FINAL PROJECT REPORT

ON

STUDY OF SERICULTURE IN INDIA

A report Submitted to Ishan Institute of Management &
Technology, Greater Noida as a partial fulfillment to full time
post graduate diploma in management.
UNDER THE GUIDANCE
OF
Dr. H P Pandey

Submitted to:

Submitted by:

Dr. D.K. Garg,

Chairman,
IIMT, Gr. Noida

Rajeev Pandey
ENR .MMR4044
15th batch

ISHAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT &

TECHNOLOGY,
GREATER NOIDA
1

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project work done on Study of Sericulture in
India submitted to Ishan Institute of Management and Technology, Greater
Noida by Rajeev Pandey in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
award of degree of PG Diploma in Management, is a bonafide work carried
out by him/her under my supervision and guidance. This project work is the
original one and has not been submitted anywhere else for any other
degree/diploma.
Date :
Seal/Stamp of the Guide
Name of the guide
Dr. H P Pandey
Address:

Acknowledgement
I express my profound sense of gratitude towards my guide, Dr. H P Pandey,
Dept. of Botany, ISD college, Allahabad University; for his valuable time
and support.
In the last but not the least I sincerely thank Dr. D K Garg, chairman, Ishan
Institute of Management and Technology; who gave me this opportunity to
learn a subject which otherwise was an alien to me.
Rajeev Pandey

Declaration
The final project on Study of Sericulture in India under the guidance of
Dr. H P Pandey is the original work done by me. This is the property of the
Institute & use of this report without prior permission of the Institute will be
considered illegal & actionable.
Date:
Signature:
(Rajeev Pandey)
Enr. No. : MMR4044

CONTENTS
1. Introduction to Sericulture

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

a. Origin and history of Sericulture

12
b. silk route
16
c. World output of silk, other natural fibres and man made fibres17
Morphology of silk gland silk proteins and their synthesis.
26
Textile fibres and Silk
32
a. Introduction to textile fibres Natural fibres vs man made fibres.34
b. Physical and chemical properties of silk
34
c. uses of silk
35
Silk industry in the World
40
Silk industry in India
42
Mulberry area,
Cocoon production, silk production
Number of reeling units
Prospects and problems of Sericulture
77
A. Prospects of Sericulture
78
a. Qualities of different types of Textile fibres
80
b. Advantages of silk fibres over other fibres
83
c. International demand for silk
85
B. Constraints in silk production
86
a. Diseases and pests of Silkworm
86
i. Diseases-Protozoon disease, Bacterial diseases, Viral
diseases, Fungal diseases
88
ii. Silkworm pests
92
b. Other constraints
92
Organisations of Sericulture industry in India
97
a. Government of India
97
b. Central Silk Board
100
c. State Departments of Sericulture
110
Mulberry silkworm and its food plants-Mulberry sericulture
112
a. Silkworm races
114
b. Classification of Mulberry silkworm on the basis of its origin and
voltinism
116
Non-mulberry silkworms and their food plants
119
a. Different species of non-mulberry silkworm
121
b. Brief account of :
i. Tasar food plants
121
ii. Muga food plants
121
iii. Eri food plants
122
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c. Types of cocoon and silk produced by them

122
10. Out line of different reeling machineries and reeling process
126
a. History of Reeling Industry
-Charka, Cottage basin, Filature basin, Multi end basin,
Semiautomatic and Automatic reeling machinery 126
b. Different types of cocoon stifling
128
c. Different types of cocoon cooking
130
d. Principles of reeling
132
e. Reeling process
133
11. Marketing of cocoon and silk
135
a. Marketing set-up in different States
135
b. Market operation
137
c. cocoon and silk
143
i. cocoon grading
143
ii. Silk grading
144
d. Silk Conditioning and Testing
145
12. Employment Generation under rainfed and Irrigated Mulberry
147
a. Direct
i. Up to Raw silk
148
ii. Up to Fabric production
148
b. Indirect
i. Marketing
153
ii. Materials and Machinery Manufacturing
154
13. Seed organization
156
a. Need for seed organization
158
b. seed cocoon production at different levels159
14. Twisting and weaving
163
a. Twisting machinery and processing
164
b. Handloom Weaving ( Different types )
164
c. Power loom weaving ( Different types )
166
d. Printing- Dyeing, Calendaring and Finishing.
167
15. Utilization of by products and Seri wastes
170
16. Role of women in Sericulture women participation in Mulberry garden and
Rearing management silk reeling Weaving and Finishing.
177
17. Findings and Conclusion
181
Bibliography

