peoples participation.
Equitable distribution of Usufructs.
8
VISION IAS
The problem
The degradation of environment in the fragile Indian sub-topical eco-system is basically attributed to:
Increasing biotic pressure
Absence of adequate investments and appropriate management practices.
High rate of Population growth and high incidence poverty in rural areas.
Over-exploitation of National Resources.
The break-down of traditional institutions for managing common property resources and failure of new
institutions to fill the vacuum.
Faulty land use practices.
CONSEQUENCES
Soil Erosion & Land Degradation
Depletion of natural resources
Lower productivity
Ground Water Depletion
Shortage of Drinking Water
Reduction in Species Diversity
Increase in the extent of Wastelands
9
VISION IAS
Forest Resource of India
India has 21 Percent of her geographical area under forest cover. According to the State Forest Report 2009, in
the last 10 years, forest cover in the country has increased by 3.31 million hectares, showing an average 0.46%
increase every year. The total forested area in India is about 63.73 million hectares. These forests supply a wide
variety of resources. They provide structural timer and wood for making furniture and pulp, match wood, wood
for charcoal, gum, resins, canes and fibred. Beside these, there are may other forest products such as leaves,
fruits, tan dyes, medicinal herbs, bee-wax, honey, turpentine oil and lac.
Problems of Forestry and their Solution
Indian Forestry faces many problems. Over grazing and forest fire often destroy forests. Reckless cutting of the
trees causes forest destruction. Jhum cultivations destroy forest; it invites soil erosion. To preserve the forest,
the Govt. of India has taken up a series of programmers: The forests are declared as Reserved Forests. The
government has chalked out a good proggrame of Van Mahatsov. Thousands of trees are planted every year in
the months of July and August to promote new forestation. The Forest Research Institute has been set up at
Dehra Dun for the promotion and preservation the forests properly.
10
VISION IAS
Climate of India
TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATE
India is a vast country and has different relief features. They are responsible for varied climatic conditions. India
has very hot and very cold regions as well as regions with very heavy rainfall and very scanty rainfall. A large part
of India has tropical monsoon climate. The climate of India has been influenced by its position, size and relief
features. Monsoon winds are the main factors that determine the climate of India. They influence a large part of
India. The Climate of India may be divided into four seasons1) Winter - From December to February(winter rains)
2) Summer - From March to May
3) South-West monsoons or rainy season - June to September
4) Retreating monsoons - October and November(tropical cyclones)
DISTRIBUTION OF RAINFALL: The rainfall in India is seasonal, uncertain and unevenly distributed. Most of the
rain comes during the South-West Monsoon period. Rainfall may be too much or too little. There are also long
dry periods in between. On the basis of the quantity of rainfall, we can divide India into five major rainfall
regions.
1)Very low rainfall region (Less than 30 cms per year). It is found in Karakoram ranges, northern Kashmir and
western parts of Kachchh and Rajasthan (Thar desert).
2) Low rainfall region (30 cms. to 60 cms. per year). It is found in Zaskar range, parts of Punjab and Haryana,
Central Rajasthan, Western Gujarat and the rain-shadow areas of the Western Ghats.
3) Moderate rainfall (60 cms. to 100 cms. per year). It is found over a greater part of India, excluding the areas of
low rainfall and heavy rainfall. Most of the rain is from the South-West Monsoon winds.
4) Heavy rainfall region (100 cms. to 200 cms. per year). It is found in four separate areas, including a narrow belt
of the western coast, eastern coastal belt, the foothills of the Himalayas and a part of north-east India.
5) Very heavy rainfall region (over 200 cms. per year). It is found on the western side of the Western Ghats , the
foothills of Himalayas, Meghalaya plateau (Shillong plateau) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mawsynram in
Meghalaya plateau has recorded 1141 cms. of rainfall per year and it is the place which gets the heaviest rainfall
in India/world.
11
VISION IAS
Climate plays a very important role on the economic development of a nation. The South-West
South
Monsoons
control the agriculture of India, which is the main occupation of the people. When the monsoons fail, there is
drought, and the crops also fail. When the monsoons are heavy, there are floods, they
th also cause destruction to
life and property. Hence, it is called that, the Indian agriculture is a gamble with the Monsoons.
12
VISION IAS
SUMMER MONSOON OF INDIA(SW MONSOON)Monsoon is seasonal changes in atmospheric circulation and precipitation associated with the asymmetric
heating
of
land
and
sea.
The southwest monsoon brings rains towards the end of summer as the high pressure built in the Indian Ocean
pushes the wind masses towards the low pressure formed on land. Its the temperature variation between the
sea and the landmass Temperature Gradient.
ACTION OF SOUTH WEST MONSOON IN INDIA:
The southwest monsoon arrives in two branches: the Bay of Bengal branch and the Arabian Sea branch. The
latter extends toward a low-pressure area over the Thar Desert and is roughly three times stronger than the Bay
of Bengal branch. The southwest monsoon typically breaks over Indian Territory by around 25 May, when it
lashes the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. It strikes the Indian mainland around 1 June near
the Malabar Coast of Kerala. By 9 June, it reaches Mumbai; it appears over Delhi by 29 June. The Bay of Bengal
branch, which initially tracks the Coromandal Coast northeast from Cape Comorin to Orissa, swerves to the
northwest towards the Indo-Gangetic Plain. The Arabian Sea branch moves northeast towards the Himalayas. By
the first week of July, the entire country experiences monsoon rain; on average, South India receives more
rainfall than North India. However, Northeast India receives the most precipitation. Monsoon clouds begin
retreating from North India by the end of August; it withdraws from Mumbai by 5 October. As India further cools
during September, the southwest monsoon weakens. By the end of November, it has left the country.
The southwest monsoon, a four-month period when massive convective thunderstorms dominate Indias
weather, is Earths most productive wet season. A product of southeast trade winds originating from a highpressure mass centered over the southern Indian Ocean, the monsoonal torrents supply over 80% of Indias
annual rainfall. Attracted by a low-pressure region centered over South Asia, the mass spawns surface winds that
ferry humid air into India from the southwest. These inflows ultimately result from a northward shift of the local
jet stream, which itself results from rising summer temperatures over Tibet and the Indian subcontinent. The
void left by the jet stream, which switches from a route just south of the Himalayas to one tracking north of
Tibet, then attracts warm, humid air. The main factor behind this shift is the high summer temperature
difference between Central Asia and the Indian Ocean. This is accompanied by a seasonal excursion of the
normally equatorial intertropical convergence zone, a low-pressure belt of highly unstable weather, and
northward towards India.
KEY ASPECTS AND BARRIERS:
1.Strikes at western ghats;and gives rainfall to the western most regions; while rainshadow interiors, thr Deccan
plateau receives very less rainfall.
2.moves parallel with the eastern ghats and produce no rainfall until it strikes at NE.
3.Another current enters at kutch peninsula and gives medium rainfall to the Indo-Gangetic plains.
13
VISION IAS
NORTHEAST MONSOONAround September, with the sun fast retreating south, the northern land mass of the Indian subcontinent begins
to cool off rapidly. With this air pressure begins to build over northern India, the Indian Ocean and its
surrounding atmosphere still holds its heat. This causes the cold wind to sweep down from the Himalayas and
Indo-Gangetic Plain towards the vast spans of the Indian Ocean south of the Deccan peninsula. This is known as
the Northeast Monsoon or Retreating Monsoon.
While travelling towards the Indian Ocean, the dry cold wind picks up some moisture from the Bay of Bengal and
pours it over peninsular India and parts of Sri Lanka. Cities like Madras, which get less rain from the Southwest
Monsoon, receives rain from this Monsoon. About 50% to 60% of the rain received by the state of Tamil Nadu is
from the Northeast Monsoon. In Southern Asia, the northeastern monsoons take place from December to early
March when the surface high-pressure system is strongest. The jet stream in this region splits into the southern
subtropical jet and the polar jet. The subtropical flow directs northeasterly winds to blow across southern Asia,
creating dry air streams which produce clear skies over India. Meanwhile, a low pressure system develops over
South-East Asia and Australasia and winds are directed toward Australia known as a monsoon trough.
WESTERN DISTURBANCESWD are the Temperate cyclones or extratropical storm originating in the Mediterranean, that brings sudden
winter rain and snow to the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent. This is a non-monsoonal
precipitation pattern driven by the Westerlies. The moisture in these storms usually originates over the
Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Extratropical storms are a global, rather than a localized, phenomena
with moisture usually carried in the upper atmosphere (unlike tropical storms where it is carried in the lower
atmosphere). In the case of the subcontinent, moisture is sometimes shed as rain when the storm system
encounters the Himalayas.
Western Disturbances are important to the development of the Rabi crop in the northern subcontinent, which
includes the locally important staple wheat.
WINTER- RAINFALL- occur due to1) NE Monsoons
2) Western disturbances
3) Tropical cyclones.
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FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR REGIONAL VARIABILITY OF RAINFALL OVER INDIAGeographical setting- windward regions(like western ghats) gets more rainfall than interiors,Regions obstructing
monsoonal branches like those perpendicular to Arabian sea branch gets rainfall while the south eastern region
of India which is parallel to bay of Bengal branch remains dry. Aravallis parallel to Arabian sea branch remains
dry. Also regions near to the sea gets more rainfall as winds bear more moisture. The regions of the confluence
of the 2 major branches also receive more rainfall.
TROPICAL CYCLONESA tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a large low-pressure center and numerous thunderstorms
that produce strong winds and heavy rain.
-
Winds spiral at high speed -120kmph about a calm eye.

Inner pressure could be as low as 890mb.
Develop over sea where surface temperature is above 27 degree celcius.
Acquire energy from the latent heat of condensation of water vapour.
Form between 8-20 degree north and south of equator and never between 0-8 degrees north and south
of equator because of weak coriolis force.
Quickly dissipate over land as their moisture supply is cut off.
Cause heavy rains with thunderstorms but rain is short lived.
Most violent and destructible type of storms. Destruction caused by storm surge, high velocity winds and
heavy rainfall.
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SOUTHERN OSCILLATIONSThe Southern Oscillation is the see-saw pattern of reversing surface air pressure between the eastern and
western tropical Pacific; when the surface pressure is high in the eastern tropical Pacific it is low in the western
tropical Pacific, and vice-versa. Thus, the El-Nio Southern Oscillation(ENSO) is the result of a cyclic warming and
cooling of the surface ocean of the central and eastern Pacific. This region of the ocean is normally colder than
it's equatorial location would suggest, mainly due to the influence of northeasterly trade winds, a cold ocean
current flowing up the coast of Chile, and to the upwelling of cold deep water off the coast of Peru.
At times, the influence of these cold water sources wane, causing the surface of the eastern and central Pacific
to warm up under the tropical sun - this is an EL-NIO event. This results in heavy rainfall in South America, but
severe droughts in eastern Australia. The more intense the El-Nio, the more intense and extensive the
Australian droughts.
At other times, the injection of cold water becomes more intense than usual, causing the surface of the eastern
Pacific to cool - this is a LA-NIA event. This results in droughts in south America and heavy rainfall, even floods,
in eastern Australia. In this way, Australia experiences it's characteristic cycle of droughts and floods - all caused
by the El-Nio/La-Nia cycle described above.
MANGO SHOWERSMango showers are the pre-monsoon showers in the Indian states of Karnataka and Kerala that help in the
ripening of mangoes. Also known as April rains or Summer showers, they are a result of thunderstorms over the
Bay of Bengal. These summer rains normally come in the second half of the month of April, though the arrival is
difficult to predict. The showers prevent the mangoes from dropping prematurely from trees and are crucial for
the mango cultivators of South india.
CHERRY BLOSSOMSIn Karnataka and associated region the local thunderstorms are called as cherry blossoms. This is caused due to
the meeting of humid sea winds and hot dry local wind. It occurs in the month of april & may. These showers
help in the ripening of coffee plants.
NORWESTERSThese are the shallow cyclonic disturbances that travel to India from Mediterranean sea and Persian gulf that
cause rainfall in the east India- Assam, W.Bengal, Orissa during winter season.
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VISION IAS
Soils in India
SOIL?
Soil is the uppermost layer of Earths crust.
Soil is the medium in which plants grow and thus it supports the lives on earth.
Factors that control the formation of soilA number of factors contribute to the soil formation and fertility.
1.Parent rocks: - the rock on which the soil is formed decomposes and disintegrates under the processes of
weathering. The characteristics of rocks influence the characteristics of soils. For example on lava rocks black
soils and iron oxide rich rocks red soils are formed.
2.Climate: - climate influence the rate of weathering of rocks and type of vegetation, thus these influence the
characteristics of soils.
3.Slope: - the nature of relief and slope influence the accumulation of soils. Mountains have thin soil cover but
the plains have thick soil cover.
4.Time: - time provides maturity to the soil.
5.Various forces of nature such as change in temperature, actions of running water, wind and glaciers, activities
of decomposers etc. contribute to the formation of soil.
6.Chemical and organic changes which take place in the soil are equally important.
The soils of India on the basis of their formation are divided in the following two broad catagories1.Residual Soil- which form at the place of their origin. Like black soils
2.Transported
Soil-
which
are
transported
from
place
of their
formation.
Like
alluvial soils.
The major soil groups are:

1) BLACK SOIL
- Black soil is made from lava-solidified rocks and is also called as Black Cotton Soil or Regur Soil.
The black colour of regur soil is due to its iron content, deriving from plutonic lava materials.
Mainly found in the Deccan region which includes the major part of Maharashtra, Gujarat and part of Tamil
Nadu,
Andhra
Pradesh
and
Madhya
Pradesh.
Cotton is most important crop grown on this soil.
CHARACTERISTICS
Clayey, deep and impermeable
They swell and become sticky when wet and shrink when dried
During dry season, these soils develop wide cracks.
Rich in lime and iron, magnesia and alumina
Also contain potash

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VISION IAS
Lack phosporus, nitrogen and organic matter
Very clayey and therefore highly retentive of water. Because of high clay content, these soils expand
when wet and become difficult to plough.
During dry season, black soils shrink and develop big cracks which help in air circulation.
Dark in colour, suitable for cotton cultivation are residual soils.
Spread over an area of 5.4 sq. km., i.e. 16.6 % of the total land area of the country.
2) RED SOIL
- These soils are found in Chhotanagpur plateau, Telangana, Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh
and periphery areas of Deccan Plateau. These soils have been formed due to decomposition of underlying
igneous rocks under heavy rainfall. These are suitable for the cultivation of millets, pulses, Linseed, tobacco etc.
These soils are poor in Lime, Nitrogen and humus.
CHARACTERISTICS:
Red
soils
are
reddish
in
colour
due
to
Formed due to weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rocks.
the
presence
Parent rocks are acid granites and gneisses.
Occupy an whi area of about 3.5 lakh sq km 10.6% of the total land area of the country .
These are transported type soils.
Are mostly light to dark colour depending on new or old alluvium.
Rich in potash and become fertile with the proper use of fertilizers and irrigation.
Deficient in nitrogen,lime, magnesia, humus and phosphate
Red due to its very high iron content.
Are porous, friable in nature .
Loose and aerated.
of
iron.
Contains soluble salts in small quantities.
3) LATERITE SOIL
- laterite = brick (Latin word)
These soils are formed under conditions of high temperature and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry
periods. Thus its formation takes place strictly under monsoon conditions.
Residual soils formed by leaching in areas of heavy rain.
Leaching is a process in which the nutrients get percolated down below the soil due to heavy rainfall; thus
leaving the top soil infertile. Also called DESILICATION.
Laterite soils are found in elevated areas which receive very high rainfall
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As a result, top soil gets washed away. This process is called leaching. The soil, therefore, loses its fertility to a
great extent.
It covers an area of about 2.4 lakh sq km. These soils are found in the northeastern state of Meghalaya in India.
Laterite soils are found on the highland areas of the plateau. These are found in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
and hilly regions of Assam, Rajmahal hills and Chhotanagpur plateau. These are shallow, acidic and less fertile
soils. These soils are poor in lime but rich in iron. So these are suitable for plantation of crops like tea, rubber,
coffee etc.
Is of coarse texture, soft and friable.
Is red due to the presence of iron oxide which is formed by leaching. The soluble plant foods like potash
are removed from the top soil leaving alumina and iron oxide.
Is a porus soil, silica is removed from it by chemical action. Is poor in lime and magnesium, and deficient
in nitrogen.
4) ALLUVIAL SOIL
- (Riverine soil)
It covers about 40 percent of land area of the country. They are depositional soils, transported and deposited by
rivers and streams. These soils are formed by the deposition of fine sediments and silt by the rivers along their
banks. In India, alluvial soils are mostly found in the Great Northern Plains, the coastal plains and river deltas.
They can be divided into two types:
1. Young Khadar soils: these are newer alluvium of sandy, pale brown composition, found in lower areas of valley
bottom which are flooded almost every year. It is non phorous, clayey and loamy.
2. Old Bhangar soils: these consist of older alluvium of clayey composition and are dark in colour.
They are coarse in nature, contain kankar (lime nodules), pebbles, gravels. They are found 30 m above flood level
of the rivers.
nThey represent the riverine alluvium brought down by Sutlej, Yamuna, Ghagra and other rivers of IndoGangetic Plains.
These soils are the most widespread soils covering an area of 8 lakh sq. km from Punjab to Assam. These are
found in the river basin, flood plains and coastal areas. These soils are covering 22.16 per cent of total area of
India.
Alluvial soils though differ greatly in texture, are very fertile on whole. They:
Respond well to irrigation and manuring.
Good for both rabi and kharif crops.
Suitable for wheat, sugarcane, rice, cotton and oilseeds.
In delta region, they are ideal for jute cultivation.
Useful for agriculture since it is fertile.

