PEST MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER 23

Objectives
1.

List the five types of pesticides and what they are used to treat.

2.

Briefly describe the history of the development of pesticides.

3.

List five common household pests and two ways to control them other than using pesticides.

4.

List the five major classes of pesticides. Tell if each is broad spectrum or narrow spectrum; state its degree
of persistence; give two examples; and tell if each undergoes bioaccumulation or is biologically magnified.

5.

Compare contact and systemic herbicides.

6.

Give seven reasons to use pesticides. List five characteristics of the ideal pesticide.

7.

Describe the consequences of relying heavily on pesticides. Describe the pesticide treadmill. Be sure to
describe biological magnification. Briefly describe the threat of pesticides to wildlife and human health.

8.

Name the U.S. law that controls pesticide regulation. Give three reasons why this law is considered the
weakest and most poorly enforced of the environmental laws. Summarize how the 1996 Food Quality
Protection Act extends this law.

9.

List and briefly describe nine alternative pest management strategies.

10. Define integrated pest management. Analyze the pros and cons of using IPM. List six steps that could be
taken to help promote IPM.
Key Terms (Terms are listed in the same font style as they appear in the text.)
pest (p. 519)
natural enemies (p. 519)
pesticides (p. 519)
biocides (p. 519)
insecticides (p. 519)
herbicides (p. 519)
fungicides (p. 519)
rodenticides (p. 519)
pyrethrum (p. 519)
rotenone (p. 519)
first-generation pesticides (p. 519)
second-generation pesticides (p. 520)
broad-spectrum agents (p. 521)
persistence (p. 521)
pesticide treadmill (p. 523)

Pest Management

Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide

Act (FIFRA) (p. 525)
tolerance level (p. 525)
dirty dozen (p. 527)
economic threshold (p. 527)
insurance spraying (p. 527)
pest-loss insurance (p. 527)
cosmetic spraying (p. 527)
cultivation practices (p. 528)
biological pest control (p. 528insect birth control
(p. 528)
sex attractants (p. 528)
pheromones (p. 528)
integrated pest management (IPM) (p. 530)

Title: Review Questions Chapter 23: Pest Management

Instructions: You should be able to answer these questions once you have finished the
chapter:
1. Define the boldfaced terms in this chapter. (OMIT)
2. How can spiders help control insect pests?
3. What is a pest? How are species we consider pests controlled in nature? What happens to
this natural pest control service when we simplify ecosystems?
4. What is a pesticide? Distinguish among insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, nematocides,
and rodenticides.
5. Distinguish between first-generation pesticides and second-generation pesticides used by
people to combat pests, and give an example of each. Distinguish between broad-spectrum
and narrow-spectrum pesticides. Describe the increased use of synthetic chemical pesticides
in the world and in the United States since 1950.
6. List seven benefits of relying on chemical pesticides. List four traits of the ideal pestkilling chemical. Describe the ideal insect pest.
7. Summarize the harmful effects of synthetic chemical pesticides in terms of (a)
development of genetic resistance among pests, (b) killing of natural predators and parasites
that help control pest species, (c) creation of new pest species, (d) migration of pesticides
into the environment, (e) effects on wildlife, and (f) effects on the health of pesticide and
farm workers and the general public.
8. According to studies, how successful have pesticides been in reducing crop losses in the
United States?
9. With respect to pesticides, what is the circle of poison? How might it affect you?
10. How are pesticides regulated in the United States? List two pieces of good news and six
pieces of bad news about the effectiveness of pesticide control laws in the United States.
How have pesticide companies reacted to the bad news about pesticides?
11. Describe the history of the use of DDT.
12. What should be the primary goal of pest control? List six cultivation practices that can be used to help
control pests. List the advantages and disadvantages of using the following pest control methods: (a) genetic
engineering to speed up the development of pest- and disease-resistant crop strains, (b) biological control, (c)
insect birth control through sterilization, (d) insect sex attractants, (e) insect hormones (pheromones), (f) food
irradiation, and (g) integrated pest management (IPM). List five ways to increase the use of integrated pest
management.