189

1. Introduction to Sericulture

The records of mans use of Textiles, dates back thousands of years before the birth of
Christ. Our knowledge of the early development in textiles is very meagre as they are not
evident through proper records. Textiles were first developed as a means for carrying
food and as mats in shelter. Only in later stages it is used as clothing. When early people
realised they needed more than their own hair and skin to protect them from the weather,
they looked around to see what was available. People lived in a cold climate, saw animals
with skins that kept them warm. They hunted these animals for food and used the fur to
cover their body.
Once they started to hunt they used the skin of animals as clothes. This skin when
continuously used becomes harder and made difficult for them to hunt. For this purpose
he started to treat the skin to preserve its softness. Later the bones of animals were used
as needle and nerves were used as thread to stitch the hides. Ancient people used Grasses,
reeds, leaves and stems to cover their body. He also learned to spin the fiber, convert it
into yarn and these yarns are interlaced to form a cloth. Flax and wool were the first of
the fiber to be used because they were easier to twist into yarn than cotton. They also
used the hair of animals as bed, in due course, this hair tangled with each other and
formed as a fabric. This method is only followed while making felt cloth.
After thousands of years of wandering, people learned that they could live in one place
with other humans and grow what they needed. This is known as an agrarian society.
People learned how to raise certain animals for the meat and the skins. They learned to
grow certain plants for food. People no longer had to spend all their time hunting and
farming. People learned how to spin bits of plants, reeds, horse hair, and bark into one
continuous strand, or yarn. Then they discovered how to take these long pieces of yarn
and weave them into fabric, just like they wove the grasses. People began to look around
for other fibers they could use to make yarn. The cotton, wool, silk, and flax that they
found are still the most common natural fibers today. Other fibers, such as alpaca from
llamas and angora from rabbits, were discovered, but, even today, these fibers are too
scarce and expensive to be widely used.
For thousands of years the four natural fibers used by men are flax, wool, silk and cotton.
Man made fibers were introduced only at the beginning of the 20th century. From ancient
times to the middle of the 18th century, spinning and weaving were-done by hand.
Progress in this area culminated in the industrial revolution, which was the start of the
factory system and mars production. From Ancient times colours have been used in
fabrics. Dyestuff from plants and insects were used until the synthetic dyes were
discovered.
PURPOSE OF CLOTHING: Clothing is used to cover the body, to make you feel more
attractive, and to communicate with others. People wear clothes for many different
reasons. Some of these reasons are physical. You wear clothes for comfort and protection.
Others are for psychological and social reasons. Clothes give you self-confidence and
express your personality. Clothes also help you identify with other people. All people
have basic human needs. Meeting these needs provides satisfaction and enjoyment in life.
Clothing helps to meet some of these needs. Knowing something about the role of
clothing helps you to understand yourself and others better. Clothing is a complex but
fascinating part of everyones life. Therefore clothes are worn for:
1. Protection:

Our skin is uncovered and exposed. We can be easily affected by the elements-rain, snow,
wind, cold, and heat. We can be harmed or injured on the job or while participating in
sports. In some cases, we need to protect us with our clothing. Clothing aids to your
comfort. It absorbs perspiration, prevents sudden chills, and acts as a buffer between your
body and accidental burns, scratches, and rough surfaces. The right garments can insulate
your body against extremely hot or extremely cold temperatures. People who live in
severely cold climates, such as the Eskimos, keep warm by wearing pants and parkas
with fur linings. The fur traps the warm air from their bodies and creates a life-saving
insulating layer of warmth. Desert nomads keep the harmful hot sun from dehydrating
their bodies by covering up with long flowing robes and headdresses. Their clothing
actually keeps them cooler.
2. Safety:
Clothing also serves to protect your skin from harm or injury. Some sports and
occupations require protective clothing for safety reasons. Football players wear helmets
and protective padding to help prevent injury during rough play. Some peoples work
requires them to be in dangerous or hazardous conditions. Clothing can offer protection.
Some items are even labeled with the term safety to identify them from regular day-today clothes and accessories. Fire-fighters wear asbestos clothing in hazardous situations.
Police officers wear
bulletproof vests. Road workers wear florescent orange vests so that drivers can see them
easily and prevent accidents.
3. Sanitation:
Special clothing and accessories are often worn for sanitation reasons. People who work
in factories that produce food and medical products wear sanitary clothing, face masks,
and hair covering. This precaution prevents contamination of the products by germs. In
operating rooms, doctors and nurses wear special disposable sanitary uniforms, gloves,
and face masks.
4. Modesty:
Modesty refers to what people feel is the proper way for clothing to cover the body.
Different groups of people may have different standards of modesty. For example Clothes
that a woman might wear to a fancy party would probably be unacceptable at work the
next.
5. Identification:
Clothing can also identify people as members of a group. Certain types of clothing,
colors, and accessories have become representative of certain groups, activities, and
occupations. Or by simply dressing alike, people can show that they belong to the same
group. Eg. Air Crews, Air hostess, Doctors, Pilots, etc.
6. Uniforms:
A uniform is one of the easiest ways to identify group members. Uniforms can provide
instant recognition or create a special image for the group. Members of the police force,
fire department, and military wear uniforms so that they can be recognized quickly and
easily for public safety. Athletic teams wear different colors to identify their team and to
tell them apart from their opponents. People who work in service occupations, such as
restaurant workers, airline personnel, and hotel staff also wear special uniform. These
uniforms help to identify the worker to their customers, as well as create an image for the
company.
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7. Styles and Colors:

Some occupations require a unique style of dress. Judges wear the traditional black robe.
Ministers, priests, and other clergy members may wear special clothing for conducting
religious services. The style of the clothing often dates back many centuries to show
visually that what they are doing is linked to the past. Many people wear special styles
and colors of clothing for special occasions in their lives. Graduates may wear ling robes
and mortarboard hats with tassels.
8. Insignias:
Insignias are badges or emblems that show membership in a group. Patches or emblems
can be worn on jackets or blazer pockets. A school letter with a sports pin can be worn on
a jacket or sweater to indicate participation in athletics.
9. Status:
Kings and queens wear crowns to set them apart from the rest of their subjects. Their
crowns indicate their status, or position or rank within a group. Clothes and other
accessories are used by people to show their level of importance. They may also be used
to give the wearer a sense of feeling important. Status symbols are clothes or other items
that offer a sense of status for the ordinary person. Usually these items are more
expensive or the latest in design. For some people, status symbols can be fur coats,
expensive jewelry, or designer clothes.
10. Decoration:
People decorate themselves to enhance their appearance. They wear clothes, jewelry, and
cosmetics in hopes of improving their looks and attracting favourable attention.
Adornment, or decoration, also helps people to express their uniqueness and creativity.
Clothing and accessories can be used to improve appearance in different ways. Clothing
can also be decorated to make it special and unique.
CLASSIFICATION OF FIBERS: Fibres are the fundamental units used in fabrication of
textile yarns and fabrics. It is an individual, fine, hair like substance. Fibers usually are
grouped and Twisted together into a continuous stand called yarns. Fibers may be from
natural sources or they may be man-made. The details of these fibers are discussed in the
following chapters.
Sericulture is an agro-based industry. It involves rearing of silkworms for the production
of raw silk, which is the yarn obtained out of cocoons spun by certain species of insects.
The major activities of sericulture comprises of food-plant cultivation to feed the
silkworms which spin silk cocoons and reeling the cocoons for unwinding the silk
filament for value added benefits such as processing and weaving.
Sericulture is both an art and science of raising silkworms for silk production. Silk as a
weavable fiber was first discovered by the Chinese empress Xi Ling Shi during 2,640
B.C. and its culture and weaving was a guarded secret for more than 2,500 years by the
Chinese. Silk was a profitable trade commodity in China. Traders from ancient Persia
(now, Iran) used to bring richly coloured and fine textured silks from Chinese merchants
through hazardous routes interspersed with dangerous mountainous terrains, difficult
passes, dry deserts and thick forests. Though, commodities like amber, glass, spices and
tea were also traded along with silk which indeed rapidly became one of the principal
elements of the Chinese economy and hence, the trade route got the name SILK
ROUTE. Even today, silk reigns supreme as an object of desire and fabric of high
fashion. Being a rural based industry, the production and weaving of silk are largely
9