Soil is rich in potash and lime but poor in nitrogen and humus.
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NOTE*- THE AFOREMENTIONED FOUR SOILS BLACK, RED, LATERITE AND ALLUVIAL ARE GENERALLY ASKED IN
MAINS.
Other Soils: The other soils in the category of the Indian soils are as follows:
MOUNTAIN SOILS:
Mountain soils are found in, as the name suggests, in mountainous regions. They are quite prone to soil erosion
as a result of the top soil getting washed away due to the steep slopes of the mountains after a period of heavy
rainfall.
These soils are mostly thin and infertile. These include peat, meadow and forest hill soils.
The major characteristics of this soil are:
-They are rich in humus
-Are coarse and infertile. They are deficient in potash, phosphorous and lime.
-Tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits
The states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal, Assam, Sikkim as well as higher reaches of
Arunachal Pradesh have mountain soil.
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VISION IAS
ARID AND DESERT SOILS

Large part of arid and semi-arid region of Rajasthan and adjoining areas of Punjab and Haryana
Desert soils are found in arid regions which receive very little rainfall.
-Low rainfall and high temperature are reasons for the formation of this soil .
-Having less than 50 cm rainfall . The high temperature adds to the loss of any remaining moisture in the soil.
The soil is therefore sandy in nature. Thar Desert in Rajasthan has sandy soil.
-Covers an area of about 1.4 lakh sq km
- Originated from the mechanical disintegration of the ground rock of by deposition by wind
-Desert soil contain 90% of sand and 5% of clay. It contains rich percentage of soluble salts, but lack in organic
matter.
- Are porus and coarse .
-They respond well to irrigation and manuring , especially phosphate and nitrate.- it can improve the soil fertility
as it is seen in the case of Indira Gandhi Canal in Rajasthan.
- Only suitable for drought resistance crops like millets, barley, cotton, maize and pulses.
SALINE AND ALKALINE SOILS
Soils with high proportion of salts and alkalis are called saline and alkaline soils .
They are formed due to accumulation of tidal water in adjoining coasts where drainage is poor. They are found
in drier parts of Bihar, Rajasthan, U.P., Punjab, Haryana, Maharashtra. These soils contain many salts like sodium,
magnesium and calcium which make them infertile and render unfit for agriculture.
MARSHY SOIL
Found in continuously water-logged areas, or marshy areas especially in the coastal regions near the sea or near
the deltas.
-It covers about 56,000 sq km.
-They are formed as a result of water-logging
-It contain iron and varying amount of decayed organic matter.
-Found in southern parts of Siwaliks, Jammu and Kashmir, U.P.
SOIL EROSION
Soil- erodewhen topmost fertile layer of the soil become loose and gets eroded/washed away with the action of wind or
water.
Common Causes-
Deforestation
Over-grazing
Action of wind, water, glacier, etc.
Faulty methods of agriculture, over-irrigation, shifting agriculture, wrong ploughing, etc.
Other anthropogenic factors(mining activities,industrial activities,etc).
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VISION IAS
CAUSES OF SOIL EROSION IN INDIA1)Heavy population pressure on land: - forest cover as low as 20.55% of total area population continues to rise
at a rapid rate more forests are destroyed heavy pressure on land.
2)Nature of Rainfall:- receives 80 to 90 per cent of rainfall in the monsoon season. heavy downpour during
during monsoon months causes floods. - remaining months droughts these affect soils.
3)Overgrazing number of domestic animals, esp cattle highest in world cattle freely graze in open lands
making them bare of vegetation-winds carry away dry soil particles Rajasthan
4). Bad farming techniques plough fields in traditional ways small size of holdings, absence of terracing,
contour cultivation, crop rotation, improper use of manure have caused erosion
5) Topography North Eastern parts of India, Shiwaliks and the hilly regions in south India are affected by soil
erosion because of steep slopes and heavy rainfall. During heavy rainfall, soils are washed away by running
water down the slope.
6) Deforestation: destruction of forests for cultivation cutting of trees exposes the soil to water and wind
which leads to soil erosion
REGIONS OF SOIL EROSION

*Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, UP, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka. Worst affected areas
include:
* The badlands of Chambal and Yamuna rivers
* The piedmont zone of the western Himalayas
* The Chotanagpur plateau region
* The Tapi-Sabarmati valley region in Gujarat
* The regur soil area of Maharashtra
* The dry areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Haryana
EFFECTS OF SOIL EROSION:

* Loss of fertile top soil
* Lowering of the underground water table and decreasing soil moisture
* Drying of vegetation and extension of arid lands, increase in the frequency of droughts and floods
* Silting of river and canal beds, Recurrence of landslides, adverse effect on economic prosperity and cultural
development
* Wind erosion reduces the productive capacity of soil, as most of the nutrients required by the plants are
carried by the wind.
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VISION IAS
PREVENTION OF SOIL EROSION1.Terrace Farming:- On hilly slopes, terraces act as bunds and prevent the soil from being washed away.
2. Contour ploughing- Ploughing along contourson a slope prevents soil being washed away by rainwater or by
surface run off. Contours act like bunds. Terraces are levelled into step like small fields with even slope.
3)Afforestation: planting of trees along the edges of the fields, the waste land and on steepy slopes to prevent
soil erosion as wellas
to
enahnce the
capacity of the soil to
retain water.
* increase area under forests and indiscriminate felling of trees must stop.
4) Shelter Belts: Farmers plant trees in several rows to check wind erosion. Known as wind breaks.
5) Strip cropping: Crops are grown in alternate strips of land to check the impact of the winds.
6) Construction of dams: Rivers cause soil erosion. Dams are built in the upper course of rivers to control erosion
of soil. This would check the speed of water and thereby save soil from erosion.
7) Ploughing Gullies:The gullies made in the soil are plugged with deposition of silt during heavy rains.
8) Shifting or Jhuming or slash and burn type of agriculture should be banned.
SOIL CONSERVATION SCHEMES

1.The centrally sponsored scheme of Integrated Watershed Management in the catchments of flood-prone
rivers was launched during sixth Plan in eight flood-prone rivers of the Gangetic Basin covering seven States and
one Union Territory. It aims at enhancing the ability of the catchment by absorbing larger quantity of rainwater,
reducing erosion and consequent silt load in the stream and river beds and thus helping to mitigate the fury of
floods in the productive plains.
2.A scheme for reclamation and development of ravine areas was launched in 1987-88 in MP, UP and Rajasthan.
included prepheral bunding to halt further ingress of ravines, afforestation of ravines, aforestaton of ravines
for fuel, fodder and reclamation of shallow ravines.
3. Control of shifting cultivation is implemented since 1994-95 in the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura
The integrated programme envisages settling of families practising shifting cultivation.
it helps them to practise terraced cultivation, raising of horticultural palantations and afforestation to support
animal husbandry and to meet fuel and fodder requirements.
4) In urban areas, rain water harvesting is means of checking soil erosion, besides recharging ground water.
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VISION IAS
Drainage system of India
The origin of the rivers in India comprises three prime watersheds:
Himalayas and the Karakoram ranges
Vindhya, Satpura ranges and the Chota Nagpur Plateau
Western Ghats
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VISION IAS
Indian Rivers are classified into four categories on the basis of their origin. They are
1. Himalayan Rivers
2. Deccan Rivers
3. Coastal Rivers and
4. Rivers of the inland Drainage basin
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HIMALAYAN AND PENINSULAR RIVERSHIMALAYAN DRAINAGE-
Antecedent drainage i.e. Himalayan rivers are older than lesser Himalayas and shiwaliks (older than the
structures they cut across).
Nature of flow is perennial- fed by rain and melting glaciers.
Geologically young
Long courses
Flow through lose alluvial soils of northern plains
Form deep valley and gorges due to intensive erosion.
Generate large quantities of sediment.
Cause annual flooding.
Nature of river course is quiet changing, meandering , forming ox-bow lakes, high waterfalls, deeper
basins and large catchment areas and form deltas.
PENINSULAR DRAINAGE-
Super-imposed drainage i.e. regional structures are older than the river valleys that cut through them.
Nature of flow is seasonal- during sw monsoons.
Geologically older.
Shorter courses.
Flow through hard granitic soils of peninsular India.
Shallow graded valleys with little erosion.
Shallow valleys, small waterfalls, deltas and estuaries.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN WEST FLOWING RIVERS AND EAST FLOWING RIVERS OF PENINSULAR INDIAWEST FLOWING- Narmada, Tapi , etc
-
Flow into Arabian sea

Through rift valley in straight linear course
Donot have extensive network of tributaries
Geologically young
Generally form estuaries and not deltas
Their valley floors much above the sea level
Flow swiftly into the sea.
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VISION IAS
EAST FLOWING- Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, cauvery,etc

-
Flow into bay of Bengal

Have extensive network of tributaries
Geologically old
Have large catchment areas and form deltas
Their valley floors at sea level
Flow sluggishly into the sea.
STREAM PATTERNSDrainage basin (drainage basin is equivalent term to watershed, catchment) is the area drained by tributary
streams that coalesce into a main channel. The line, which divides the surface runoff between two adjacent river
basins, is called the topographic water divide, or the watershed divide. The divide follows the ridgeline around
the basin crossing the stream only at the outlet point. It marks the highest points between the basins, but
isolated peaks within a basin may reach higher elevations than any point on the divide. The combined effects of
climate and geology on the catchment topography yield an erosion pattern, which is characterized by a network
of streams. Some of the frequently observed stream patterns are,
i. Dentric: When a region is homogenous offering no variation in the resistance to the flow of water, the
resulting streams run in all directions without definite preference to any one particular region.
ii. Trellis: The trellis drainage pattern is develops when the underlying rock is strongly folded or sharply dipping.
The longer streams will have preference to one particular orientation and the other tributaries will have an
orientation and the tributaries will have an orientation at right angles to this.
iii. Radial: The drainage pattern from dome Mountains and volcanoes is of radial type where the streams
emanate from a central focus and flow radially outward.
iv. Parallel and Sub parallel: The internal geological structure of the land, sometimes the parallel and sub parallel
patterns are formed. The most of the streams run in the same direction is the main characteristic feature.
v. Annular: The streams, which form in the weaker strata of the dome mountain, indicate approximately circular
or annular pattern. The annular pattern may be treated as a special form of trellis pattern.
vi. Rectangular: A region consisting of many rectangular joints and faults may produce a rectangular drainage
pattern with streams meeting at the right angle.
vii. Pinnate: In pinnate stream pattern, all the main streams run in one direction with the tributaries joining
them at an oblique angle
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NATIONAL WATERWAYSInland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) was created by Indian Government on 27 October 1986 for
development and regulation of Inland Waterways for shipping and navigation.
We have 6 national waterways in or country1) National waterway 1
Allahabad Haldia stretch of the Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly river system.
Estd = October 1986.
Length = 1620 km
2) National waterway 2
Sadiya Dhubri stretch of Brahmaputra river.
Estd = September 1982.
Length = 891 km
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VISION IAS
Kottapuram-Kollam stretch of the West Coast Canal, Champakara Canal and Udyogmandal Canal.
Estd = February 1993
Length = 205 km
Kakinada - Puducherry stretch of Canals and the Kaluvelly Tank, Bhadrachalam Rajahmundry stretch of
River Godavari and Wazirabad Vijayawada stretch of River Krishna.
Estd = November 2008
Length = 1095 km
Talcher - Dhamra stretch of the Brahmani River, the Geonkhali - Charbatia stretch of the East Coast
Canal, the Charbatia - Dhamra stretch of Matai river and the Mangalgadi - Paradip stretch of the
Mahanadi River Delta.
Established = November 2008
Length = 623 km
Lakhipur to Bhanga of river Barak.
Proposed
Length = 121 km
INTER-LINKING OF RIVERSMassive project to interlink major Indian rivers by constructing canals to reduce the risk of flood and to transport
water from surplus to deficient areas.
Plans for parts of the Indian Rivers Inter-link were mooted in the British period. In 1972 the then Minister for
Irrigation K. L. Rao proposed a 2640 kilometer long link between the Ganges and Cauvery rivers. In 1974 plans
were proposed for the Garland canal. In 1982 the National Water Development Agency was set up to carry out
surveys of the links and prepare feasibility studies.
Project?
The Inter-link would consist of two parts, a northern Himalayan River Development component and a southern
Peninsular River Development component.
Present ProposalsIn India 30 links have been identified as technically feasible and economically viable on the basis of pre-feasibility
studies. These are: Mahanadi (Manibhadra Godavari (Dowlaiswaram) link, Godavari (Inchampalli Low Dam)
Krishna link, Godavari (Inchampalli) Krishna (Nagarjunasagar) link, Godavari (Polavaram) Krishna (Vijayawada)
link, Krishna (Almatti) Pennar link, Krishna (Srisailam)- Pennar link, Krishna (Nagarjunasagar) Pennar
(Somasila) link, Pennar (Somasila) Cauvery (Grand Anicut) link, Cauvery (Kattalsi)- Vaigai-Gundar link, Ken-Belwa
link, Parbati-Kalisindh-Chambal link, Par-Tapti-Narmada link, Damanganga-Pinjal link, Bedti-Varda link, NetravatiHemavati link and Pamba-Achankovil-Vaippar link.
Similarly, based on various water balance studies carried out for the Himalayan component, the link proposals
identified for preparation of feasibility reports include the Manas-Sankosh-Tista-Ganga link, Kosi-Ghagra link,
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VISION IAS
Ghagra-Yamuna link, Sarda-Yamuna link, Yamuna-Rajasthan link, Rajastan-Sabarmati link, Chunar-Sone Barrage
link, Sone Dam Southern Tributaries of Ganga link, Ganga-Damodar-Subernarekha link, SubernarekhaMahanadi link, Kosi-Mechi link, Farakka-Sunderbans link, and Jogigopa-Tista-Farakka link
BENEFITS1) Greatly reduce the regional imbalance in the availability of water in different river basins. Surplus water
which flows waste to the sea would be fruitfully utilized. It is assessed that the inter-linking of rivers will
provide additional irrigation benefits to 35 million hectares (Mha) -25 Mha from surface water and an
additional 10 Mha from increased ground water recharge- which will be over and above the ultimate
irrigation potential of 140 Mha envisaged from the conventional irrigation projects.
2) Construction of storage dams as proposed will considerably reduce the severity of floods and the
resultant damages. The flood peaks are estimated to reduce by about 20 to 30 per cent in the Ganga and
Brahmaputra basins.
3) The benefits of drought mitigation from inter-basin water transfers will accrue to an area of about 25
lakh hectares in West Bengal, Bihar, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
4) Hydro power could also be generated on a massive scale by the storage dams proposed under the
interlinking of rivers. Hydro power development has not kept pace with the potential and requirement in
our country. Against a potential of 84,000 MW, only about 22,000 MW capacity for hydro power
generation has been developed so far. The storage dams proposed under interlinking of rivers will
greatly improve this situation. The total hydro power potential of the interlinking systems is estimated to
be 34,000 MW.
5) Most of the mega cities and urban centres in our country are already suffering from water shortages. A
major part of the future requirements of big cities will have to be met from long-distance inter-basin
transfer of water. In the link proposals under study, water supply to Mumbai and Delhi and many other
villages and habitations enroute the link canals are proposed to be raised.
ISSUES1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Very expensive
Possibility of extensive environmental and ecological damage
Problem of land-acquisition
Inter-state disputes
Maintenance problems & cost
Siltation of canals
RIVER WATER POLLUTIONMost of the Indian rivers and their tributaries viz., Ganges, Yamuna, Godavari, Krishna, Sone, Cauvery Damodar
and Brahmaputra are reported to be grossly polluted due to discharge of untreated sewage disposal and
industrial effluents directly into the rivers. These wastes usually contain a wide variety of organic and inorganic
pollutants including solvents, oils, grease, plastics, plasticizers, phenols, heavy metals, pesticides and suspended
solids. The indiscriminate dumping and release of wastes containing the above mentioned hazardous substances
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VISION IAS
into rivers might lead to environmental disturbance which could be considered as a potential source of stress to
biotic community.
As for example, River Ganges alone receives sewage of 29 class I cities situated on its banks and the industrial
effluents of about 300 small, medium, and big industrial units throughout its whole course of approximately
2525 kms. Identically Yamuna is another major river, has also been threatened with pollution in Delhi and
Ghaziabad area. Approximately 5,15,000 kilolitres of sewage waste water is reported to be discharged in the
river Yamuna daily. In addition, there arc about 1,500 medium and small industrial units which also contribute
huge amounts of untreated or partially treated effluent to the river Yamuna every day.
Similarly many other rivers were surveyed during past two decades with respect to their pollutional status. In
addition to domestic and industrial discharge into the rivers, there were continued surface run off of agricultural
areas, mines and even from cremation on the river banks. According to a report, over 32 thousand dead bodies
were cremated at the major burning Ghats per year in Varanasi alone in the year 1984.
IMPACT OF RIVER WATER POLLUTIONThe pollutants include oils, greases, plastics, plasticizers, metallic wastes, suspended solids, phenols, toxins,
acids, salts, dyes, cyanides, pesticides etc. Many of these pollutants are not easily susceptible to degradation and
thus cause serious pollution problems. Contamination of ground water and fish-kill episodes are the major
effects of the toxic discharges from industries. Discharge of untreated sewage and industrial effluents leads to
number of conspicuous effects on the river environment. The impact involves gross changes in water quality viz.
reduction in dissolved oxygen and reduction in light penetration thats tends loss in self-purification capability of
river water.
Environmental implications of the discharge of sewage and industrial effluents
Principal
environmental effect
S.N. Factor
Potential
consequences
ecological Remedial action
1.
High biochemical Reduction in dissolved Elimination of sensitive Pretreatment of

oxygen
demand oxygen
(DO) species, increase in some effluent, ensure
(BOD) caused by concentration
tolerant species; change in adequate dilution
bacterial
the community structure
breakdown
of
organic matter
2.
Partial
biodegradation of
proteins and other
nitrogenous
material
3.
Release
suspended
Elevated ammonia
Elimination of intolerant
concentration;
species,
reduction
in
increased nitrite and sensitive species
nitrate levels
Improved
treatment
to
ensure complete
nitrification;
nutrient stripping
possible
but
expensive
of Increased turbidity and Reduced photosynthesis of Provide improved

solid reduction
of
light submerge plants; abrasion settlement,
of gills or interference with insure adequate
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VISION IAS
matter
4.
penetration
Deposition
of Release of methane and
organic sludge in hydrogen as sulphide
matter
decomposes
slower water
anoxically, Modification
of
substratum
by
blanket of sludge
normal feeding behaviour
dilution
Elimination
of
normal
benthic community loss of
interstitial species; increase
in the species able to exploit
increased food source
Discharge where
velocity adequate
to
prevent
deposition
Other poisons
1.
Presence
poisonous
substances
of Change in water quality Water directly and acutely Increase dilution

toxic to some organisms,
causing
change
in
community
composition;
consequential effect on
pray- predator relation; sublethal effects on some
species
Inert solids
1.
Particles
suspension
in Increased
Possibly
abrasion
turbidity. Reduced photosynthesis of Improve

increased submerged plant. Impairing settlement
feeding ability through
reduced
vision
or
interference with collecting
mechanism of filter feeders
(e.g. reduction in nutritive
value
of
collected
material).Possible abrasion
2.
Deposition
material
of Blanketing
of
substratum, filing of
interstices
and/or
substrate instability
Change
in
benthic
community, reduction in
diversity ( increased number
of a few species)
Discharge where
velocity adequate
to
ensure
dispersion
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VISION IAS
RIVER CLEANSINGWater pollution has increased to such an extent that, rivers are being declared Dead. The part of Yamuna River
which flows through Delhi is declared as dead as no living organism can sustain in that environment. It is not the
case with only river Yamuna but many rivers in India needs quick attention.
India desperately needs strategies to manage its human waste. Out of 22,900MLD of waste-water generated in
the country, only about 5,900 MLD (about 26%) is treated before disposal. According to a survey by BORDA, a
NGO, out of the 3,119 big and small cities in India, only 217 (about 7%) have centralized sewage treatment
plants(STP). A closer analysis reveals that 73% of the STPs operate below their design capacity with 7% of them
being defunct. This clearly shows the failure of the centralized treatment plants.
METHODSWaste water should be treated before discharging it into the river
Capacity & quality of sewage treatment plants should be upgraded
Litter traps should be inserted at the mouth of waste water entering into the river so as to stop solid litter/waste
entering into the river
NRCA(National river conservation authority) had already started river specific programmes like Ganga actiona
plan,etc for the conservation of national rivers.
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VISION IAS
AGRICULTURE
TERMINOLOGIESAgriculture:- The art and science of cultivating soil, raising crops and rearing livestock including fishing and
forests.
Commercial Agriculture:- Farming in which farmer grows the crop with the aim of selling it in the market.
Cash Crops:- Cash crops are those which are grown by the farmers to sell in the market, eg., Tobacco and Cotton.
Dry Farming:- Dry farming is adopted in scanty rainfall areas. Such types of crops are grown which requires less
irrigation facilities.
Wet Land farming:- It is a type of farming which is practiced in high rainfall and irrigated areas. Eg., cultivation of
jowar and bajra.
Extensive Agriculture:- Agriculture in which the agriculturalist tries to get the greatest output by bringing more
and more new land areas under cultivation.
Fallow Land:- leaving the field free without growing a crop for recoupment of soil fertility. A breakthrough in
seen technology which has led to a considerable increase in agricultural production, especially in wheat as a
result of better inputs.
Horticulture:- Intensive cultivation of vegetables, fruits and flowers. It is an agricultural cropping season from
early June to October. Rice, millets, maize, jute, etc are some of the crops of the season.
Multiple Cropping:- When two or more than two crops are grown simultaneously on the same field.
Plantation Agriculture:- A large-scale farming of one crop resembling the factory production, based on capital
investment and application of modern science and technology in cultivating, processing and marketing the final
products.
Rabi Season:- It is an agricultural cropping season from November to May. Wheat, gram, and oilseeds are some
of the crops of the season.
Shifting Agriculture:- It is that type of agriculture in which farmers clear the forestland and use it for growing
crops. The crops are grown for 2 to 3 years. When the fertility of the soil decreases, the farmer shifts to a new
land.
Subsistence Agriculture:- Farming in which the main production is consumed by the farmers household.
Zaid Crops:- These are crops which are sown between the rabi and the kharif crops. Watermelon, muskmelon,
cucumber and vegetable are some examples of zaid crops.
Sericulture:- Rearing of silkworms for the production of silk fibre is known as sericulture.
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VISION IAS
Agriculture backbone of our economy