Chapter 23

Outline

23-1 Pesticides: Types and Uses

A. Predators, parasites, and disease organisms found in nature control populations of most pest species as
part of the earths free ecological services.
1. Worldwide, only about 100 species of plants, animals (mostly insects), fungi, and microbes cause
about 90% of the damage to the crops we grow.
2. In natural ecosystems, natural enemies (organisms) control populations of about 98% of potential
pest species.
3.

Clearing forests and grasslands and spreading pesticides upsets the checks and balances of natural
populations.

B. To help control pest organisms, we have developed a variety of pesticides or biocides.

1. Common biocides include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides. These biocides
actually kill more than their intended target organisms.
2. Plants have produced chemicals to ward off, deceive, or poison herbivores for millions of years,
and this is a co-evolutionary process.
3. People used sulfur, arsenic, lead, and mercury to kill insects on crops, but abandoned this practice
in the 1920s when people were also poisoned.
4. The first generation natural insecticides were nicotine sulfate, pyrethrum, and rotenone.

C. Chemists have developed hundreds of chemicals for use on pests.

1. In 1939, Paul Muller discovered DDT was a potent insecticide. It was the first of the secondgeneration pesticides.
2. Since 1970, chemists have returned to natural repellents and have developed pesticides based on a
variety of natural chemicals found in the neem tree.
3. A new natural herbicide was discovered in 2003 in the knapweed. It should soon be on the market.

D. We have greatly increased our use of a variety of increasingly toxic synthetic pesticides.
1. Pesticide use has increased 50-fold and their toxicity has increased by 10-fold.
2. About one-fourth of pesticide use is for non-agricultural uses in the U.S.
3. Children playing on lawns where pesticides have been used are particularly vulnerable to them.
Health scientists warn early exposure may lead to learning disabilities, behavioral problems, some
forms of cancer, and other chronic diseases.

4.
5.

6.
7.

People working in the flower industry in South American countries are exposed to large doses of
fungicides, insecticides, and herbicides.
Pesticides may be broad-spectrum (effective against many species) or selective or narrow
spectrum agents.

Pesticides vary in their length of persistence.

As early as 1962, Rachel Carson warned against relying on synthetic organic chemicals to kill
pests.

Fig. 23-1 insert and know

Pest Management

23-2 The Case for Pesticides

A. Modern pesticides save lives, increase food supplies, increase farmers profits, work fast, and are safe
if used properly.
1. Some important benefits of modern chemicals
a.
They save lives (an estimated 7 million).
b. They increase food supplies (about 55% of the worlds potential food supply is lost to pests).
c.
They increase profits for farmers.
d. They work faster and better than alternatives.
e.
When used properly, their health risks are very low compared to their benefits.
2. Newer pesticides are safer and more effective than many older pesticides.
3. Botanicals and microbotanicals are the basis for a number of new pesticides.
4. Many new pesticides are used at much lower rates per unit area than older products.
5. Genetically engineered crops could also reduce the use of toxic insecticides.
B. Scientist work to develop more effective and safer pesticides, while pests continue to co-evolve and
find ways to combat these pesticides.

23-3 The Case against Pesticides

A. Insects can rapidly become genetically resistant to widely used pesticides.
1. The main problem with synthetic pesticides is that it accelerates the development of genetic
resistance to these chemicals by pest organisms.
2. Several hundred organisms have developed genetic resistance to pesticides since 1945.
3. This has led to a reemergence of a number of diseases, especially in the tropics.
4. Framers may also be on the pesticide treadmill where it takes more pesticide for less effective
treatment of pest organisms.
B. Pesticides may kill natural enemies of pest species, create new pest species, linger in the environment,
and harm wildlife and people.
1. Most pesticides kill beneficial as well as target pest species.

2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.

Pests that were once minor have become very destructive.