carried out by relatively poor sections of the society and this aspect of sericulture has
made it popular and sustainable in countries like China and India.
Sericulture means cultivation of silkworms which finally produces SILK. The word silk
sounds luxury and class. Till today, no other fabric can match it in lustre and elegance. As
long as human desire for silk garments continues, the demand for sericulture activity
remains. Silk is the queen of textile and the naturally produced animal fibre. Sericulture is
an ancient industry in India dating back to at least second century B.C. In its long history
sericulture has passed through periods of great prosperity as well as decline. Sericulture
involves agriculture, art and industry; silkworm rearing is an art in the hands of rural
people; reeling of the silk from the cocoons formed by the worms is an industry
ofdifferent financial investiments. Scientific sericulture is the meeting place for
agriculture and art, art and industry, ancient culture and civilization, the rich and the poor
it reflects the interdependence of these.
Silk is a way of life in India. Over thousands of years, it has become an inseparable part
of Indian culture and tradition. No ritual is complete without silk being used as a wear in
some form or the other. Silk is the undisputed queen of textiles over the centuries. Silk
provides much needed work in several developing and labor rich countries. Sericulture is
a cottage industry par excellence. It is one of the most labor intensive sectors of the
Indian economy combining both agriculture and industry, which provides for means of
livelihood to a large section of the population i.e. mulberry cultivator, co-operative rearer,
silkworm seed producer, farmer-cumrearer, reeler, twister, weaver, hand spinners of silk
waste, traders etc. It is the only one cash crop in agriculture sector that gives returns
within 30 days. This industry provides employment nearly to three five million people in
our country. Sericulture is cultivated in Karnataka, Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Jammu & Kashmir, Gujarat, Kerala, Maharastra, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar, Orissa
etc.
Though India is the second largest silk producer in the World after China, it accounts for
just 5% of the global silk market, since the bulk of Indian silk thread and silk cloth are
consumed domestically. Germany is the largest consumer of Indian silk. The sericulture
industry is landbased as silk worm rearing involves over 700,000 farm families and is
concentrated in the three Southern states of Karnataka, Tamilnadu and Andhra Pradesh.
(The states of Assam and West Bengal are also involved in the industry to a certain
extent).
Silk, the queen of the fabrics still commands passion of consumer right from 2200 BC to
till today, nationally and internationally. The export potential of Indian Sericulture
Industry is evident from the fact that the annual export is Rs.2879.56 crores during the
year 2004-05.
The Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India has been acting as a
facilitator for planning, development and monitoring of sericulture industry between the
States and Central Govt. The subject of Research is the exclusivity of the Central Silk
Board and its sub-ordinate Research and Training Institutes. The sericulture industry
entails everything from cocoon and raw silk production and business transactions by
various processes, such as breeding and maintenance of silkworm races, mulberry
breeding and cultivation, silkworm egg production, silkworm rearing and mounting,
cocoon drying, silk reeling, raw silk testing, to the production of silk products by
manufacturing and weaving, as well as the silk thread and silk industry. The sericulture
10

industry requires much technology and a certain level of investment, and the linkages of a
large variety of related businesses.
As such, in order to work a sericulture production, organizations and traders who will
purchase cocoons produced by sericulture farmers are needed. In other words, before
silkworm rearing at sericulture farms can be established, silk reeling companies and
brokers to purchase the cocoons are prerequisites. Silk reeling companies must
manufacture raw silk of the quality and the price demanded by process manufacturers of
the textile industry that use raw silk. In turn, in order to build a silk reeling business,
these process manufacturers who will purchase the raw silk and produce silk products for
domestic and international demands are needed.
A well-established relationship of supply and demand from downstream to upstream,
from processed products and sales to sericulture farmers, based on both domestic and
international consumption needs, and that can cooperate towards operations growth, is
major premise for the establishment of sericulture and silk reeling industry. Domestic
demand is especially needed. Since cocoons and raw silk must face competition in the
international free market, domestic demand is initially important in order to endure the
competition. In particular, a unique domestic demand with historical and ethnic
characteristics is an important factor for the sericulture industry and its development.
Silkworm larvae are fed mulberry leaves, and, after the fourth molt, climb a twig placed
near them and spin their silken cocoons. The silk is a continuous-filament fiber consisting
of fibroin protein, secreted from two salivary glands in the head of each larva, and a gum
called sericin, which cements the two filaments together. The sericin is removed by
placing the cocoons in hot water, which frees the silk filaments and readies them for
reeling. The immersion in hot water also kills the silkworm pupae.
Single filaments are combined to form thread. This thread is drawn under tension through
several guides and wound onto reels. The threads may be plied together to form yarn.
After drying the raw silk is packed according to quality.
Stages of production:
The stages of production are as follows:
1. The silk moth lays eggs.
2. When the eggs hatch, the caterpillars are fed mulberry leaves.
3. When the silkworms are about 25 days old, they are 10,000 times heavier than when
they hatched. They are now ready to spin a silk cocoon.
4. The silk is produced in two glands in the silkworm's head and then forced out in liquid
form through openings called spinnerets.
5. The silk solidifies when it comes in contact with the air.
6. The silkworm spins approximately 1 mile of filament and completely encloses itself in
a cocoon in about two or three days but due to quality restrictions, the amount of usable
silk in each cocoon is small. As a result, 5500 silkworms are required to produce 1 kg of
silk.
7. The silk is obtained from the undamaged cocoons by brushing the cocoon to find the
outside end of the filament.
8. The silk filaments are then wound on a reel. One cocoon contains approximately 1,000
yards of silk filament. The silk at this stage is known as raw silk. One thread consists of
up to 48 individual silk filaments.