India is an agricultural economy where 58% of the people depend on agriculture.
Net sown area still accounts for about 47% of the total cultivable area of India.
It accounts for about 35% of our national income.
It provides food for the people and fodder for the animals.
Agriculture is the main source of raw materials to the agro-based industries.- sugar, textile, edible oil, etc
Agriculture provides market for many of the finished products.
Foreign exchange is earned through exports of agriculture-based produce.
Agriculture, being less capital-intensive, is of great importance as there is less capital for investment in India.
It helps in better distribution of income and wealth.
SALIENT FEATURES OF INDIAN AGRICULTURE
1. Dependence on monsoons:
always dependent on monsoons
- monsoons are unreliable- uncertain and irregular
- large scale irrigation serves only one third of crop area
- remaining has to suffer the vagaries of monsoon.
2. Variety of crops
Indias vast relief, varying climate and soil conditions produce a variety of crops.
Both tropical, subtropical and temperate crops like wheat, barley are grown.
3. Preponderance of Food crops
Has to feed large population
So preponderance of food crops over other crops in most important feature
More than 2/3rd of total cropped area is food crops
4. Seasonal Pattern
India 3 main crop seasons which are most influenced by the changing season.
a.KHARIF
b.RABI
c.ZAID
A.KHARIF SEASON: ground is prepared in April May and the seeds are sown in June on arrival of rain.
Harvest beginning of November
major crops of this season rice, maize, jowar, bajra, cotton, sesame, groundnut, pulses, jute
B. RABI SEASON: ground is prepared by end of October or beginning of November
harvesting in March
Major crops wheat, barley, jowar, gram, oil seeds, tobacco
C. ZAID SEASON: it is summer cropping season crops sown at the beginning of the hot season in February and
March and are harvested in the months of April and May
crops rice, maize,watermelons, groundnut, vegetables and fruits
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VISION IAS
Causes for backwardness of Indian Agriculture

Our farmers still follow old methods of cultivation.
Illiteracy and conservatism have come in the way of adopting scientific methods of cultivation.
In many parts of the country farmers are still tenants and have no security of tenancy.
Uneconomical holdings are a result of our laws of inheritance, but they adversely effect agriculture.
Rural indebtedness and non-availability of capital also act as hindrances.
Defective marketing and low prices have affected farming.
Over-dependence on monsoons
Overdependence of monsoon rainfall- erratic rainfall
Floods and droughts
Soil erosion
Small and fragmented land holding: common feature
intensive farming, increasing population, practice of dividing and subdividing land for inheritance irrigation,
wastage of labour, wastage of raised boundaries
Poor quality of seeds poor productivity
Lack of proper use of manure and Fertilizer
Reluctant to use modern scientific methods of cultivation
Most farmers do not own the land- belongs to absentee landlords who are indifferent to land improvements
Pests and diseases no protection farmers should be educated
Traditional upbringing most farmers do not believe in change stick to old method of farming very little
improvement
Excessive pressure on land
Low yield average yield of crops is lower than other countries
Unsound credit system and poverty of the farmers.
SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEMS1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
Irrigation- Drip, sprinkler.

Consolidation of Land Holdings
Soil Conservation
Modernisation of Agriculture- mechanization, hybrid seeds, fertilizer, pesticides.
Scientific farming (use of S&T in agriculture).
GREEN REVOLUTION during Fourth Five Year Plan period
Means to quick up trend change in agricultural production.
Able to export some of the food grains to other countries.
Under the INTENSIVE AGRICULTURE DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME (IADP), several measures were
adopted
AIMED at transforming the agriculture sector and increase the food crop production to meet the
increasing demand
Effort began in 1960
Introduced in 1967-68
Sponsored by INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH (ICAR) and an eminent agricultural
agronomist, NORMAN BORLAUG
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MEASURES ADOPTED:
1.Use of high yielding varieties (HYV) of seeds
2.Irrigation
3.Use of insecticides, pesticides
4.Consolidation of holdings
5.Land reforms
6.Rural electrification
7.Improved rural infrastructure
8.Supply of agricultural credit
9.Use of (chemicals) fertilizers
10.Opening of agricultural universities
Led to remarkable increase in productivity
Made India self-sufficient in food production
By 94-95 food production of food grains increased 4 times
Most remarkable in Punjab, Haryana, U.P.
How do the monsoons affect cultivation in India?

A major part of the cultivated lands in India is still dependent on monsoon rains which are uncertain , irregular,
and unevenly distributed. Sometimes crops get destroyed due to scanty rainfall and sometimes floods caused
due to heavy rainfall bring destruction to the crops.
What solutions are offered against irregular monsoons as far as farming is concerned?
Different solutions are offered against irregular monsoons which are as follows:
* Irrigation facilities are provided in many areas by constructing canals.
* Several dams have been constructed to check floods.
* Recently, the Government of India is planning to interconnect the rivers of India in order to divert the water of
flooded river to the water starved river.
Mention problems faced by the farmers on account of small land holdings. Or What is farm fragmentation?
How does it affect agriculture?
Owing to small land holdings the farmers face following problems:
i.Farmers are not interested in improving the land, to make it more fertile.
ii.They are not willing to use new method of new technology in such a small land.
iii.Being small and marginal farmers, they are not in position to use expensive high yielding seeds and
agricultural machines on their small holdings.
What is slash and burn agriculture? Mention its local names by mentioning the state or region.
Ans. Under the slash and burn agriculture farmers clear a patch of land, grow crops for some years on a patch of
land and then move to a new patch. Local names of the slash and burn agriculture are :1. Jhumming - Assam, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland
2 Pamlou - Manipur
3 Dipa - Chhattisgarh and Andaman and Nicobar Island.
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VISION IAS
Some new trends in the Indian agriculture.

i). There has been a gradual shift from cultivation of food crops to cultivation of fruits, vegetables, oil seeds, and
crops which act as industrial raw materials. This has led to the reduction in the net sown area under cereals,
millets and pulses.
ii). The success of the green revolution has mechanized the Indian agriculture.
iii). The farmers are also giving due attention to animal husbandry, and this has led to white revolution.
iv). To supplement their income farmers are also adopting pisciculture and horticulture.
Steps taken by the Indian government to modernize the Indian agriculture.
i). The government has established the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), agricultural universities,
animal breeding centres to carry research and development activities in agriculture
ii). The government is also investing in rural infrastructure to link the rural market with the international market.
iii). Kissan Credit Card, Personal and Crop Insurance schemes, etc, have been launched.
iv). A comprehensive land development programme has been launched.
DRYLAND AGRICULTUREThe areas which receive 370- 1130 mm of rainfall are known as dryland areas.
These regions are semi arid and arid regions. Dryland agriculture is entirely based on rainfall and includes
minimal use of chemicals, fertilizers etc. It contributes 40% of the food production and provide support to nearly
45% of the population. The crops like coarse cereals and pulses are generally grown in these areas which are
resistant to water stress.
Dryland agriculture face many problems like high risk in cropping, soil erosion, small holdings thus mechanisation
not possible, small holdings, 75% of farmers are poor thus cant afford costly inputs, socio-economic disparities.
The solution to these problems lies in improving soil health of this region by minimising soil erosion, watershed
development, introducing draught resistant hyv seeds, consolidation of land holdings & farm mechanisation,
organic farming, afforestation, Jatropha cultivation on utterly barren lands that cant be rejuvenated.
SOCIAL FORESTRYPeople oriented afforestation programme which aims at benefitting local community especially poorer and tribal
sections, for improvement of environment at large through community based tree plantation. Trees are grown
on public & community lands like along roadside, railways, canals, river banks, panchayat lands, barren and
wastelands,etc.
OBJECTIVES
-To relieve increase pressure on the traditional forests and expand the area under tree cover by massive people
oriented afforestation.
- To meet basic needs of local people, esp poor and landless, in respect of fuel, fodder, minor forest produce.
- Help in checking water and wind erosion by acting as shelter belts.
- Employment generation.
- Additional income generation.
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VISION IAS
AGRO FORESTRYIt is the practice where land is used for agriculture, forestry and animal husbandry at the same time.
It is agro- silvi- pastoral system.
Deforestation is recognised as an environmental problem, therefore, there is need for afforestation but land is
limited to grow forests, thus trees are grown within agricultural lands.
Benefits-Trees bind soil and acts as shelter belts thus check soil erosion.
- Deep roots of trees trap new nutrients and bring them close to the surface.
- Leguminous trees fix atmospheric nitrogen, thus improves fertility of the soil.
- Soil nutrient increases due to addition and deposition of leaf litter.
- Improvement of micro climate.
- Trees provide timber, food, fodder, fruits, shade, etc.
In region of shifting cultivation, agro forestry is the best way to restore land and ensure soil fertility.
ORGANIC FARMINGOrganic farming is the form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure,
compost and biological pest control to maintain soil productivity and control pests on a farm. Organic farming
excludes or strictly limits the use of manufactured fertilizers, pesticides (which include herbicides, insecticides
and fungicides), plant growth regulators such as hormones, livestock antibiotics, food additives, and genetically
modified organisms.
"Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils, ecosystems and people. It relies on
ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapted to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with
adverse effects. Organic agriculture combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared
environment and promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved.."
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements
AGRO- ECOLOGICAL/CLIMATIC ZONESCrop yield is the function of many factors like weather, soil type and its nutrient status, management practices
and other inputs available. Of these, weather plays an important role, probably more so in India where aberrant
weather such as drought, flood, etc., is a rule rather than an exception. Efficient crop planning, therefore,
requires proper understanding of agro-climatic conditions. This calls for collection, collation, analysis and
interpretation of long-term weather parameters available for each region to identify the length of the possible
cropping period taking into consideration the availability of water.
The agro-climatic zone planning aims at scientific management of regional resources to meet the food, fiber,
fodder and fuel wood without adversely affecting the status of natural resources and environment. While
assessing the resource base required is the holistic perspective, development will have to be achieved through
an appropriate mix of crop production and allied activities including horticulture, forestry, animal husbandry and
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VISION IAS
agro-processing etc. improved farming systems technologies will replace traditional crop production approach to
minimize regional variations in rural incomes.
With the 329 million hectares of the geographical area the country presents a large number of complex agroclimatic situations. However, for the purpose of this exercise, Planning Commission has delineated 15 agroclimatic regions which were proposed to form basis for agricultural planning for the Eighth Plan.
GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOOD The term GM foods or GMOs (genetically-modified organisms) is most commonly used to refer to crop plants
created for human or animal consumption using the latest molecular biology techniques. These plants have been
modified in the laboratory to enhance desired traits such as increased resistance to herbicides or improved
nutritional content. The enhancement of desired traits has traditionally been undertaken through breeding, but
conventional plant breeding methods can be very time consuming and are often not very accurate. Genetic
engineering, on the other hand, can create plants with the exact desired trait very rapidly and with great
accuracy.
Advantages of GM Foods-
Pest resistance
Herbicide resistance
Disease resistance
Cod tolerance
Draught tolerance
Salinity tolerance
Increased nutrition
Better flavour and colour
Early maturing
All year availability
Easy to store
Disadvantages-
Reduced effectiveness to pesticides
Gene transfer to non-target species.
Unknown effects on human health
Economic concerns
Playing with nature and its mechanisms.
Genetically-modified foods have the potential to solve many of the world's hunger and malnutrition problems,
and to help protect and preserve the environment by increasing yield and reducing reliance upon chemical
pesticides and herbicides. Yet there are many challenges ahead for governments, especially in the areas of safety
testing, regulation, international policy and food labeling. Many people feel that genetic engineering is the
inevitable wave of the future and that we cannot afford to ignore a technology that has such enormous potential
benefits. However, we must proceed with caution to avoid causing unintended harm to human health and the
environment as a result of our enthusiasm for this powerful technology.
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VISION IAS
INDUSTRIES
Industry refers
efers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods, extraction of minerals or the
provision of services.
The factors responsible for the location of industriesindustries
1. Availability of Raw Material
2. Power Resources
3. Availability of water
4. Labour
5. Transport Network
6. Availability of Market
7. Capital
8. Govt policies
THE NEED FOR INDUSTRIALISATION IN INDIA:

* To reduce dependence on the other countries and become self-sufficient.
self
* to maintain the balance of trade.
* to solvee the problem of unemployment .
* to accelerate the economic growth.
Industries pollute the environment-Rapid industrialisation for rapid economic development has raised various serious problems. It has actually
degraded the environment in a number of ways:
wa
* Emitting Harmful Effluents and Smoke into the Air:
For every industry one of the basic requirements is power and for that the factories use coal, mineral oil and gas
day in and day out. And thus they emit many harmful effluents and smoke into the air which leads to the
pollution of the air and degradation of the environment.
* Discharging Large Quantities of Chemical Waste and Garbage:
Almost all industries pollute the water as well by discharging large quantities of chemical wastes and garbage in
it or through it. This water sometimes gets poisonous and plays havoc wherever it goes.
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VISION IAS
* Leading to the Degradation of the Land:

Harmful effluents of factories and their chemical wastes do not spare the land as well. When polluted water
finds no outlet and begins to stagnate at a particular place, it renders such a land quite degraded and useless.
* Contaminating Underground Water:
When such contaminated water of factories is allowed to stagnate at a particular place for a longer period, it
slowly and slowly seeps through the earth and freely mixes with the underground water.
* ILL- effects of Industrial Slums on Environment:
Slums near the industrial areas also lead to environmental degradation. Generally, the workers build jhuggis near
and around the factories and within no time slum after slum comes into existence. The jhuggi dwellers defecate
in the open and pollute the whole environment.
* Rapid growth in Population ultimately leading to Degradation of Environment: Rapid industrialisation is directly
leading to rapid increase in population as with increase in living standard of the population and due to this rapid
increase in population pressure on resources is taking place which ultimately leads to the exploitation of the
resources and environment.
Steps to be taken to minimise environmental degradation by industry1. Use of Hydro-Electricity or Hydel Power: One of the major steps in this regard is that instead of using thermal
power which is prepared by the burning coal, mineral oil or gas, Hydel power should be used. Hydroelectricity is
both pollution free as well as an inexhaustible source of power. India has a large potential for Hydel power.
2. Use of Higher Quality Coal for Thermal Plants: It is suggested that if in any case, in certain areas, coal is to be
used in Thermal Plants to produce electricity, then only the higher quality coal should be used which emits less
smoke but gives more heat and produces more electricity.
3. Shifting of Factories out of Municipal Limits: All those factories which emit harmful effluents and smoke in the
air or those who discharge dirty water into nearly streams and rivers should be shifted out of the municipal limits
so that they do not pollute the air in the city areas.
4. Discharging dirty water after treating it: The dirty water of the factories must be first treated and then
discharged in the nearby streams and rivers.
5. Recycling of Water:It would be better if the factories make an arrangement for using their waste-water over
and over again after scientifically treating it.
6. Enacting Stringent Laws for checking Pollution and Degradation of the Environment: Those industrialists who
do not see reason must be fined heavily so that theydo not cause any concern either for the government or for
the innocent public.
7. Planting of Trees and Creating Mini-Forest Areas: Factory owners can be encouraged and even rewarded for
planting of trees in and around their factories. Such a measure would minimise both pollution and degradation
of the environment.
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VISION IAS
Advantages of decentralization of industries in India Employment opportunities are created in every region of the country.
Equitable distribution of national income is made possible.
it removes regional disparities in the industrialization of the country.
There is a check upon the concentration of population in certain parts of the country.
Cottage industries play an important role in the Indian economy- Cottage industries provide jobs to millions of people. Thus, these industries create not only creates jobs for
people, but also check their migration to urban areas.
- These industries can be started with low investment. Thus, these units help in earning additional income.
- Use of local raw material in these industries helps in the optimum utilization of national resources.
- Their products earn a lot of foreign exchange for the country.
- These industries generate seasonal as well as perennial employment for labour.
Thus cottage industries play significant role in our national economy
Why is sugar industry located in Uttar Pradesh?