Of the pesticides applied by spraying, more than 95% end up in the air, surface water,
groundwater, sediments, food, and nontarget organisms.
Some pesticides harm wildlife such as honeybees needed for pollination of crops. In addition, they
kill more than 67 million birds and 614 million fish each year.
Some pesticides threaten human health. At least 3 million agricultural workers in developing
countries and at least 300,000 in the U.S. are seriously poisoned each year.

Premature death from cancers has been attributed to pesticide use.

Certain diseases have been linked to pesticide exposure, such as childhood leukemia, Parkinsons
disease, immune system disorders, and prostate and breast cancers.

C. A slightly higher percentage of the U.S. food supply is lost to pests today than in the 1940s.
1. David Pimentel, an insect ecologist, has evaluated data and come to three major conclusions.
2. Synthetic pesticide use has increased 33-fold since 1942, and about 37% of the U.S. food supply is
lost to pests compared to 31% in the 1940s.
3. The estimated environmental, health, and social costs of pesticide use have been estimated at $4
10 billion/year all the way up to $100200 billion/year.
4. Alternative pest management practices could halve the use of chemical pesticides on 40 major
U.S. crops without reducing yields.

Chapter 23

23-4 Pesticide Regulation

A. A federal law regulates pesticide use in the U.S., but it can be improved.
1. The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) was established by Congress in
1947 and amended in 1972. It requires EPA approval for use of all commercial pesticides. EPA
sets a tolerance level specifying the amount of residue that can remain on the crop at consumption.

2.

The EPA banned or severely restricted 56 active pesticide ingredients between 1972 and 2004.

3.
4.

There is still controversy over the ban of DDT.

The 1996 Food Quality Protection Act (FQPA) increased public protection from pesticides.

5.
6.

Banned or severely restricted chemicals are still manufactured and exported to other countries.
According to literature reviewed by the EPA, about 165 of the active ingredients approved for use
in U.S. pesticide products are known carcinogens, but only 43 of these have been banned by the
EPA or discontinued voluntarily by manufacturers.
A study of Missouri children showed a statistically significant correlation between childhood brain
cancer and the use of household chemicals.
The National Academy of Sciences states that federal laws regulating pesticides are inadequate
and poorly enforced.

7.
8.

9. The pesticide industry disputes the harmful effects of pesticides on human health.
10. The U.S. laws could be improved, but most other countries have not made as much progress as the
U.S. has in regulating pesticides.
B. DDT has been banned in developed countries since 1972, and there is controversy over its use in some
developing countries to combat malaria.
1. DDT was cheap and effective as a broad-spectrum pesticide.
2. In 1962, Rachel Carson published Silent Spring, which warned of the dangers of these broadspectrum, persistent pesticides.
3. The EPA was established in 1970, and FIFRA was amended to give the EPA control over
registration and regulation of pesticides in the U.S.
4. The EPA banned the use of DDT for several reasons.
a. It kills many beneficial insects as well as its target species.
b. It is persistent and remains in the environment for up to 15 years and can be biologically
magnified in food webs.
c. It reduced populations of birds and other species, especially those feeding at higher trophic
levels.
d. Preliminary evidence suggested it could cause cancer in humans.
e. It was becoming less effective due to increasing pest resistance.
5. The DDT controversy continues even today.
6. Scientists say that we cant separate harm to the environment from harm to people.

Pest Management

7.

Since 1975, there has been growing evidence that very low levels of chlorine-containing pesticides
may disrupt the human immune, endocrine, and nervous systems.
8. Organophosphates replaced the chlorinated hydrocarbon pesticides, and these chemicals were
hundreds of times more toxic to humans than DDT.
9. The EPA has since banned many organophosphates and carbamates, the next generation of
pesticides.
10. DDT is still used in several developing countries to kill disease-carrying insects.
11. In 2000, delegates from 122 countries agreed on a global prevention treaty to control, reduce,
phase out, and destroy stockpiles of 12 persistent organic pollutants (POPs).
12. DDT use is still allowed in 25 countries to combat malaria.