a. Origin and history of Sericulture

11

Sericulture, or silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk.
Although there are several commercial species of silkworms, Bombyx mori is the most
widely used and intensively studied. According to Confucian texts, the discovery of silk
production by B. mori dates to about 2700 BC, although archaeological records point to
silk cultivation as early as the Yangshao period (5000 10,000 BCE). About the first half
of the 1st century AD it had reached ancient Khotan, and by AD 140 the practice had
been established in India. Later it was introduced to Europe, the Mediterranean and other
Asiatic countries. Sericulture has become one of the most important cottage industries in
a number of countries like China, Japan, India, Korea, Brazil, Russia, Italy and France.
Today, China and India are the two main producers, together manufacturing more than
60% of the world production each year.
Historical evidence shows that silk was discovered in China and that the industry spread
from there to other parts of the world. The Chinese has used silk since the 27th century
B.C. During the Roman Empire, silk was sold for its weight in gold. The Chinese
domesticated silk worms and fed them with mulberry leaves. They unwound the
silkworms' cocoons to produce long strands of silk fiber.
Silk is one of the oldest fibers known to man. Its discovery as a weave able fiber is
credited to the Lady Xi Ling Shi, the 14-year-old bride of the Emperor Huang Ti, the socalled 'Yellow Emperor'. One day in 2640BC, according to Confucius, she was sitting
under a mulberry tree, drinking a cup of tea into which a silk cocoon fell from above. She
noticed the delicate fibers start to unravel in the hot liquid and has been credited as the
first person to 'reel' or unravel a silk cocoon and use the filament to create a yarn for
weaving. Whether or not the legend holds true, it is certain that the earliest surviving
references to silk production place it in China and that for nearly 3 millennia, the Chinese
had a global monopoly on silk production.
Sericulture or silk production has a long and colorful history unknown to most people.
For centuries the West knew very little about silk and the people who made it. Pliny, the
Roman historian, wrote in his Natural History in 70 BC Silk was obtained by removing
the down from the leaves with the help of water For more than two thousand years the
Chinese kept the secret of silk altogether to themselves. It was the most zealously
guarded secret in the history.
Since the 27 th century B.C., the Chinese have produced and used silk fabric. In fact,
raising silk worms was one of the many chores of the farm women in China. From China,
silk was exported via the Silk Route.
The Chinese never let out the secret of how the silk was produced. However, in later
years, Christian monks smuggled the eggs out of the country; hence introducing silk
manufacture in other nations as well.
ORIGIN OF SILK: Chinese legend gives the title Goddess of Silk to Lady Hsi-LingShih, wife of the mythical Yellow Emperor, who was said to have ruled China in about
3000 BC. She is credited with the introduction of silkworm rearing and the invention of
the loom. Half a silkworm cocoon unearthed in 1927 from the loess soil astride the
Yellow River in Shanxi Province, in northern China, has been dated between 2600 and
2300 BC. Another example is a group of ribbons, threads and woven fragments, dated
about 3000 BC, and found at Qianshanyang in Zhejiang province. More recent
12