Uttar Pradesh leads in the production of sugar. The reasons are:
RAW MATERIAL Uttar Pradesh is the home of sugarcane because it has a fertile soil, with tropical climate,
more than 100 cm rainfall , bright sunshine and irrigation facilities i.e. all the facilities essential for the growth of
sugarcane.
SUITABLE CLIMATE Sugarcane is a tropical crop and grows well in this part of India.
POWER: Electric power for running the mills is available in abundance.
LABOUR Cheap labour is locally available in Uttar Pradesh.
EXTENSIVE AREA Extensive area is put under the cultivation of sugarcane crop.
The sugar industry is now shifting from North to SouthThe sugar industry is now shifting from North to South because of the following reasonsThe sugar contents in the cane are higher. i.e. 10.5% in Maharashtra and other southern states.
South has better export facilities as compared to North.
Climate is also suitable for the cultivation of sugarcane.
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Challenges faced by cotton industry Fluctuations in the production of raw material: Production of cotton is uncertain. It fluctuates depending on
the climatic conditions. It makes the supply of raw material irregular.
Poor Quality of Cotton: Fine quality of cotton is not produced in India. For manufacturing fine and costly cloth,
we have toimport fine quality cotton from other countries.
The textile industry in our country had suffered badly for want of adequate and unfailing supply of Power. The
inadequacy of coal supplies had also affected the progress of the industry.
Competition in global market: The Indian cotton textile industry has been facing increasing competition in
world markets, especially from countries like Japan, Korea, the USA and Taiwan, both in cost and quality This is
largely due to low productivity and high cost and consequently high prices of Indian cotton textile.
Old and outdated machinery and need for modernization : Cotton textile industry is one of the oldest
industries of India. So it has a major problem of old and outdated machinery which are inefficient and , hence,
uneconomic.
Rivalry: Strikes, lock-outs and market rivalry have also made the industry sick.
The invention of synthetic as a substitute for cotton has resulted in the decline of cotton industry.
Why cotton textile industry is largely concentrated in Maharashtra/MumbaiCotton textile industry is largely concentrated in Maharashtra for the following reasons AVAIALBILITY OF RAW MATERIALS- Cotton is the basic input of cotton textile industry and Maharashtra is the
leading producer of cotton.
TRANSPORT AND EXPORT FACILITY Mumbai has excellent transportation network. It is also a port city and so
export facilities are available. Therefore through it, good quality cotton, machines and the raw material are
easily imported and finished products can be easily exported.
LABOUR AND MARKET Maharashtra has high density of population . So skilled and unskilled labour is easily
available. Due to high density of population, demand for the products is also high.
FAVOURABLE CLIMATE this region has equitable climate which ensures the production of cooton.
SOURCE OF POWER: The Western Ghats provide suitable conditions for the generation of cheap hydroelectricity required for this industry.
FINANCE: There is no dearth of financial and banking institutions to make available finances for the growth of
this industry.
Main problems faced by the Jute Industry in India*PROBLEMS OF RAW MATERIAL After independence most of the jute-producing areas went to Bangladesh
(erstwhile East Pakistan) resulting in acute shortage of raw jute. Although successful efforts have been made to
increase the supply of raw jute since independence, it still falls short of our current requirements.
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* INTERNATIONAL COMPETITION Our jute industry has to face a very tough competition from synthetic
packing materials of the advanced countries of Europe and North America. As such the market for jute goods has
shrunk. Indian Jute industry is facing very stiff competition from Bangladesh, Philippines, Japan and Brazil.
* LESS DEMAND Due to synthetic substitutes in domestic as well as international markets the overall demand
for jute products is gradually decreasing in the international market.
LABOUR UNREST: Labour unrest and strikes have further added problems for this industry
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TOURISM INDUSTRY
INDIAS TOURISM POTENTIAL- India is a multi-destination country with a variety of tourist attractions and
facilities. It is the second largest net foreign exchange earner by way of invisible exports. Tourism creates more
jobs than any other sector for every rupee invested. It has a major role in promoting large-scale employment
opportunities. Keeping this in view, it has been granted the status of an industry.
Tourist Attractions-
India is a country known for its lavish treatment to all visitors, no matter where they come from. Its visitorfriendly traditions, varied life styles and cultural heritage and colourful fairs and festivals held abiding attractions
for the tourists. The other attractions include beautiful beaches, forests and wild life and landscapes for ecotourism, snow, river and mountain peaks for adventure tourism, technological parks and science museums for
science tourism; centres of pilgrimage for spiritual tourism; heritage trains and hotels for heritage tourism. Yoga,
ayurveda and natural health resorts also attract tourists.
The Indian handicrafts particularly, jewellery, carpets, leather goods, ivory and brass work are the main shopping
items of foreign tourists. The estimates available through surveys indicate that nearly forty per cent of the
tourist expenditure on shopping is spent on such items.
Sight seeing- physiography- Himalayas, desert, rainforests, plateaus, grasslands, etc.

Taj-mahal- One of 7 wonders of the world
Pilgrimage tourism
Festival tourism
Medical tourism
Educational tourism
Pro-poor tourism
Rural tourism
Cultural tourism
Slum tourism
Wild-life tourism
Thrust Areas
In order to speed up the development of tourism in the country several thrust areas have been identified for
accomplishment during the Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002). The important ones are development of
infrastructure, products, trekking, winter sports, wildlife and beach resorts and streamlining of facilitation
procedures at airports, human resource development and facilitating private sector participation in the growth
of infrastructure.
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Organisation
The organisations involved in the development of tourism in India are the Ministry of Tourism with its 21 field
offices within the country and 18 abroad, Indian Institute of Tourism and Travel Management, National Council
for Hotel Management and Catering Technology, India Tourism Development Corporation, Indian Institute of
Skiing and Mountaineering and the National Institute of Water Sports.
Boosting Tourism
Some of the recent initiatives taken by the Government to boost tourism include grant of export house status to
the tourism sector and incentives for promoting private investment in the form of Income Tax exemptions,
interest subsidy and reduced import duty. The hotel and tourism-related industry has been declared a high
priority industry for foreign investment which entails automatic approval of direct investment up to 51 per cent
of foreign equity and allowing 100 per cent non-resident Indian investment and simplifying rules regarding the
grant of approval to travel agents, tour operators and tourist transport operators.
Constraints
The major constraint in the expansion of international tourist traffic to India is non-availability of adequate
infrastructure including adequate air seat capacity, accessibility to tourist destinations, accommodation and
trained manpower in sufficient number.
Poor visitor experience, particularly, due to inadequate infrastructural facilities, poor hygienic conditions and
incidents of touting and harassment of tourists in some places are factors that contribute to poor visitor
experience.
To sum up, Indian tourism has vast potential for generating employment and earning large sums of foreign
exchange besides giving a fillip to the country's overall economic and social development. Much has been
achieved by way of increasing air seat capacity, increasing trains and railway connectivity to important tourist
destinations, four-laning of roads connecting important tourist centres and increasing availability of
accommodation by adding heritage hotels to the hotel industry and encouraging paying guest accommodation.
But much more remains to be done. Since tourism is a multi-dimensional activity, and basically a service
industry, it would be necessary that all wings of the Central and State governments, private sector and voluntary
organisations become active partners in the endeavour to attain sustainable growth in tourism if India is to
become a world player in the tourist industry.
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Energy Resources
IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY RESOURCES:
Power is the main input for agriculture and industry.
Energy sources are the backbone of economic development .
The resources which are widely used and constitute the major source of energy are called conventional
resources of energy.
ENERGY
Conventional- Like coal, oil, natural gas,etc
RESOURCES-
Non- conventional- Solar, wind, tidal, geothermal, OTEC,etc.
Disadvantages of conventional sources of energy:- They are non-renewable.

- They are very costly.
- They cause pollution.
- Exhaustible.
NEED FOR CONSERVING CONVENTIONAL ENERGY RESOURCES Conventional sources of energy like coal, petroleum, gas, and wood are limited in supply and cannot be
renewed easily. Therefore they need to be conserved.
Due to population explosion, modernization and industrialization the demand for energy resources is
increasing day by day but the reserves of conventional resources are limited. This is leading to energy crisis. So
to avoid or to control energy crisis there is need to conserve conventional energy resources.
The present efficiency rate especially of thermal power station is very low. On the other hand demand is rising.
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Advantages of non- conventional sources of energy-
Renewable
Cheap
Pollution free
Inexhaustible.
National Grid ( NAT-GRID)Under national grid all the regional grids will be connected into a single grid to supply uninterrupted power to all
the regions during adverse conditions. Its objective is to ensure the optimum utilization of generating resources,
conservation of an eco-sensitive
sensitive right of way and the flexibility to accommodate the uncertainty of generation
plans.
ENERGY CRISISIt is a situation in which the production of resources is less as compared to demand. In the past few decades due
to high demand, there is shortage of energy resources, which has created energy crisis.
CAUSES-
Rapid Industrialisation
Over Population
Transfer losses
Rise in oil prices
Problems in Middle east.
Wastage of energy resources.
MEASURES TO CONSERVE ENERGY-
Crisis management- The energy should be used in a planned way so that these can be used in judicious
way.
Wastage of energy should be minimized.
Modern technology should be used for the exploitation
exploitatio of energy.
Alternative sources of energy should be explored.
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NUCLEAR ENERGYNuclear energy is the energy obtained from atomic minerals like uranium, thorium, zircon, beryllium and
limonite. These minerals provide colossal energy through a small quantity of substance.
Nuclear energy is very economical.

Nuclear energy does not produce green-house gases that pollute atmosphere.
It requires small proportion of minerals which can produce energy for a long period of time.
Nuclear power plants in IndiaKaiga- Karnataka

Kakrapara- Gujarat
Kalpakkam & Koodankulam- Tamil Nadu
Narora- UP
Rawatbhata & Banswara- Rajasthan
Tarapur- Maharashtra
Important nuclear raw materials & their availability in IndiaMost important nuclear raw material for nuclear power are minerals like thorium, uranium, and beryllium.
i. THORIUM Thorium mainly occurs in the form of thorianite, allanite and monazite. In India large reserves of
monazite are found. Deposits of monazite are found in the beach sands of Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
and Orissa.
ii. URANIUM It occurs mainly in Bihar, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Uttarkhand, Chattisgarh and in the ilmenite beach
sands in Kerala.
iii. BERYLLIUM- It is obtained from beryl, which is found in association with Felspar and Mica. Beryllium is found
in Bihar, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir and Sikkim.
iv. ZIRCONIUM- Its chief ore is zircon which is mainly associated with igneous rocks. It is found in Bihar and Tamil
Nadu.
Chief limitations of nuclear powerSAFETY All types of nuclear installations have an element of risk of leaking radioactive wastes which are
harmful to all living beings.
WASTE MANAGEMENT Nuclear installations take precautions for the disposal of the waste material or for its
utilization. However, the discharge of radioactivity in the atmosphere remains the greatest danger. Even in
advanced countries radioactive wastes are dumped in geological formations. These wastes through are
immobilized, contaminate underground water oceans and even the air.
THERMAL POLLUTION: This happens through discharge of coolants like heavy water.
NUCLEAR DISASTER : Construction of nuclear power plant can cause a nuclear disaster if it is not administered
properly.
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GEO THERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy refers to the heat and electricity produced by using the heat from the interior of the Earth.
Geothermal energy exists because, the Earth grows progressively hotter with increasing depth. Where the
geothermal gradient is high, high temperatures are found at shallow depths. Groundwater in such areas absorbs
heat from the rocks and becomes hot. It is so hot that when it rises to the earths surface, it turns into steam.
This steam is used to drive turbines and generate electricity. There are several hundred hot springs in India,
which could be used to generate electricity. Two experimental projects have been set up in India to harness
geothermal energy. One is located in the Parvati valley near Manikarn in Himachal Pradesh and the other is
located in the Puga Valley, Ladakh.
BIOGAS
It is energy gas which is produced from organic waste such as farm waste, shrubs, animal and human waste
which is converted into energy by direct combustion or by conversion of such wastages into alcohol, methane, or
other storage fuels.
Biogas plant provides pollution-free energy.
It is cheaper than most of the common fuels.
The residue can be used as manure.
. It has higher thermal efficiency in comparison to kerosene, cow dung, coal and charcoal.
SOLAR ENERGY
India is a tropical country. It has enormous possibilities of tapping solar energy. Photovoltaic technology converts
sunlight directly into electricity. Solar energy is fast becoming popular in rural and remote areas. India has
already made progress in the use of solar energy for daily requiremennts. It is a equi-stable energy and can
rightly be called the energy of the future, because it is an inexhaustible source of energy. The largest solar plant
of India is located at Madhavpur, near Bhuj, where solar energy is used to sterilise milk cans. It is expected that
use of solar energy will be able to minimise the dependence of rural households on firewood and dung cakes,
which in turn will contribute to environmental conservation and adequate supply of manure in agriculture. Solar
station at Baramer in Rajasthan was set up to produce large quantities of solar energy.
Solar energy is used as a source of electricity in villages. It is also used in railway signals, lift irrigation and for
communication media. Solar cookers and solar heaters are very popular. It is also used in desalination of water
and drying of grains.
WIND ENERGYIndia now ranks as a wind super power in the world. The largest wind farm cluster is located in Tamil Nadu
from Nagarcoil to Madurai. Apart from these, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharashtra and
Lakshadweep have important wind farms. Nagercoil and Jaisalmer are well known for effective use of wind
energy in the country.
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TIDAL ENERGYOceanic tides can be used to generate electricity. Floodgate dams are built across inlets. During high tide water
flows into the inlet and gets trapped when the gate is closed. After the tide falls outside the flood gate, the
water retained by the floodgate flows back to the sea via a pipe that carries it through a power-generating
turbine. In India, the Gulf of Kuchchh, provides ideal conditions for utilising tidal energy. A 900mw tidal energy
power
plant
is
set
up
here
by
the
National
Hydropower
Corporation.
OTECOcean thermal energy conversion (OTEC) uses the difference between cooler deep and warmer shallow or
surface ocean waters to run a heat engine and produce useful work, usually in the form of electricity. It is
planned to construct a pilot floating OTEC plant with a rating of 1MW gross off the coast of India
BIOFUELSBiofuels(bio-ethanol & bio-diesel) are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass. The
term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases.Biofuels are gaining increased public and scientific
attention, driven by factors such as oil price spikes, the need for increased energy security, concern over
greenhouse gas emissions from fossil fuels, and government subsidies. Biofuel development in India centers
mainly around the cultivation and processing of Jatropha plant seeds which are very rich in oil (40%).
Jatropha incentives in India is a part of India's goal to achieve energy independence by the year 2012. Jatropha
oil is produced from the seeds of the Jatropha curcas, a plant that can grow in wastelands across India, and the
oil is considered to be an excellent source of bio-diesel. India is keen on reducing its dependence on coal and
petroleum to meet its increasing energy demand and encouraging Jatropha cultivation is a crucial component of
its energy policy.
Large plots of waste land have been selected for Jatropha cultivation and will provide much needed employment
to the rural poor of India. Businesses are also seeing the planting of Jatropha as a good business opportunity.
The Government of India has identified 400,000 square kilometres (98 million acres) of land where Jatropha can
be grown, hoping it will replace 20% of India's diesel consumption by 2011.
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POPULATION- Statistics, Problems & SolutionsIndia is currently home to about 1.21 billion people, representing a full 17% of the earths population. India's
2011 census showed that the country's population had grown by 181 million people in the prior decade.
PATTERNS OF POPULATION DISTRIBUTION IN INDIAUneven distribution of population in India suggests a close relationship between population and physical,
socioeconomic and historical factors.
a. Physical factors such as Climate, Terrain and Availability of water influenced and determined the pattern of
the population distribution.
Example 1: the North Indian Plains, deltas and Coastal Plains have higher proportion of population because they
have climate suitable for agriculture and fertile plains.
ii. Example 2: Mountainous and forested regions of southern and central Indian States, Himalayan states, and
some of the north-eastern states are less populated.
iii. Example 3: Development of irrigation (Rajasthan), availability of mineral and energy resources (Jharkhand)
and development of transport network (Peninsular States) have resulted in moderate to high proportion of
population.
b. Socio-economic and historical factors also influence and determine the distribution of population of India.
i. Example 1: Traditional settled agriculture and early human settlement has resulted in large population in the
river plains and coastal areas of India.
ii. Example 2: Development of transport and better agricultural development has resulted in large population in
North Plains.
c. The industrialization and urbanization also influenced the distribution of population.
i. Example 1: The urban regions of Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Bangalore, etc. have high concentration of population
due to industrial development and urbanization. A large numbers of rural-urban migrants come to these towns.
FOUR DISTINCT PHASES OF GROWTH OF INDIAN POPULATIONPhase I:
a. The period from 1901-1921 is referred to as a period of stagnant or stationary phase of growth of Indias
population
b. In this period growth rate was very low, even recording a negative growth rate during 1911-1921.
c. Both the birth rate and death rate were high keeping the rate of increase low.
d. Poor health and medical services, illiteracy of people at large and inefficient distribution system of food and
other basic necessities were largely responsible for a high birth and death rates in this period.
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Phase II:
a. The decades 1921-1951 are referred to as the period of steady population growth.
b. An overall improvement in health and sanitation throughout the country brought down the mortality rate.
c. At the same time better transport and communication system improved distribution system.
d. The crude birth rate remained high in this period leading to higher growth rate than the previous phase.
Phase III:
a. The decades 1951-1981 are referred to as the period of population explosion in India,
b. It was caused by a rapid fall in the death rate but a high birth rate.
c. The average annual growth rate was as high as 2.2 per cent.
d. High birth rate was due to developmental activities and growing economy which improved living condition of
people.
e. Beside it, due to increased international immigration from Tibet, Bangladesh, Nepal and Pakistan growth rate
was high.
Phase IV:
a. After 1981 till present, the growth rate has started slowing down gradually.
b. It is due to decline in crude birth rate.
c. It is also due to an increase in the mean age at marriage, improved quality of life particularly education of
females in the country.
FOUR LANGUAGE FAMILIES OF INDIAa. Austric (Nishada)
b. Dravidian (Dravida)
c. Sino-Tibetan (Kirata)
d. Indo European (Aryan)
Among the four families Indo-European (Aryan) are spoken largest in India.
Four states in which this language is spoken are
a) Jammu & Kashmir, b) Punjab, c) Himachal Pradesh, d) U.P., e) Rajasthan,
f) Haryana.
Religious composition of the population of Indiaa. Hindus
i. Hindus are dominant in many states such as Haryana, HP, UP.
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ii. They are less in the states along Sikkim, Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, and Mizoram.
b. Muslims
i. Muslims are the largest religious minority in India.
ii. They are in majority in Jammu & Kashmir, some districts of West Bengal and Kerala, Uttar Pradesh, in and
around Delhi and in Lakshadweep.
c. Christian
i. They are distributed mostly in rural areas of the country.
ii. The main concentration is in the Western coast around Goa,
Kerala and also in the hill states of Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, and Hills of Manipur.
d. Sikhs
i. They are mostly concentrated in relatively small area of the country, particularly in the states of Punjab,
Haryana and Delhi.
e. Jains and Buddhists
i. Jains are the smallest religious groups in India.
ii. They are concentrated only in the urban areas of Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra.
iii. Buddhists are concentrated mostly in Maharashtra. The other areas of Buddhist majority are Sikkim,
Arunachal Pradesh, and Ladakh.
f. The other religions of India include Zoroastrians, tribal and other indigenous faiths and beliefs. These groups
are concentrated in small pockets scattered throughout the country.
POPULATION PROBLEMS IN INDIAPopulation in itself is NOT the problem. Lack of basic education and poor economic conditions are!
- Unemployment, Poverty, Migration, Urbanization problems, regional disparities, etc
Following are the adverse effects of population growth on the Indian Economy: 1. Adverse effects on savings
2. Unproductive investment
3. Slow growth of Per Capita Income
4. Underutilization of labour
5. Growing pressure on land
6. Adverse effect on quality of population and
7. Adverse social impact
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DISTRESSED MIGRATION AND URBAN CRISIS IN INDIA1. Poverty-Induced Migration and Crucial Urban CrisisMassive distressed migration of people from villages to metropolises and problems of unbalanced
urbanization and extreme urban decay in India. First, masses of the poor, landless, illiterate and unskilled
agricultural laborers and petty farmers from backward states of such countries make quantum jumps
towards big metropolises like Calcutta, Bombay, Delhi, Madras, and so forth, bypassing local small towns and
small cities -- which fail to give them even minimumemployment. Such massive rural to metropolitan
migration of distressed people is a typical characteristic of migration in India, which is leading to acute urban
involution, congestion and decay. Proliferation of filthy urban slums and pavement dwelling, extreme
squalor and very poor level of living characterize such metros. Because such metropolises have failed to
provide to migrants and residents with minimum shelter and minimum subsistence employment. Overflow
of urban poverty, unemployment, extreme housing shortages, and frequent breakdowns of essential urban
services (like water, electricity, sewerage, transport) are visible everywhere in such metropolises.
Secondly, such phenomena are occurring because the metropolises of many such countries have very limited
employment-generating capacity under capital-intensive industrialization, and consequently, the incoming
illiterate and unskilled migrants are absorbed only in very poorly paid urban informal sectors; that are
characterized by low productivity, cut-throat competition, insecurity and exploitation. It leads to a colossal
waste of human resources and of national potential. So the migrants are in fact moving from rural poverty to
urban poverty.
Thirdly, as a result, such metropolises also became very much involuted, not evoluted; i.e., they grew merely
in population, not in prosperity.
Fourthly, such metropolises are very fast becoming the scenes of extreme social and economic inequalities
wherein abundant affluence among a handful few stand hanging and over-looking abject poverty among the
masses down below. These kinds of situations may create a dangerously eruptive situation -- which is
conducive to unleash in the near future extreme social disorder, severe class conflict, crimes, widespread
violence and urban civil war.
2. Acute Urban Environmental DegradationShortage of housing, water, electricity, etc- Problem of squatter settlements and slums, worsening water
quality, excessive air pollution, noise pollution, heat, problem of disposal of solid waste, hazardous waste,
etc.
3. Nature of Low Quality Migration in Indian Mega CitiesEducational status and occupational status of large number of migrants is below average.
TRIBES OF INDIAThey comprise a substantial indigenous minority of the population of India and claim to be the aboriginal
population of India.
Adivasi societies are particularly present in the Indian states of Kerala, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh,
Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Mizoram and other
northeastern states, and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Many smaller tribal groups are quite sensitive to
ecological degradation caused by modernization. Both commercial forestry and intensive agriculture have
proved destructive to the forests that had endured swidden agriculture for many centuries. Officially recognized
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by the Indian government as "Scheduled Tribes" in the Fifth Schedule of the Constitution of India, they are often
grouped together with scheduled castes in the category "Scheduled Castes and Tribes", which is eligible for
certain affirmative action measures.
The Constitution of India, Article 366 (25) defines Scheduled Tribes as "such tribes or tribal communities or part
of or groups within such tribes or tribal communities as are deemed under Article 342 to the scheduled Tribes
(STs) for the purposes of this Constitution". In Article 342, the procedure to be followed for specification of a
scheduled tribe is prescribed. However, it does not contain the criterion for the specification of any community
as scheduled tribe. An often used criterion is based on attributes such as:
Geographical isolation - they live in cloistered, exclusive, remote and inhospitable areas such as hills and
forests.
Backwardness - their livelihood is based on primitive agriculture, a low-value closed economy with a low
level of technology that leads to their poverty. They have low levels of literacy and health.
Distinctive culture, language and religion - communities have developed their own distinctive culture,
language and religion.
Shyness of contact they have a marginal degree of contact with other cultures and people
Geographical overviewTribal peoples constitute 8.2% of the nation's total population, over 84 million people according to the 2001
census. One concentration lives in a belt along the Himalayas stretching through Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, and Uttarakhand in the west, to Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram, Manipur,
and Nagaland in the northeast. In the northeastern states of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and
Nagaland, more than 90% of the population is tribal. However, in the remaining northeast states of Assam,
Manipur, Sikkim, and Tripura, tribal peoples form between 20 and 30% of the population.
Another concentration lives in the hilly areas of central India (Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and, to a
lesser extent, Andhra Pradesh); in this belt, which is bounded by the Narmada River to the north and the
Godavari River to the southeast, tribal peoples occupy the slopes of the region's mountains. Other tribals,
including the Santals, live in Jharkhand and West Bengal. Central Indian states have the country's largest tribes,
and, taken as a whole, roughly 75% of the total tribal population live there, although the tribal population there
accounts for only around 10% of the region's total population.
There are smaller numbers of tribal people in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala in south India; in western India
in Gujarat and Rajasthan, and in the union territories of Lakshadweep and the Andaman Islands and Nicobar
Islands. About one percent of the populations of Kerala and Tamil Nadu are tribal, whereas about six percent in
Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka are members of tribes.
Problems of Tribal people-
Poverty
Illiteracy
Dependence on forests
Unemployment
Malnutrition & other health related problems
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Excessive discrimination & Misery