23-5 Alternatives to Conventional Chemical Pesticides

A. The primary goal of pest control should be to reduce crop damage to economically tolerable levels.
1. The economic threshold is the point at which the economic losses caused by pest damage
outweigh the cost of applying a pesticide.
2. Farmers may not want to monitor crop fields and will either do insurance spraying or will
purchase pest loss insurance.
3. Cosmetic spraying is another source of increased pesticide use. This is done to insure blemish free
fruits and vegetables.
B. A mix of cultivation practices and biological and ecological alternatives to conventional chemical
pesticides can help control pests.
1. Cultivation practices to decrease losses include rotation of types of crops planted each year.
2. Timing of planting can be done to either starve the pests or be eaten by predators.
3. Polyculture is another alternative, the use of plant diversity.
4. Cutting the grass no lower than 3 inches will help to keep out weed species.
5. Genetic engineering can speed up the development of pest- and disease-resistant crop strains.
6. Increase the use of biological pest control; use natural predators to help regulate pest organisms.
7. Biological control focuses on selected target species, is nontoxic, and minimizes genetic
resistance. It can save large amounts of money.
8. Disadvantages are that it is often slower acting and more difficult to apply, and the controls may
become pests themselves.

9.

Insect birth control is another possible strategy where the life cycle of the insect is interrupted so
that they cant reproduce. Problems include high cost, difficulty in knowing mating time, behavior
of each target insect, and the large number of sterile males required to prevent pest resurgence.
10. Pheromones have been used to lure pest insects into traps or to lure natural predators to crop
fields.

11. Another method is to use hormones that disrupt the normal insect life cycle and prevent them from
reaching maturity. The disadvantages are that they take weeks to kill an insect, are often
ineffective if the infestation is large, and must be applied at the right time in the life cycle.
12. Hot water sprayed on crops has worked well on cotton, alfalfa, and potato fields and citrus groves.
13. Exposure of food to high-energy gamma radiation extends the shelf life of foods and kills insects,
parasitic worms, and harmful bacteria.

14. The long-term health effects of eating radiated food are unknown.

Chapter 23

C. Integrated pest management uses a mixture of cultivation, biological methods, and small amounts of
selected chemical pesticides as a last resort.
1. The overall aim of integrated pest management (IPM) is to reduce crop damage to an
economically tolerable level. Fields are carefully monitored for damage.

2.

3.

The Indonesian government banned 57 of the 66 pesticides used on rice. Within 5 years, pesticide
use dropped 65%, and rice production rose by 15%. A well-designed IPM program can reduce
pesticide use and pest control costs while increasing crop yields.
IPM is an important form of pollution prevention that reduces risks to wildlife and human health.

D. Government subsidies for conventional pesticides, opposition of manufacturers, and lack of experts to
advise farmers are reasons farmers have not all adopted IPM.
1. Disadvantages include higher initial costs, lack of expert knowledge regarding the pests, and
slower action than conventional pesticides.
2. If the U.S. shifted to ecologically based pest management, within 519 years it could cut U.S.
pesticide use in half.
3. Scientists are urging the USDA to use three strategies to promote IPM.
a. Add 2% sales tax on pesticides, and use the revenue to fund IPM research and education.
b. Set up a federally supported IPM demonstration project on at least one farm in every county.
c. Train USDA field personnel in IPM to help farmers use this alternative.
4. Several UN agencies and the World Bank are establishing an IPM facility.

Summary
1.

Pesticides are chemicals that kill or control populations of organisms we consider undesirable. Types
include insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides.

2.

The advantages of using pesticides include the fact that they save lives, increase food supplies, lower food
cost, increase profit for farmers, and work fast. The disadvantages include the acceleration of pest
resistance to pesticides and pesticides dispersing widely, harming wildlife, and threatening human lives.

3.

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act established in 1947 and amended in 1972, as well
as the 1996 Food Quality Protection Act, regulates pesticide use in the United States.

4.

Alternatives to pesticides include integrated pest management, cultivation practices, food irradiation,
genetic engineering, biological control, hot water, and pheromones. These all reduce pesticide use but may
prove timely, costly, and not as reliable.

Pest Management