Problem of land Alienation
Indebtedness
Bonded labour
And now a days, The large development projects undertaken by the government also encroaches upon their
land. Large scale displacements and unsatisfactory compensation and rehabilitation are common place, leading
to further backwardness and seclusion. Because of their diversity they lack a common voice to bargain
collectively.
Impact assessment1. Landlessness: Expropriation of land removes the main foundation upon which people's productive
systems, commercial activities, and livelihoods are constructed.
2. Joblessness: The risk of losing wage employment is very high both in urban and rural displacements for
those employed in enterprises, services or agriculture. Yet creating new jobs is difficult and requires
substantial investment.
3. Homelessness. Loss of shelter tends to be only temporary for many people being resettled; but, for
some, homelessness or a worsening in their housing standards remains a lingering condition. In a
broader cultural sense, loss of a family's individual home and the loss of a group's cultural space tend to
result in alienation and status deprivation.
4. Marginalisation. Marginalisation occurs when families lose economic power and spiral on a downward
mobility path. Many individuals cannot use their earlier-acquired skills at the new location; human
capital is lost or rendered inactive or obsolete. Economic marginalisation is often accompanied by social
and psychological marginalisation.
5. Food Insecurity. Forced uprooting increases the risk that people will fall into temporary or chronic
undernourishment, defined as calorie-protein intake levels below the minimum necessary for normal
growth and work.
6. Increased Morbidity and Mortality. Displacement-induced social stress and psychological trauma, the
use of unsafe water supply and improvised sewage systems, increase vulnerability to epidemics and
chronic diarrhoea, dysentery, or particularly parasitic and vector-borne diseases such as malaria and
schistosomiasis.
7. Loss of Access to Common Property. For poor people, loss of access to the common property assets that
belonged to relocated communities (pastures, forest lands, water bodies, burial grounds, quarries and so
on) result in significant deterioration in income and livelihood levels.
8. Social Disintegration. Displacement causes a profound unravelling of existing patterns of social
organisation. This unravelling occurs at many levels. When people are forcibly moved, production
systems, life-sustaining informal networks, trade linkages, etc are dismantled.
SolutionsDevelopment induced proper resettlement & rehabilitation.
(and reverse all steps in given in problems)
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Census,2011- Basic statistics

Census 2011- 15th Indian national census In 2011 first time biometric info is collected.
Provisional data released on 31st march, 2011.. complete data will be available by 2012
Population
Literacy
Total
1,210,193,422
Males
623,724,248
Females
586,469,174
Total
74.04%
Males
82.14%
Females
65.46%
Density of population per sq. km

Sex ratio
382
per 1000 males 940 females
Population increased by 181 million since 2001.

India with 2.4% of the world's surface area accounts for 17.5 % of its population. UP is the most populous state
with roughly 200 million people.
population - 1.2102 bn(17.5% 0f world population), 623.7 million males and 586.5 million females, making it
more populous than Indonesia, the United States, Brazil, Pakistan and Bangladesh combined.
Growth of Population- Highest- Meghalaya(27.8), Lowest Nagaland(-0.5)- 2011- negative growth
Most populous- UP..(UT- Delhi), Least populous- Sikkim( UT- Lakshdweep)
Child population(0-6 years).. In 2001- 163.8 million, In 2011- 158.8 million this reduction is an indicative of fall
in fertility, which is a positive sign
Sex ratio- 940/1000 (2011).. highest since 1971.. in 2001- 933/1000.
China- 926, pak- 943, bdesh- 978, sri lanka- 1034, Nepal- 1014
Highest- 2001- kerela(1058).2011- kerela(1084)..UT- puducherry(1038)
Lowest- 2001- Haryana(861).2011- Haryana(877).UT- Dadra and nagar(775)
Child sex ratio- 914(2011)927(2001)
2001- Lowest- Punjab(798). Highest- Meghalaya(973)
2011- Highest- Mizoram(971).. Lowest Haryana(830).. Haryana in 2001 had 819.. Punjab now have 848.
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Literacy- 74% (2011) as compared to 65%(2001)

Male- 82.14, female- 65.46
Highest literacy- kerela(93.91%) > Lakshadweep(92.28%) > Mizoram(91.58%)
Lowest- Bihar (63.82%)
Female literacy- highest- kerela, lowest- rajasthan
Male literacy- highest- Lakshadweep, lowest- Bihar
Density of population
Gone up- 382(2011) from 325(2001)
Highest- Delhi Bihar(1102) > w.bengal> Kerela > UP( 4th with density- 828{2011}.. from 690{2001}
Lowest- A & N.. arunachal Pradesh(17)
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General geographical terminologies & other Issues

GEOSYNCLINESLinear trough of subsidence of the Earth's crust, in which vast amounts of sediment accumulate. The filling of a
geosyncline with thousands or tens of thousands of feet of sediment is accompanied by folding, crumpling, and
faulting of the deposits. Intrusion of crystalline igneous rock and regional uplift complete the transformation into
a belt of folded mountains. The concept was introduced by James Hall in 1859 and is basic to the theory of
mountain building. Eg- Tethys sea was a geosyncline.
CONTINENTAL DRIFTIn 1915, the German geologist and meteorologist Alfred Wegener first proposed the theory of continental drift,
which states that parts of the Earth's crust slowly drift atop a liquid core(precisely asthenosphere). The fossil
record supports and gives credence to the theories of continental drift and plate tectonics. Wegener
hypothesized that there was a gigantic supercontinent 200 million years ago, which he named Pangaea, meaning
"All-earth". Pangaea started to break up into two smaller supercontinents, called Laurasia and Gondwanaland,
during the Jurassic period. By the end of the Cretaceous period, the continents were separating into land masses
that look like our modern-day continents.
ISOSTASYIsostasy is a geophysical phenomenon describing the force of gravity acting on crustal materials of various
densities (mass per unit volume) that affects the relative floatation of crustal plates. Isostasy specifically
describes the naturally occurring balance of mass in Earth's crust. It is not a process or a force. It is simply a
natural adjustment or balance maintained by blocks of crust of different mass or density. Isostasy describes
vertical movement of land to maintain a balanced crust. It does not explain or include horizontal movements like
the compression or folding of rock into mountain ranges.
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PLATE TECTONICSEarth's lithosphere (the crust and upper mantle) is divided into a number of large, platelike sections that move
as distinct masses. The movement of the plates is believed to result from the presence of large convection cells
in the Earth's mantle which allow the rigid plates to move over the relatively plastic asthenosphere. The
lithosphere essentially "floats" on the asthenosphere and is broken-up into seven major plates: African,
Antarctic, Australian, Eurasian,North American, South American, and the Pacific. These plates (and the more
numerous minor plates) move in relation to one another at one of three types of plate boundaries; Convergent
(two plates push against one another), Divergent (two plates move away from each other), and transform (two
plates slide past one another). Earthquakes, volcanic activity, mountain-building, and oceanic trench formation
occur along plate boundaries (most notably around the so-called "Pacific Ring of Fire").
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SEA FLOOR SPREADINGSea-floor

floor spreading is the process in which the ocean floor is extended when two plates move apart. As the
plates move apart, the rocks break and form a crack between the plates. Earthquakes occur along the plate
boundary. Magma rises through the cracks and seeps out onto the ocean floor like a long, thin, undersea
volcano. As magma meets the water, it cools and solidifies, adding to the edges of the sideways-moving
sideways
plates.
As magma piles up along the crack, a long chain of mountains forms gradually on the ocean floor. This chain is
called an oceanic ridge. The boundaries where the plates move apart are 'constructive' because new crust is
being formed and added to the ocean floor. The ocean floor gradually extends and thus the size of these plates
increases. As these plates get bigger, others become smaller as they melt back into the Earth in the process
called subduction.
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WINDSOn the earths surface, certain winds blow constantly in a particular direction throughout the year. These are
known as the Prevailing Winds. They are also called the Permanent or the Planetary Winds. Certain winds blow
in one direction in one season and in the opposite direction in another. They are known as Periodic Winds. Then,
there are Local Winds in different parts of the world.
Planetary Or Permanent Winds
The planetary wind system of the world accompanies the presence of the High and Low-Pressure Belts. We know
that winds tend to blow from the high-pressure centres to the low-pressure centres. The effect of the earths
rotation (Coriolis Force) tends to deflect the direction of these winds. The deflection in the direction of these
winds take place according to Ferrels Law. Two sets of surface winds, the Trades and the Westerlies are the
main planetary winds of the world.
Trade Winds
North and South of the Equatorial Belt of Calms, are the Trade Winds covering roughly the zone lying between 5
and 30 North and South. In other words they cover almost the entire area between 30N and 30S latitudes on
both sides of the equator. The Trade Winds are a result of a pressure gradient from the Sub-Tropical Belt of High
Pressure to the Equatorial Belt of Low Pressure. In the Northern Hemisphere, the wind moving equatorward, is
deflected by the earths rotation to flow south-westward. Thus, the prevailing wind there is from the North-East,
and it has been named as the North-East Trades. In the Southern Hemisphere, deflection of the wind is towards
the left, this causes the South-East Trades. Trade Winds are noted for their steadiness and persistent direction.
But the system of Doldrums and trades shifts seasonally north and south, through several degrees of latitudes,
as do the pressure belts that causes them. The trades are best developed over the Pacific and the Atlantic
Oceans, but are upset in the Indian Ocean because of nearness of the great Asian landmass. They are named
after the Latin word trado which means blowing steadily in a constant direction; hence, the name Trade Winds.
As these Trade Winds blow from the warmer, sub-tropical latitudes to the hot tropics, they have a great capacity
for holding water-vapour or moisture. When they cross the open oceans, they pick up a lot of moisture. They
bring heavy rainfall to the eastern coasts of continents lying within the tropics because they blow on-shore. On
the western coasts of continents, these Trade Winds do not bring any rainfall. It is because here there are offshore winds or winds blowing just parallel to the shores, as they blow off-shore. As such, the western areas
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within the tropics suffer from aridity. The great deserts of the Sahara, Kalahari, Atacama and the Great
Australian Deserts all lie on the western margins of the continents, lying within the tropical latitudes.
Westerlies
The Westerlies or the Prevailing Westerly Winds blow between 35 and 60 North and South latitudes from the
Sub-Tropical High-Pressure Belts towards the Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belts. We know that the high-pressure belt
is a zone of divergence for these outgoing winds. In the Northern Hemisphere, the Westerlies generally blow
from the south-west to the north-east, and in the Southern Hemisphere from the north-west to the south-east.
These are on-shore winds on the west coasts and off-shore winds on their east coasts. The on-shore winds bring
rainfall while the off-shore winds are lacking in it. These winds are not as constant in strength and direction as
the Trade Winds. They are rather stormy and variable though the main direction remains from west to east. But
as their general direction is from the west, they are called the Westerlies. They are also known as Anti-Trade
Winds, because their movement is in the opposite direction from that of the Trade Winds. In the Northern
Hemisphere, land-masses cause considerable disruption in the westerly winds. But in the Southern Hemisphere,
between 40S and 60S, the westerlies gain great strength and persistence because of the vast expanse of
oceans in their belt. This made the mariners of old call them the Roaring Forties, the Furious Fifties and the
Screaming Sixties. In olden days, sailing vessels had to face great danger while sailing in the opposite direction
in the face of the prevailing westerly winds. It is to be rioted that the westerlies bring warmth and rainfall
throughout the year to all the western coasts of the Temperate Zone. But the areas, which lies in the
Mediterranean type of region, get rainfall only in winter. At that time, in December, the Mediterranean parts of
Europe and California (U.S.A.) come under the influence of the westerlies and receive rainfall. In the Southern
Hemisphere, in this month, the Mediterranean regions (Central Chile, Southern Africa, S.W. Australian coast) do
not receive any rainfall, as they shift away from the influence of the westerlies. In June, the Mediterranean parts
of the southern continents come under the influence of the westerlies and receive rainfall. At that time, the
Mediterranean areas of the Northern Hemisphere do not receive any rainfall from the westerlies, because they
shift away from their influence.
Polar Winds
The winds blowing in the Arctic and the Antarctic latitudes are known as the Polar Winds. They have been
termed the Polar Easterlies, as they blow from the Polar High Pressure Centres towards the Sub-Polar LowPressure Belts. In the Northern Hemisphere, they blow in general from the north-east, and are called the NorthEast Polar Winds; and in the Southern Hemisphere, they blow from the south-east and are called the South-East
Polar Winds. As these winds blow from the ice-capped landmass, they are extremely cold. They are more regular
in the Southern Hemisphere than in the Northern Hemisphere.
Periodic Winds/Local windsLand and sea breezes, Mountain and valley breezes and monsoon winds are winds of a periodic type.
See Breeze
During the day, the greater heating of the land causes the air to ascend, causing a low pressure over land and
the cool heavy air from the sea moves in to take its place. The strength of the sea breeze depends on the
topography of the coast and the regions.
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Land Breeze
During the night the land cools quickly so that it is colder than the sea. A low pressure area is caused over the
sea and the cooler heavier air from the land begins to flow towards the sea. The general effect of the contrast in
heating of land and sea is to produce cooler winters and warmer summers in the centres of continents than
along coasts.
Mountain and Valley Breezes
Mountain and valley breezes are common in regions with great topographic relief. A valley breeze develops
during the day as the Sun heats the land surface and air at the valley bottom and sides . As the air heats it
becomes less dense and buoyant and begins to flow gently up the valley sides. Vertical ascent of the air rising
along the sides of the mountain is usually limited by the presence of a temperature inversion layer. When the
ascending air currents encounter the inversion they are forced to move horizontally and then back down to the
valley floor. This creates a self-contained circulation system. If conditions are right, the rising air can condense
and form into cumuliform clouds.
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JET STREAMSA jet stream is a band of fast-moving air high in the Earth's atmosphere that affects weather patterns,
temperatures and air travel. Jet streams are used to forecast the weather because they act as a steering
mechanism for storms and other weather fronts.
Jet streams move around the Earth in a narrow band. They are created by the difference in temperatures
between two air masses, usually cold polar air and warm tropical air. The temperature variance creates gradients
in air pressure, which in turn affects the strength of the winds in the jet stream. The greater the variance, the
greater the wind speed. Jet stream winds normally are 100 to 200 mph but can reach speeds as high as 300 mph.
FRONTOGENESIS & FRONTOLYSISFrontogenesis- evolution of a front

Frontolysis- Decay of a front
Frontogenesis is the formation of a weather front as a result of contact between two different air masses,
usually with resultant clouds and precipitation.
Frontolysis is the process that tends to destroy a weather front, as by mixture of the frontal air.
URBAN CLIMATEUrbanization has a significant impact on all elements of the atmosphere. Replacing natural vegetation with
artificial surfaces alters the heat balance and hydrology of the local environment. Urban canyons affect wind
speed and increased particulate content enhances precipitation down wind of a city.
The concentration of human activities in urban areas creates an "island" of heat surrounded by a "sea" of cooler
rural areas called the urban heat island. Heat is added to the urban atmosphere by industry, transportation,
exhaust heat, and air conditioning among other things. Artificial surfaces with low albedo absorb much
insolation, heating the surface more than if it were a natural surface like grass. The additional heat can create
differences in air temperature between the city and countryside of 10o C (18o F) or more. Consequently, snow
disappears earlier and vegetation bloom earlier in the city. Sunlight is trapped within the "urban canyon" by
reflective surfaces. Building materials like brick and asphalt have high heat conductivity. Heat loss in the evening
can compensate for that which has been gained during the day. The warm city surface induces convection that
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draws urban air upwards, which is then replaced by cool air from the countryside. This rural-urban circulation is
more likely to occur when synoptic-scale winds are light. The rising air transports dust and other particulates
upward, gathering as a dust dome. If synoptic-scale winds are strong enough, the pollutants spill over the city
boundary and stretch downwind over the countryside as a pollution plume. Particulates concentrated in the
urban atmosphere serve as nuclei for the condensation of water. Several studies have shown how precipitation
is enhanced downwind of an urban area due to increased particulate content from urban sources.
ECO-TOURISMEcotourism is: "Responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the well-being
of local people."
Principles of Ecotourism:Ecotourism is about uniting conservation, communities, and sustainable travel. This means that those who
implement and participate in ecotourism activities should follow the following ecotourism principles:
Minimize impact.
Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect.
Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts.
Provide direct financial benefits for conservation.
Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local people.
Raise sensitivity to host countries' political, environmental, and social climate.
ENVIRONMENT IMPACT ASSESSMENTAn environmental impact assessment is an assessment of the possible positive or negative impact that a
proposed project may have on the environment, together consisting of the natural, social and economic aspects.
The Ministry of Environment and Forests of India have been in a great effort in Environmental Impact
Assessment in India .
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Food security can be defined as the condition in which a population has the physical, social, and economic access
to safe and nutritious food over a given time period to meet dietary needs and preferences for an active life.
FAO, IFAD, and UNDP focus on food access and availability, while USAID includes food utilization as part of its
definition of food security. Other non-governmental organizations (NGOs) add the concept of biological
utilization. CCF International follows the USAID description of food security, which is defined as:
When all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food to meet
their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life.
THE GLOBAL food security is in question today, with ever increasing food prices resulting from adverse climatic
effects on agricultural production, rise in oil prices, increasing use of grains for biofuels, and almost a 50 per cent
reduction in public spending on agricultural sector over the last three decades. The environmental sustainability
has also become more elusive due to rapid industrial and population growth, urbanization and with the lack of
public realization about the sheer effects of environmental pollution. Asiatic countries and their economy largely
depend upon agriculture. With the technological breakthrough, significant level of food grain production has
been achieved and large stocks of food grains have been piled up to meet exigencies. Importantly, this large
stock of food grains is being infested with insects and pests that have increased the cost of storage, besides
deterioration in the quality of food grains. Secondly, the use of food grains for manufacturing of bio fuel to meet
the energy need of industrial and transportation sector has resulted in diversion of main crop like corn, maize
and beans.
SOLUTION-
Upgrading the biological potential of wasted lands.
Achieve agricultural intensification and diversification, so that the income and employment potential of
small-farm agriculture is enhanced through economically and ecologically sustainable farm and off-farm
enterprises.
Ensure access to food at affordable prices by both maintaining food security reserves and operating an
efficient public distribution system.
Introduction of ecologically sound practices in agriculture and in capture and culture fisheries
Promotion of group cooperation among families with smallholdings to empower them with the
economic and ecological advantages of scale in farm operations.
A new trade ethic that leads the industrial nations to buy agricultural commodities from the developing
world at fair prices and on a long-term basis.
LANDSLIDE
Land + Slide
Landslide is the geological phenomenon which includes movement of weathered material down a slope, like
avalanche, debris flow, soil flow, slump, sheet flow, rock fall, etc.
CAUSES- Gravity ( any landslide which occur under the impact of gravity is known as mass movement).
- Slope angle
- Weathering of rocks
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- Groundwater pressure
- Deforestation & Soil erosion
- Earthquake, volcanic eruption
- Anthropogenic factors, like- construction, etc.
MEASURES to slow landslide-
Afforestation.
Construction of traps, benches across the slope
Proper drainage system should be constructed for the affected area.
EARTHQUAKESudden release of the energy in earths crust caused by earths internal modifications that cause the ground
surface to shake.
In its most general sense, the word earthquake is used to describe any seismic event whether natural or
caused by humans that generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of
geological faults, but also by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests. An
earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point at ground level
directly above the hypocenter.
CAUSESThis can be explained by Plate tectonics, Major earthquakes occur at the plate boundaries especially where
plates collide (eg- Pacific ring of fire).
Reservoir induced seismicity can also be seen in large man made dams ( due to heavy pressure of water ) egKoyna EQ(1967)
EQ ZONESIndia is divided into 5 seismic zones.
Zone 1 being least EQ prone and Zone 5 being most seismic prone(whole Himalayan belt is in zone 4 and 5)
EFFECTS-
Shaking and ground rupture
Landslide and avalanches
Tsunami (if EQ occurs in sea floor or near sea shore)
Floods
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PREPARATIONNo major human/economic activity in Zone 5.

Construction of EQ resistant structure (buildings,etc).
EQ prediction in time.
TSUNAMIAlso known as harbour wave. It is a series of water waves caused by the displacement of a large volume of a
body of water, usually an ocean. Owing to the immense volumes of water and the high energy involved,
tsunamis can devastate coastal regions.
GENERATION MECHANISMSThe principal generation mechanism (or cause) of a tsunami is the displacement of a substantial volume of water
or perturbation of the sea. This displacement of water is usually attributed to either earthquakes, landslides,
volcanic eruptions, glacier calvings or more rarely by meteorites and nuclear tests. The waves formed in this way
are then sustained by gravity. Tides do not play any part in the generation of tsunamis.
Tsunamis have a small amplitude (wave height) offshore, and a very long wavelength (often hundreds of
kilometres long, whereas normal ocean waves have a wavelength of only 30 or 40 metres),which is why they
generally pass unnoticed at sea, forming only a slight swell usually about 300 millimetres (12 in) above the
normal sea surface. They grow in height when they reach shallower water.
CONSEQUENCES-
Loss of life and property
Loss of coastal vegetation
Physiogeographical changes ( in 2004 tsunami, Indira point is submerged).
Marine flora and fauna is affected.
Sea water reaches deep within land area causing groundwater to be contaminated with saline water
thereby decreasing agricultural productivity and declining quality of drinking water.
PRECAUTION-
No human/economic activity in Tsunami prone areas ( eg east coast of Japan).
Thick vegetation cover on the coasts ( helps in decreasing the speed of waves).
Construction of breaker walls along the coast.
Installing Tsunami warning systems in deep sea waters.
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WATER HARVESTING:
It means capturing rain where it falls or capturing the run off in your own village or town. And taking measures
to keep that water clean by not allowing polluting activities to take place in the catchment.
catchment.
Therefore, water harvesting can be undertaken through a variety of ways
Capturing runoff from rooftops
Capturing runoff from local catchments
Capturing seasonal floodwaters from local streams
Conserving water through watershed management
These techniques can serve the following the following purposes:
Provide drinking water
Provide irrigation water
Increase groundwater recharge
Reduce stormwater discharges, urban floods and overloading of sewage treatment plants
Reduce seawater ingress in coastal

coasta areas.
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Other rain water harvesting techniques:

CATCH WATER PITS AND SEMI-CIRCULAR BUNDS-
MINI-WATER SHEDS
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DEEP PONDS
Check Dams/Boulder dams
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NATIONAL INSTITUTES
1) IMD- The India Meteorological Department was established in 1875. It is the National Meteorological
Service of the country and the principal government agency in all matters relating to meteorology,
seismology and allied subjects.
IMDs Mandate
To take meteorological observations and to provide current and forecast meteorological information for
optimum operation of weather-sensitive activities like agriculture, irrigation, shipping, aviation, offshore
oil explorations, etc.
To warn against severe weather phenomena like tropical cyclones, norwesters, duststorms, heavy rains
and snow, cold and heat waves, etc., which cause destruction of life and property.
To provide meteorological statistics required for agriculture, water resource management, industries, oil
exploration and other nation-building activities.
To conduct and promote research in meteorology and allied disciplines.
To detect and locate earthquakes and to evaluate seismicity in different parts of the country for
development projects.
2) ICAR- The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) is an autonomous organisation under the
Department of Agricultural Research and Education (DARE), Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India. Formerly known as Imperial Council of Agricultural Research, it was established on 16 July 1929 as
a registered society under the Societies Registration Act, 1860 in pursuance of the report of the Royal
Commission on Agriculture. The ICAR has its headquarters at New Delhi.
The Council is the apex body for co-ordinating, guiding and managing research and education in
agriculture including horticulture, fisheries and animal sciences in the entire country. With 97 ICAR
institutes and 47 agricultural universities spread across the country this is one of the largest national
agricultural systems in the world.
The ICAR has played a pioneering role in ushering Green Revolution and subsequent developments in
agriculture in India through its research and technology development that has enabled the country to
increase the production of foodgrains by 4 times, horticultural crops by 6 times, fish by 9 times (marine 5
times and inland 17 times), milk 6 times and eggs 27 times since 1950-51, thus making a visible impact
on the national food and nutritional security. It has played a major role in promoting excellence in higher
education in agriculture. It is engaged in cutting edge areas of science and technology development and
its scientists are internationally acknowledged in their fields.
Its Mandate To plan, undertake, aid, promote and co-ordinate education, research and its application in agriculture,
agroforestry, animal husbandry, fisheries, home science and allied sciences
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To act as a clearing house of research and general information relating to agriculture, animal husbandry,
home science and allied sciences, and fisheries through its publications and information system; and
instituting and promoting transfer of technology programmes
To provide, undertake and promote consultancy services in the fields of education, research, training
and dissemination of information in agriculture, agroforestry, animal husbandry, fisheries, home science
and allied sciences
To look into the problems relating to broader areas of rural development concerning agriculture,
including postharvest technology by developing co-operative programmes with other organizations such
as the Indian Council of Social Science Research, Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre and the universities
To do other things considered necessary to attain the objectives of the Society
3) CAZRI- Central Arid Zone Research Institute

The arid zone of India covers about 12% of the country's geographical area and occupies over 31.7 m ha
of hot desert and about 7 m ha is under cold desert. The production and life support systems in the hot
regions are constrained by low and erratic precipitation (100-420 mm/year), high evapotranspiration
(1500-2000 mm/year), and poor soil physical and fertility conditions. The local inhabitants have evolved
suitable landuse and management systems of farming, pastoralism and animal husbandry; of late, these
local survival systems have become inadequate to fulfill the ever increasing needs. This has resulted in
over-exploitation of the resources causing rapid and widespread land degradation and decline in
productivity. To arrest this degradation process and for scientific and sustainable management of the
resources, Desert Afforestation Station was established in 1952 at Jodhpur. This was later expanded into
Desert Afforestation and Soil Conservation Station in 1957, and finally upgraded to Central Arid Zone
Research Institute (CAZRI) in 1959 under Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. The CAZRI
operates through 7 Divisions, located at the headquarters in Jodhpur. There are four Regional Research
Stations located in different agro-climatic zones to work on location-specific problems.
Its mandateTo undertake basic and applied research that will contribute to the development of sustainable farming
systems in the arid ecosystem.
To act as repository of information on the state of natural resources and desertification process and its
control, in the form of digital database.
To develop livestock-based farming systems and range management practices for the chronically
drought-affected areas depending on livestock species; also aquaculture in water.
To utilize high and precision technologies in production systems.
To provide scientific leadership and to develop collaboration with State Agricultural Universities, State
line departments and other national and international agencies for generating location-specific
technologies and transfer of the technologies.
To act as a center of learning for arid land management technologies.
To provide consultancy and other services for utilizing the available expertise, and to generate financial
resources.
4) CRIDA- Central Research Institute for Dryland.

The Institute is a constituent organisation of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), Ministry of
Agriculture, Government of India and was established in 1985 with focus on rainfed agriculture.
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Out of the 142 million (m) ha cultivated area in the country, only 51 m ha is irrigated. Even after complete
exploitation of the full irrigation potential of the country, it is estimated that nearly 70 m ha of net sown
area will continue to depend upon monsoons. Rainfed areas produce approximately 20-25 m t rice, 2-3 m t
wheat, 30-35 m t coarse cereals, and 10-12 m t pulses, thus contributing nearly 65-75 m t food grains and
12-14 m t oilseeds besides significant quantities of cotton, vegetables, and fruits.
Its MandateCRIDA conducts problem oriented multi-disciplinary research. The mandate of the Institute includes
To undertake basic and applied researches that will contribute to the development of strategies for
sustainable farming systems in the rainfed areas.
To act as a repository of information on rainfed agriculture in the country.
To provide leadership and co-ordinate network research with SAUs for generating location-specific
technologies for rainfed areas.
To act as a centre for training in research methodologies in the fields basic to management of rainfedfarming systems.
To collaborate with relevant national and international agencies in achieving the above objectives.
To provide consultancy.
A Socio economic and Policy Research Cell (SEPR) has been constituted at CRIDA. It is effective from
07.07.2007.
The SEPR Cell is constituted with the the following mandate :
* Prepare status papers on rainfed agriculture encompassing major rainfed agriculture components
* Provide inputs to rainfed agriculture policy making process
* Assess impact of rainfed agricultural technologies from rural livelihoods perspective
5) National Institute of Oceanography(NIO)With its headquarters at Dona Paula, Goa, and regional centers at Kochi, Mumbai and Visakhapatnam, is
one of the 38 constituent laboratories of the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research (CSIR), New
Delhi. NIO was established on 1 January 1966 following the International Indian Ocean Expedition (IIOE)
in early 1960s. The institute has grown today into a large oceanographic laboratory of international
repute. The focus of research has been on observing and understanding the special oceanographic
features that the North Indian basin offers.
Its mandateo To develop knowledge on physical, chemical, biological, geological, geophysical, engineering and
pollution aspects of the waters around India
o To provide support to various industries, government and non-government organisations
through consultancy and contract research
o To disseminate knowledge on the waters around India
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NATURAL HERITAGE
India is a megadiverse country, rich in biodiversity. With just 2.4% of the world's land area, India holds about 78% of the global biodiversity. The wide diversity in physical features and climatic situations have resulted in a
variety of ecosystems such as forests, grasslands, wetlands, coastal and marine and desert. Forests ecosystems
in particular exhibit tremendous variability ranging from temperate alpine to tropical wet evergreen forests.
There are 16 major forest types in India. India is also one of the eight primary centres of the origin of cultivated
plants and is rich agricultural biodiversity
BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOTSA biodiversity hotspot is a biogeographic region with a significant reservoir of biodiversity that is under threat
from humans.
The concept of biodiversity hotspots was originated by Norman Myers in two articles in The Environmentalist
(1988 & 1990), revised after thorough analysis by Myers and others in Hotspots: Earths Biologically Richest and
Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions.
To qualify as a biodiversity hotspot on Myers 2000 edition of the hotspot-map, a region must meet two strict
criteria: it must contain at least 0.5% or 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics, and it has to have lost at
least 70% of its primary vegetation.Around the world, at least 25 areas qualify under this definition, with nine
others possible candidates. These sites support nearly 60% of the world's plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and
amphibian species, with a very high share of endemic species.
Example of Biodiversity hotspots in India- Western Ghats, A&N islands, Eastern Himalayas.
Threats to biodiversity-
Habitat destruction
Introduction of invasive species
Genetic pollution
Over-exploitation
Food- security
Climate change
Over population
Economic reasons
Conservationa)
Habitat conservation
Gene banks
Legislations to protect flora and fauna.
Protected areasNational parks- A national park is a reserve of natural or semi-natural land, declared or owned by a
government, that is restricted from most development and is set aside for human recreation and
environmental protection
b) Wild life sanctuaries- A wildlife sanctuary is a space which is set aside exclusively for the use of wild
animals, who are protected when they roam or live in that area. Wildlife sanctuaries are also referred to
as wildlife refuges in some areas. Typically, a wildlife sanctuary is created through a government
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mandate which sets the space aside for the use of animal protection, and rangers or other government
employees may patrol the area to ensure that no one hunts or otherwise harasses the animals
c) Biosphere reserves- an environmentally sensitive area with protected status managed primarily to
preserve natural ecological conditions ( it is generally open to tourists).
Wildlife sanctuaries are the most generic of the terms listed in the question. Wildlife sanctuaries may be public
or private, and managed by any level of government or private entity.
National Parks are managed by federal governments. They often preserve natural settings, but also cultural and
historically significant sites.
Biosphere Reserve is a designation extended by the United Nations Environmental, Scientific, and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) to recognize the significance of an intact ecosystem. This status helps protect places in
poor countries that cannot afford to take care of such places, and offers leverage in protecting national parks
from international threats (such as pollution).
MAPS
Below are few maps of India, the locations marked in these maps can be asked for 2-3 marks in the mains exam.
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For example1)
-
Chilka Lake
Brackish water coastal lake in Odisha.
Formed due to silting action of R.Mahanadi
Designated as wetland of international importance under Ramsar convention.
Important habitat and breeding ground for both resident and migratory and aquatic birds.
2)
-
Kolleru Lake
Large fresh water lake located b/w Krishna and Godavari deltas in Andhra Pradesh.
Serves as important habitat for resident and migratory birds.
The lake was declared a wetland of international importance under Ramsar convention.
3)
-
Pulicat Lake
Brackish water lake on coromandel coast at the border of A.P & T.N
The barrier island of Sriharikota separates the lake from bay of Bengal.
The second largest brackish water lake in India after chilka.
Important nesting spot for sea turtles.
Known for diversity of birds and is an important stop over on migration routes.
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INDIA PHYSIOGRAPHY
Previous Year Questions:
1.
What do you understand by Deccan Trap? Describe its characteristics.
(95/20)
2.
Why do the Western Ghats receive more rainfall than the Eastern Ghats?
(95/3)
3.
Mention the advantages which India enjoys being at the head of the Indian Ocean.
(96/15)
4.
What are the geo-economic causes of underdevelopment of various regions in India?

(98/15)
5.
How do the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep differ in the geological evolution and
topographical conditions?
(98/15)
6.
How is deforestation of Himalayas disturbing the ecological balance of north India ?
7.
What is the importance of Indian Ocean for India?
(99/15)
8.
Write note on Linguistic regions of India.
(00/10)
9.
Had there been no Himalayas, what would have been the winter climate in north India?
(99/15)
(01/10)
10.
Write short note on Glacier.
(01/2)
11.
Write short note on Equinox.
(01/2)
12.
Write short note on Define Terai Region.
(03/2)
13.
Why are the Aravallis called a divide between Mewar and Marwar ?
(04/10)
14.
Write short note on Karewas.
(05/2)
15.
Write short note on New Moore Island.
(06/2)
16.
Explain how the Himalayan and the Tibetan highlands play an important role in the-development of the
South - West monsoon.
(07/10)
17.
Write notes on Indira Point.
(07/2)
18.
Write notes on Causes of Chambal Ravines.
(07/2)
19 .
Write about Terai Region.
(08/2)
20 .
Assess the significance of coastal regions in the economic development of India.

( 09/15)
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www.visioniaswordpress.com
ANSWER FORMAT/ SYNOPSIS OF QUESTIONS

(Source- previous year Q papers)
Lets select this question asked in 2009 mainsQ- Assess the significance of coastal regions in the economic development of India.
( 09/15)
We have to give a brief introduction about coastal regions first, and then main answer would be their
significance in the economic development (Hidden-as compared to the regions which are present in the
hinterland, so you have to actually give extra benefits which coastal regions enjoy as compared to the regions in
mainland)
Synopsis-
India- Prominent country in Indian ocean

Coastal regions- from Gujarat to W.Bengal
Vast coastline, 2.02 million sq km EEZ ( exclusive economic zone)
Economic significancea) Trade with foreign countries(being on coast-coastal regions have easy access to foreign countries)
b) Fishery & other sea food potential
c) Hydrocarbon production(Mumbai high, Gujarats coast,KG delta)
d) Renewable methods of energy production through tidal energy, OTEC.
e) Tourist attraction- coral reefs, mangroves, beaches, etc- generate economy.
f) Coastal regions suitable for the growth of some crops like sugarcane
Lets take another question-
Q- Explain how the Himalayan and the Tibetan highlands play an important role in the-development
of the South - West monsoon.
(07/10)
SynopsisHIMALAYAS- in foothills of Himalayas is location of sub-tropical high pressure(STHP) belt. In summers, pressure
belts shift to north so STHP belt also move to the north, which disintegrates the jet stream(which was blowing
originally over northern plains), thus causing a monsoonal trough (vacuum) in this region, thus sucking the SW
monsoonal winds . In addition , Himalayas also prevent the further northward movement of the monsoons and
hence confine them to Indian landmass.
TIBETAN HIGHLANDS- also strengthen SW monsoons by giving birth to tropical easterly jet stream. In summers,
the surface of Tibetan plateau become very warm ( warm air always rise) and the warm air rising from Tibet
move south towards Indian ocean because of the precence of STHP belt north of Tibet. These currents of warm
air deflect to their right as they move due to coriolis force and hence sink over Arabian sea. This air picks up
moisture from Arabian sea and joins SW monsoonal winds.
2
VISION IAS
QUESTIONS FOR PRACTICE

Q- Coastal pollution has increased now a days Comment. What are the major contents of pollutants.
Q- Bay of Bengal islands are the extension of Himalayas. Comment.
Q- Write a short note on bhabhar.
Q- Deccan plateau is geologically different from chhota-nagpur plateau. Explain.
3
VISION IAS
NATURAL VEGETATION
1.
Where do mangrove forests occur in India? Describe their main characteristics.

(96/15)
2.
Why has there been opposition from the North-Eastern States to the Supreme Court ban on all activities
inside forests ?
(97/10)
3.
Which parts of India have been identified as draught-prone? Mention the norms for such identification.
(98/15)
4.
What is waste land ? Write a note on prospects of waste land development in India.
(00/10)
5.
What are mangroves and in what way are they useful to us ?
6.
Mention the area of Shola forests in India.
7.
Write short note on the following:
(00/10)
(03/2)
(a) The Sambhar lake

(b) The Sundarbans
(c) Bombay High
(d) Sabarkantha & Banaskantha
(04/2)
8. Discuss the wetlands and their role in the ecological conservation in India.
(09/15)
4
VISION IAS
ANSWER FORMAT/SYNOPSIS
Q- Discuss the wetlands and their role in the ecological conservation in India.
(09/15)
Synopsis:
Definition of wetlandAccording to the Wetland Conservation Act of 1991 a wetland is defined by the
following criteria: 1) it has mostly hydric soils; 2) it must generally be inundated or saturated above or below the
surface; and 3) support vegetation adapted to wet soil conditions.
Floodplains, marshes, deltas, swamps, peatlands, dambos and lakes are all types of wetland.
Role in ecological conservationREGULATING SERVICES
Water storage
Groundwater recharge & discharge
Flood control& river regulation
Water purification
Sediment retention
PROVISIONING SERVICES
Water supply - domestic & animals

Agriculture resources
Fisheries
Forage resources
Craft materials
Medicinal plants
CULTURAL SERVICES
Biodiversity- IMPORTANT (expand it)

Cultural sites
Wetlands are part of a wider hydrological system, the services and benefits they provide can play a key role in
sustaining the livelihoods of communities and the survival of wildlife and biodiversity both in the catchment and
downstream..(also resting and breeding place of migratory birds).
5
VISION IAS
Q- Where do mangrove forests occur in India? Describe their main characteristics.
(96/15)
Mangroves are marine tidal forests and they are most luxuriant around the mouths of large rivers and in
sheltered bays.
Distribution in India- Sunderbans- Ganga delta, W.Bengal, Goa, Andaman & Nicobar IS, Gujarat , Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Karnataka, Kerala
CharacteristicsMangrove forests are one of the most productive and bio diverse wetlands on earth. Growing in the inter-tidal
areas and estuary mouths between land and sea, mangroves provide critical habitat for a diverse marine and
terrestrial flora and fauna. Mangrove plants include trees, shrubs, ferns and palms. These plants are found in the
tropics and sub-tropics on riverbanks and along coastlines, being unusually adapted to anaerobic conditions of
both salt and fresh water environments. These plants have adapted to muddy, shifting, saline conditions. They
produce stilt roots, which project above the mud and water in order to absorb oxygen. Mangrove plants form
communities which help to stabilize banks and coastlines and become home to many types of animals.
Mangrove forests fix more carbon dioxide per unit area than phytoplankton in tropical oceans.
6
VISION IAS

Q- Write a short note on the natural vegetation of India with map.
Q- Demarcate the areas of tropical evergreen forests. What relationship they share with south-west monsoon?
Q- What is wasteland? What steps govt of India is taking for its remuneration?
7
VISION IAS
CLIMATE OF INDIA
1. What is intensity of rainfall? Discuss its importance to Indian farmers.
(95/15)
2.
Discuss the origin of Monsoon in India.
(97/15)
3.
Mention the agro-climatic regions of India stating the basis of classification.
(00/10)
4.
Write short note on Mango Showers.
(00/2)
5.
Explain the causes of the Indian Monsoon.
6.
Discuss the distribution of winds and rainfall over India in the summer monsoon season.
(01/10)
(02/10)
7.
Write note on winter rains in India.
(06//2)
8.
The winter rains in North India are largely related to Jet Streams and Western Disturbances. Bring out
the relationship.
(08/15)
9.
Write about Norwesters .
(08/2)
10. Bring out the Significance of the various activities of the Indian Metrological Department.
( 09 ,15)
8
VISION IAS
Q- . Bring out the Significance of the various activities of the Indian Metrological Department.
( 09 ,15)
SynopsisThe India Meteorological Department was established in 1875. It is the National Meteorological Service of the
country and the principal government agency in all matters relating to meteorology, seismology and allied
subjects.
Various activities it performs-& their SignificanceTake meteorological observations and provide forecast meteorological information for optimum operation of
weather-sensitive activities like agriculture, irrigation, shipping, aviation, offshore oil explorations, etc. Warn
against severe weather phenomena like tropical cyclones, norwesters, duststorms, heavy rains and snow, cold
and heat waves, etc., which cause destruction of life and property, thus protect life & property. Provide
meteorological statistics required for agriculture, water resource management, industries, oil exploration and
other nation-building activities. Conduct and promote research in meteorology and allied disciplines. Detect and
locate earthquakes and to evaluate seismicity in different parts of the country for development projects.
Q-
Discuss the distribution of rainfall in India in summer monsoon season.
The rainfall in India is seasonal, uncertain and unevenly distributed. Most of the rain comes during the SouthWest Monsoon period. Rainfall may be too much or too little. There are also long dry periods in between. On the
basis of the quantity of rainfall, we can divide India into five major rainfall regions.
1)Very low rainfall region (Less than 30 cms per year). It is found in Karakoram ranges, northern Kashmir and
western parts of Kachchh and Rajasthan (Thar desert).
2) Low rainfall region (30 cms. to 60 cms. per year). It is found in Zaskar range, parts of Punjab and Haryana,
Central Rajasthan, Western Gujarat and the rain-shadow areas of the Western Ghats.
3) Moderate rainfall (60 cms. to 100 cms. per year). It is found over a greater part of India, excluding the areas of
low rainfall and heavy rainfall. Most of the rain is from the South-West Monsoon winds.
4) Heavy rainfall region (100 cms. to 200 cms. per year). It is found in four separate areas, including a narrow belt
of the western coast, eastern coastal belt, the foothills of the Himalayas and a part of north-east India.
5) Very heavy rainfall region (over 200 cms. per year). It is found on the western side of the Western Ghats , the
foothills of Himalayas, Meghalaya plateau (Shillong plateau) and Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Mawsynram in
Meghalaya plateau has recorded 1141 cms. of rainfall per year and it is the place which gets the heaviest rainfall
in India/world
9
VISION IAS

Q- Why Tamil Nadu coast receive rainfall during retreating monsoon and not during SW monsoon?
Q- What are the factors responsible for variability of rainfall over India?
Q- Why tropical cyclones mostly hit the east coast of India and not the west coast?
Q- Write a short note on ENSO.
10
VISION IAS
SOILS IN INDIA

1.
Write short note on Indias Literate soils.
(00/2)
2.
Write short note on Regurs.
(05/2)
3.
Write note on Causes of Soil erosion and its control in India.
(05/10)
4.
Write notes on Inceptisol.
(07/2)
11
VISION IAS
Q- Write notes on Inceptisol.
(07/2)
(This is asked for two marks..examiner can ask vertisol, alfisol, mollisol , etc next year for 2 marks so below I am
giving the short answer for USDA taxonomy)USDA Soil Taxonomy developed by United States Department of Agriculture and the National Cooperative Soil
Survey provides an elaborate classification of soil types according to several parameters (most commonly their
properties) and in several levels: Order, Suborder, Great Group, Subgroup, Family, and Series.
Alfisols form in semiarid to humid areas, typically under a hardwood forest cover.
Andisols soils formed in volcanic ash and defined as soils containing high proportions of glass and amorphous
colloidal materials, including allophane, imogolite and ferrihydrite
Aridisols (from the Latin aridus, for dry) form in an arid or semi-arid climate.
Entisols are soils that do not show any profile development other than an A horizon
Gelisols are soils of very cold climates which are defined as containing permafrost within two meters of the
soil surface.
Histosols a soil consisting primarily of organic materials
Inceptisols form quickly through alteration of parent material
Mollisols form in semi-arid to semi-humid areas, typically under a grassland cover
Oxisols are best known for their occurrence in tropical rain forest
Spodosols are the typical soils of coniferous, or boreal forests
Ultisols commonly known as red clay soils
Vertisols a soil in which there is a high content of expansive clay.
Q- Write note on Causes of Soil erosion and its control in India.
(05/10)
1)Heavy population pressure on land: - forest cover as low as 20.55% of total area population continues to rise
at a rapid rate more forests are destroyed heavy pressure on land.
2)Nature of Rainfall:- receives 80 to 90 per cent of rainfall in the monsoon season. heavy downpour during
during monsoon months causes floods. - remaining months droughts these affect soils.
3)Overgrazing number of domestic animals, esp cattle highest in world cattle freely graze in open lands
making them bare of vegetation-winds carry away dry soil particles Rajasthan
4). Bad farming techniques plough fields in traditional ways small size of holdings, absence of terracing,
contour cultivation, crop rotation, improper use of manure have caused erosion
12
VISION IAS
5) Topography North Eastern parts of India, Shiwaliks and the hilly regions in south India are affected by soil
erosion because of steep slopes and heavy rainfall. During heavy rainfall, soils are washed away by running
water down the slope.
6) Deforestation: destruction of forests for cultivation cutting of trees exposes the soil to water and wind
which leads to soil erosion
SOIL CONSERVATION SCHEMES

1.The centrally sponsored scheme of Integrated Watershed Management in the catchments of flood-prone
rivers was launched during sixth Plan in eight flood-prone rivers of the Gangetic Basin covering seven States and
one Union Territory. It aims at enhancing the ability of the catchment by absorbing larger quantity of rainwater,
reducing erosion and consequent silt load in the stream and river beds and thus helping to mitigate the fury of
floods in the productive plains.
2.A scheme for reclamation and development of ravine areas was launched in 1987-88 in MP, UP and Rajasthan.
included prepheral bunding to halt further ingress of ravines, afforestation of ravines, aforestaton of ravines
for fuel, fodder and reclamation of shallow ravines.
3. Control of shifting cultivation is implemented since 1994-95 in the States of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,
Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripura
The integrated programme envisages settling of families practising shifting cultivation.
it helps them to practise terraced cultivation, raising of horticultural palantations and afforestation to support
animal husbandry and to meet fuel and fodder requirements.
4) In urban areas, rain water harvesting is means of checking soil erosion, besides recharging ground water.
Alongwith it- new farming techniques- contour bunding, ploughing, terrace farming, strip cropping, shelter belts
and afforestation.
(shorten it, keep with in word limits).
13
VISION IAS

Q- Laterite soils occur in regions of alternative wet and dry conditions. Explain.
Q- Name the regions of soil erosion in India. What is the effect of soil erosion and what measures should be
adopted to prevent it.
Q- Write a short note on black cotton soils. Why they are known as cotton soils?
14
VISION IAS
DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA

1.
Why have the rivers of the peninsular India well-defined rigid channels in sharp contrast to the
Himalayan rivers?
(95/20)
2.
Write short note on Two prominent left bank tributaries of river Ganges.
(01/2)
3.
Describe the major characteristics of the rivers of Peninsular India.
(03/10)
4.
Elucidate the factors contributing to the growing need for water harvesting in India, both rural and
urban. (05/10)
5.
Write note on Significance of Lake Chilka.
(05/2)
6.
Why do the rivers of west coast not form a delta ?
(06/10)
7.
Write note on Hussain Sagar.
(06/2)
8.
Write about Buckingham Canal.
(08/2)
15
VISION IAS
Q- Write short note on Two prominent left bank tributaries of river Ganges.
(01/2)
Map is just to assist you in learning various right and left bank tributaries of ganga and from where they
originate.
Two left bank tributaries- lets take ghaghra and kosi
Ghaghra- Karnali or Ghaghara is a perennial trans-boundary
trans boundary river originating on the Tibetan Plateau near Lake
Mansarovar. It cuts through the Himalayas in Nepal and joins the Sarda River at Brahmaghat in India. Together
they form the Ghaghra River, a major left bank tributary of the Ganges.
Ganges
Kosi river- or sapta-kosi for its seven Himalayan tributariesis
tributaries
a trans-boundary
boundary river flowing through Nepal and
India. Some of the rivers of the Koshi
hi system, such as the Arun, the Sun Kosi and the Bhote Koshi, originate in the
Tibet Autonomous Region of China. It is one of the largest tributaries of the Ganges. Also known as sorrow of
Bihar for its frequest floods it cause in Bihar.
16
VISION IAS
Q- Why have the rivers of the peninsular India well-defined rigid channels in sharp contrast to the Himalayan
rivers?
(95/20)
Peninsular rivers- Show all the characteristics of the mature rivers- less erosion, graded & shallow valleys, short
courses, low waterfalls, etc
These are Geologically older, Flow through hard granitic soils of peninsular India.
Himalayan rivers- young, more erosion, high valleys, long courses, meanders- because they pass through
northern plains- through region of soft alluvial soils, thus often change their courses (eg kosi) .
17
VISION IAS

Q- what are the differences between west flowing rivers and east flowing rivers of India?
Q- write a short note on lake sambhar.
Q- Write a short note on National waterways of India.
Q- Which pattern does streams in peninsular India follows?
Q- What are the benefits of inter-linkages of rivers
Q- Write a short note on river water pollution and its mitigation efforts by GOI.
18
VISION IAS
AGRICULTURE
1.
What is shifting cultivation? Describe its salient characteristics with reference to India?
(96/15)
2.
What is dry farming? Discuss its relevance in augmenting the food supply in India.
(99/15)
3.
Give an account of the tea plantations of Assam and West Bengal and state the economic significance of
these plantations.
(02/10)
4.
Write short notes on Jhum cultivation - process and consequences.
(02//2)
5.
Write note on negative impacts of shifting cultivation.
(05/2)
6.
Agricultural Productivity in India remain low. Explain the reasons for this situation.
(08/15)
7.
Write about Organic Farming.
8.
Elaborate the steps taken by the Government for regionally differentiated approach to
9.
(08/2)
increase crop production and diversification in the country.
(09 ,15)
Write note on Fruit Production in India
(09 , 3)
19
VISION IAS
Q- Agricultural Productivity in India remain low. Explain the reasons for this situation.
(08/15)
Our farmers still follow old methods of cultivation.
Illiteracy and conservatism have come in the way of adopting scientific methods of cultivation.
In many parts of the country farmers are still tenants and have no security of tenancy.
Uneconomical holdings are a result of our laws of inheritance, but they adversely effect agriculture.
Rural indebtedness and non-availability of capital also act as hindrances.
Defective marketing and low prices have affected farming.
Over-dependence on monsoons
Overdependence of monsoon rainfall- erratic rainfall
Floods and droughts
Soil erosion
Small and fragmented land holding: common feature
intensive farming, increasing population, practice of dividing and subdividing land for inheritance irrigation,
wastage of labour, wastage of raised boundaries
Poor quality of seeds poor productivity
Lack of proper use of manure and Fertilizer
Reluctant to use modern scientific methods of cultivation
Most farmers do not own the land- belongs to absentee landlords who are indifferent to land improvements
Pests and diseases no protection farmers should be educated
Traditional upbringing most farmers do not believe in change stick to old method of farming very little
improvement
Excessive pressure on land
Low yield average yield of crops is lower than other countries
Unsound credit system and poverty of the farmers.
Q- Write note on Fruit Production in India
(09 , 3)
India has a large range of varieties of fruit in its basket and accounts for 10 per cent of world's total fruit
production. Mango, banana, citrus, pineapple, papaya, guava, sapota, jackfruit, litchi and grape, among the
tropical and sub-tropical fruits, apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot, almond and walnut among the temperate
fruits and aonla, ber, pomegranate, fig, phalsa among the arid zone fruits are important. India leads the world in
the production of mango, banana, sapota and acid lime and in productivity of grapes per unit land area.
India is the largest producer of mango, banana, sapota and acid lime. About 39 per cent of world's mango and 23
per cent of world's banana is produced in the country. In grapes, India has recorded the highest productivity per
unit area in the world. The overall production of horticultural crops registered an increase of 8.0 per cent during
2004-05 as compared to 2003-04. The percentage increase in fruit production has been to the tune of 1.5 per
cent during the period.
20
VISION IAS

Q- Write a short note on horticulture.
Q- How social forestry helps in ecological conservation and employment generation?
Q- Discuss the role played by dryland agriculture in Indias total food production.
Q- Genetically modified food is the key to food security. Comment.
21
VISION IAS
INDUSTRY
1.
Name the industry which is located at each of the following places:

(i) Bongaigaon
(ii) Alwaye
(iii) Kapurthala
(95/3)
2.
Describe the changes that have taken place in the direction of international trade of India since
Independence,
(98/15)
3.
Write note on : Khetri Copper Project.
4.
Account for the very high concentration of salt extraction industries in the Saurashtra and South
Tamilnadu Coast
(03/10)
5.
Examine the distribution of oil refineries in India.
(04/10)
6.
Write note on Mixed economy.
(06/2)
7.
Write notes on Special Economic Zone (SET)
(07/2)
8.
Bring out the pros and cons of Special Economic Zones.
(08/15)
(02/2)
22
VISION IAS
ANSWER FORMAT/ SYNOPSIS

Q- Bring out the pros and cons of Special Economic Zones.
(08/15)
Special Economic Zone (SEZ) is a specifically delineated duty free enclave that is treated as a foreign territory for
the purposes of trade operations. It's exempt from income tax, sales tax, service tax and there is no examination
of export/import cargo by customs.
THE PROS:
* Boost economic growth
* Employment generation.
* Rise in exports.
* Attract Foreign investors.
* Make Indian and foreign firms more competitive.
* Attract global technology and manufacturing skills.
THE CONS:
* Loss in revenue due to special incentives offered
* May result in land scams
* Too many small SEZs, even China has few, large SEZs
* May force non-SEZs units to shift to SEZs.
* Create powerful and regional private monopolies
* Shift focus on exports from serving the local markets.
Q- Mixed economyMixed Economy can be defined as a form of organization where the elements of both capitalist economy and
socialist economy are found. Simply in such type of economy there is the presence of private economic freedom
with centralized planning with a common goal of avoiding the problems associated with both capitalism as well
as socialism. In this system the freedom in the economic activities are influenced by the Government's
regulation and licensing policies.
23
VISION IAS

Q- What are the factors responsible for location of a industry?
Q- What steps should be taken to minimise pollution caused by industries?
Q- How decentralization of industries helps in lowering regional disparities?
Q- Industry is the backbone of economy.explain.
Q- Tourism industry of India is not utilising its optimum potential. Why?
24
VISION IAS
ENERGY RESOURCES
1.
Mention some of the new programs that have been undertaken in recent years in respect of nuclear
research in India.
(92/15)
2.
Name of main petroleum producing areas in India.
(02/2)
3.
Write short note on Bombay High.
(04/2)
4.
What are the resource bases available for the economic development of the newly created states of
Jharkhand and Uttaranchal?
(05/10)
5.
Bring out the prospects of development of alternative energy sources of India.
(06/10)
6.
Write note on Ultra Mega Power Projects.
( 09 ,3)
25
VISION IAS
Q- Write note on Ultra Mega Power Projects.
Ultra Mega Power projects (UMPP) are a series of ambitious power projects planned by the Government of
India. With India being a country of chronic power deficits, the Government of India has planned to provide
'power for all' by the end of the eleventh plan (by 2012). This would entail the creation of an additional capacity
of at least 100,000 MW by 2012. The Ultra Mega Power projects, each with a capacity of 4000 megawatts or
above, are being developed with the aim of bridging this gap.
The UMPPs are seen as an expansion of the MPP (Mega Power Projects) projects that the Government of India
undertook in the 1990s, but met with limited success. The Ministry of Power, in association with the Central
Electricity Authority and Power Finance Corporation Ltd., has launched an initiative for the development of coalbased UMPP's in India. These projects will be awarded to developers on the basis of competitive bidding.
By Nov 2010, 16 UMPPs have been planned in Karnataka, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh (2),
Maharashtra (2), Orissa (3), Tamil Nadu (2), Gujarat (2) and Jharkhand.
26
VISION IAS
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q- Write a short note on NATGRID.
Q- What are the major features of national action plane for solar energy development?
Q- With ongoing tension in the middle east, oil prices today are touching skies, an environment of energy crises
is started creating. Do we have any option to escape?
Q- What is the distribution of the nuclear ores in India?
27
VISION IAS
POPULATION
1.
What measures has the Government of India taken for the development of Tribal areas in India?
(97/15)
2.
Examine the fall out of population explosion in India at the close of twentieth century.
( 98 ,10)
3.
Name the mega cities of India and mention their specific problems.
(99/15)
4.
Explain the major racial groups of India.
(00/10)
5.
Write short note on Census definition of urban places.
(02/2)
6.
State the four distinctive stages of Indian Demographic history.
(03/10)
7.
Write short notes on the following:

(i) Who are Todas and where do they live ?
(ii) Name any four principal languages of Andaman and Nicobar Islands,
(03/2)
8.
Write notes on Jarawas.
(07/2)
9.
Write about Demographic Dividend.
(08/2)
28
VISION IAS
Q- Write about Demographic Dividend.
The demographic dividend is a rise in the rate of economic growth due to a rising share of working age people in
a population. This usually occurs late in the demographic transition when the fertility rate falls and the youth
dependency rate declines. During this demographic window of opportunity, output per capita rises.
India in coming years will be enjoying this status as it will be having large no of people in working age but India's
so-called "demographic dividend" of a younger population compared to developed countries is as much an
opportunity as it is a challenge.
Q- Write short note on Census definition of urban places.
In the Census of India 2001, the definition of urban area adopted is as follows: (a) All statutory places with a
municipality, corporation, cantonment board or notified town area committee, etc. (b) A place satisfying the
following three criteria simultaneously: i) a minimum population of 5,000; ii) at least 75 per cent of male working
population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits; and iii) a density of population of at least 400 per km2. (1,000
per sq. mile)
29
VISION IAS
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q- Throw some light on the uneven distribution of population in India.
Q- What are the major problems caused due to over population?
Q- What Major problems occur by rural-urban migration?
Q- Land alienation is now a days a major problem faced by tribal people of India. Comment on this statement.
30
VISION IAS
MISCELLANEOUS:
Previously asked questions1.
What is MRTS ? Where it is in operation?
(03/2)
2.
What is Golden Quadrilateral? How will it help in the economic development of the country?
(04/10)
3.
Technological changes have brought in a major shift in the use of roads as transport corridors in India.
How far do you agree with this view ?
(07/10)
4.
Write note on National Waterways.
5.
What is drip irrigation? Why is it considered the most efficient method of irrigation?
( 09 , 3)
(95/20)
6.
Why has the Narmada River Valley Project attracted the attention of the common people?
(97/20)
7.
What do you know about Narmada Sagar Dam ?
(98/2)
8.
Write note on Nagarjunasagar Project.
(00/2)
9.
What do you know about Hirakud Project.
(06/2)
10.
Write note on National Water Grid.
(06/2)
11.
Why is there a demand for making Uttarakhand a separate Hill State in India?
(97/15)
12.
Write short note on Multi-level planning in India.
13.
Define the concept of growth centers and evaluate its relevance in regional planning in India.
(00/2)
(02/10)
14.
Political boundaries and regional boundaries need to be co-terminus. Do you agree?

(05/10)
15.
Explain the nature and causes of growing slum problems in the metropolitan cities of India.
(07/10)
16.
Examine the status of urbanization among the states in India and bring out spatial inequalities.
(09 ,15)
17.
What is ozone hole? How is it formed and what effect does it have on the earth?
(96/15)
18.
Write short note on El Nino.
(01/2)
31
VISION IAS
19.
Write short note on Kaziranga National Park.
20.
Write short note on El Nino, La Nina and monsoon rains.
(04/2)
21.
Write note on Causes of droughts in India.
(05/2)
22.
Blue Revolution has definite advantages in India but it is not free from environmental
impacts. Discuss.
(02/2)
(06/10)
ANSWER FORMAT/SYNOPSIS:
Q- What is Golden Quadrilateral? How will it help in the economic development of the country?
The Golden Quadrilateral is a highway network connecting India's four largest metropolises: Delhi, Mumbai,
Chennai and Kolkata, thus forming a quadrilateral of sorts. Four other top ten metropolises: Bangalore, Pune,
Ahmedabad, and Surat, are also served by the network.
Economic benefitsThe GQ project establishes better and faster transport networks between many major cities and ports. It
provides an impetus to smoother movement of products and people within India. It enables industrial and job
development in smaller towns through access to markets. It provides opportunities for farmers through better
transportation of produce from the agricultural hinterland to major cities and ports for export, through lesser
wastage and spoils. Finally, it drives economic growth directly through construction as well as through indirect
demand for cement, steel and other construction materials.It gives an impetus to Truck transport throughout
India.
32
VISION IAS
Q- What is drip irrigation? Why is it considered the most efficient method of irrigation?
Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation or micro irrigation, is an irrigation method which saves water and
fertilizer by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either onto the soil surface or directly onto the
root zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing, and emitters.
Most efficient becauseMinimized fertilizer/nutrient loss due to localized application and reduced leaching.
High water application efficiency.
Levelling of the field not necessary.
Ability to irrigate irregular shaped fields.
Allows safe use of recycled water.
Moisture within the root zone can be maintained at field capacity.
Soil type plays less important role in frequency of irrigation.
Minimized soil erosion.
Highly uniform distribution of water i.e., controlled by output of each nozzle.
Lower labour cost.
Variation in supply can be regulated by regulating the valves and drippers.
Fertigation can easily be included with minimal waste of fertilizers.
Foliage remains dry thus reducing the risk of disease.
Usually operated at lower pressure than other types of pressurised irrigation, reducing energy costs.
Q- Explain the nature and causes of growing slum problems in the metropolitan cities of India.
Refer distressed migration and urban crisis in India(notes)- expand Nature- Unplanned growth, poverty ridden, no civic amenities, open defecation, water problems, poor health,
pollution, solid waste disposal related issues, unemployment, low class workers.
Causes- Declining agriculture production, thus rural- urban migration (no other employment opportunity in
home), Poor people cant afford high prices in the city thus locate themselves around in squatter settlements
that grow with time.
33
VISION IAS
PRACTICE QUESTIONS:
Q- Comment on the role played by CRIDA in developing dryland agriculture in India.
Q- Write a short note on eco-tourism.
Q- The concept of environment impact assessment is followed only in theory and not in practice in India.
Comment.
Q- What measures do you propose to ensure food security .
Q- Write a short note on earthquake zones of India.
34
VISION IAS
GS MAINS 2010 (paper 1)

Geography questions asked
1. "Small-holder farms need to be strengthened to achieve national food security." Do you agree with this
assessment? Substantiate.
(12)
2. Comment on the spatial components in urban solid waste management in the country.
(15)
3. Assess the contributions made by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in agricultural
development.
(15)
4. List the significant local storms of the hot-weather season in the country and bring out their socio-economic
impact.
(15)
5. Write brief but precise notes on any six of the following. Your answer should not exceed 50 words in each
case.
5x6=30
(a) Transhumance in India
(b) Frontogenesis and Frontolysi.s
(c) Golden Revolution
(d) Sea-floor spreading
(f) Causes for dominant dendritic pattern of drainage in the
Gangetic plains
(g) ' Break-of-bulk towns
35
VISION IAS
Mrunal (http://mrunal.org/)
[GS1] Monsoon: Why Karnataka gets more rain than Maharashtra &
Kerala? Tibetan Plateau meteorological importance
Geography (http://mrunal.org/category/geography) / 2 months Ago /
44 Comments (http://mrunal.org/2014/11/monsoon-karnataka-more-rain-maharashtra-kerala-tib
1.
Karnataka More rain than MH/Kerala?
2.
Tibetan plateau: Meteorological importance of
3.
Natural aerosol and their effect on Monsoon
Why Karnataka gets more Rainfall?

Topic in news Oct. 2014, Hindu; Relevance: GS1-Geography
Mains-GS1 Q. Examine the reasons why Western ghats in Karnataka receive more rainfall
than Maharashtra and Kerala, during Monsoon? 200 words.
Ans: #1: More than Maharashtra because:
1. Karnatakas Mountain topography broader than Maharashtra. Since Mountain width
greater => Rain clouds need to travel longer distance => more time for water to coalesce
and precipitate as rainfall.
2. Compared to this, Narrower width of W.Ghats in Maharashtra=> Rain bearing winds cross
over to the leeward side quickly before rainfall can occur.
WHY KARNATAKA GETS MORE RAIN THAN MH & KERALA
#2: More than Kerala because:

In Kerala, W.Ghats = isolated mountains. Rain-bearing winds can easily cross over leeward
side through the gaps, without precipitation occurring.
#3: Other reasons:
1. Karnataka Mountains = gentle slope than Kerala and Maharashtra. Gentle slope= Air
parcel can retain energy and speed for a long time, allowing cloud droplets to grow and
precipitate as rainfall.
2. In Karnataka, mountains are continuous. No gaps= Clouds cant easily escape to leeward
side.
Tibetan plateau: Meteorological importance of

Topic in news Oct. 2014, Hindu; Relevance: GS1-Geography.
Tibet is the largest and highest plateau in the world.
Given its altitude and topography, Tibet gets more sunlight, becomes hotter than land at
sea level.
This heating of Tibetan plateau leads to following events
#1: Traditional thermal theory

1. Hot Tibetan surface: Increases land-ocean temperature differences, causes pressure
gradients.
2. Low pressure around Tibet, NW India and Pakistan=> attracts trade winds from Southern
hemisphere
3. These winds pickup moisture from ocean surface=> finally burst of Monsoon.
#2: Jet stream theory
Hot Tibetan surface=> intense low Pressure => air pumped upwards in the upper
troposphere.
This air travels southwards and descends at Mascarene High basin near horn of Africa
through Tropical Easterly jet (TEJ) stream.
Surface air from Mascarene High move towards ITCZ (low pressure) developed in North
India =>monsoon.
Sidenote: Tibetan plateaus is also called third pole, because of third-largest ice-stock the
world. Heavy winter snow on Tibetan plateaus increases surface albedo. It retards spring
warming and delays summer monsoon over Northern India.
Yes, but Why in News?
Despite its meteorological significance, very few weather stations in Tibet, because of its
remoteness, altitude and harsh conditions.
But China Meteorological Administration began putting temperature and moisture
detectors, and sensor-towers to measure cloud properties. (Aug 2014)
This data will understanding relation between land surface heating, its impact on rainfall,
snow cover and vegetation changes.
Mains-GS1: Discuss the meteorological importance of

Tibetan plateau in 200 words.
Natural aerosol and their e ect on Monsoon

Topic in news: March, 2014; Relevance: MCQ about examples of aerosols and scientific
principle behind their role in monsoon:
Aerosols: tiny particles of either soli/liquid, suspended in atmosphere.
Natural aerosols: sea-salt, water vapour, dust, ash from volcanoes, organic material:
spores, bacteria, pollen.

Artificial aerosols: particles of pollutants like, smoke, ashes.
How aerosols effect rain fall?
Dust absorbs sunlight and heats the atmosphere=> low pressure condition over land.
These pockets of low pressure attract south-west monsoon winds into the region.
Scientists found that dust from West Asia to India=>helps in monsoon.
IF more dust particles from W.Asia and N.Africa blow towards India, then more rain to
India.
Tags: Rajtanil (http://mrunal.org/tag/rajtanil)
Mrunal recommends
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VISIONIAS

EARTHQUAKE TSUNAMI AND VOLCANIC ACTIVITY AND ASSOCIATED

Figure 1: Hypocentre and Epicentre

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

Characteristic Mercalli Scale

From 2.0 to 10.0+ (never recorded). A 3.0

Varies depending on Varies at different distances from the epicentre,

8.0 and more

Magnitude on Richter Scale

Table 2: classification of earthquakes based on magnitude

Most earthquakes in the world are associated with the following:

the zones of young fold mountains,

Seismic Belts of the world

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Figure 2: Distribution of Earthquake belts

Seismic Zones of India

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Figure 3: Seismic Zones of India

The entire North-east, including the seven sister

Very high damage risk zone

High damage risk zone

A large part of the country stretching from the North

Low damage risk zone

These two zones are contiguous, covering parts of

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

The direct and indirect effects of an earthquake includes:

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

Figure 4: Generation of Tsunami

Figure 5: Rise in Tsunami amplitude near the coast

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

Early Warning and Mitigation

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

Figure 6: Components of a volcano

There are two main types of lavas:

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

Figure 7: Volcanoes based on extrusive landforms

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

Figure 8: Various intrusive landforms formed in volcanic regions

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

Figure 9: Distribution of volcanoes

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

Effects of volcanic eruptions

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

Copyright by Vision IAS

09650617807, 09968029039, 09717162595

[Geography] El Nino, Its Impact on Indian monsoon, Indian

Geography (http://mrunal.org/category/geography) / 5 months Ago /

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