archeological finds - a small ivory cup carved with a silkworm design and thought to be
between 6000 and 7000 years old, and spinning tools, silk thread and fabric fragments
from sites along the lower Yangzi River reveal the origins of sericulture to be even
earlier.
SILKWORM AND THE FAMILY: There are many indigenous varieties of wild silk
moths found in a number of different countries. The key to understanding the great
mystery and magic of silk, and China's domination of its production and promotion, lies
with one species: the blind, flightless moth, Bombyx mori. It lays 500 or more eggs in
four to six days and dies soon after. The eggs are like pinpoints one hundred of them
weigh only one gram. From one ounce of eggs come about 30,000 worms which eat a ton
of mulberry leaves and produce twelve pounds of raw silk. The original wild ancestor of
this cultivated species is believed to be Bombyx mandarina Moore, a silk moth living on
the white mulberry tree and unique to China. The silkworm of this particular moth
produces a thread whose filament is smoother, finer and rounder than that of other silk
moths. Over thousands of years, during which the Chinese practiced sericulture utilizing
all the different types of silk moths known to them, Bombyx mori evolved into the
specialized silk producer it is today; a moth which has lost its power to fly, only capable
of mating and producing eggs for the next generation of silk producers.
THE SECRET OF SERICULTURE: Producing silk is a lengthy process and demands
constant close attention. To produce high quality silk, there are two conditions which
need to be fulfilled preventing the moth from hatching out and perfecting the diet on
which the silkworms should feed. Chinese developed secret ways for both.
* The eggs must be kept at 65 degrees F, increasing gradually to 77 degrees at which
point they hatch. After the eggs hatch, the baby worms feed day and night every half hour
on fresh, hand-picked and chopped mulberry leaves until they are very fat. Also a fixed
temperature has to be maintained throughout. Thousands of feeding worms are kept on
trays that are stacked one on top of another. A roomful of munching worms sounds like
heavy rain falling on the roof. The newly hatched silkworm multiplies its weight 10,000
times within a month, changing color and shedding its whitish-gray skin several times.
*The silkworms feed until they have stored up enough energy to enter the cocoon stage.
While they are growing they have to be protected from loud noises, drafts, strong smells
such as those of fish and meat and even the odor of sweat. When it is time to build their
cocoons, the worms produce a jelly-like substance in their silk glands, which hardens
when it comes into contact with air. Silkworms spend three or four days spinning a
cocoon around themselves until they look like puffy, white balls.
*After eight or nine days in a warm, dry place the cocoons are ready to be unwound. First
they are steamed or baked to kill the worms, or pupas. The cocoons are then dipped into
hot water to loosen the tightly woven filaments. These filaments are unwound onto a
spool. Each cocoon is made up of a filament between 600 and 900 meters long! Between
five and eight of these super-fine filaments are twisted together to make one thread.

13

*Finally the silk threads are woven into cloth or used for embroidery work. Clothes made
from silk are not only beautiful and lightweight, they are also warm in cool weather and
cool in hot weather.
Literary sources such as The Book of History, and The Book of Rites give further
information about sericulture. Reeling silk and spinning were always considered
household duties for women, while weaving and embroidery were carried out in
workshops as well as the home. In every silk-producing province the daughters, mothers
and grandmothers of every family devoted a large part of the day for six months in a year
to the feeding, tending and supervision of silkworms and to the unraveling, spinning,
weaving, dyeing and embroidering of silk. By the fifth century BC, at least six Chinese
provinces were producing silk. Each spring, the empress herself inaugurated the silkraising season, for silk production was the work of women all over China. The technique
and process of sericulture were guarded secrets and closely controlled by Chinese
authorities. Anyone who revealed the secrets or smuggled the silkworm eggs or cocoons
outside of China would be punished by death.
SILK DEVELOPMENT IN CHINA: When silk was first discovered, it was reserved
exclusively for the use of the ruler. It was permitted only to the emperor, his close
relations and the very highest of his dignitaries. Within the palace, the emperor is
believed to have worn a robe of white silk; outside, he, his principal wife, and the heir to
the throne wore yellow, the color of the earth.
Gradually the various classes of society began wearing tunics of silk, and silk came into
more general use. As well as being used for clothing and decoration, silk was quite
quickly put to industrial use by the Chinese. This was something which happened in the
West only in modern times. Silk, indeed, rapidly became one of the principal elements of
the Chinese economy. Silk was used for musical instruments, fishing-lines, bowstrings,
bonds of all kinds, and even rag paper, the word's first luxury paper. Eventually even the
common people were able to wear garments of silk.
During the Han Dynasty, silk ceased to be a mere industrial material and became an
absolute value in itself. Farmers paid their taxes in grain and silk. Silk began to be used
for paying civil servants and rewarding subjects for outstanding services. Values were
calculated in lengths of silk as they had been calculated in pounds of gold. Before long it
was to become a currency used in trade with foreign countries. This use of silk continued
during the Tang as well. It is possible that this added importance was the result of a major
increase in production. It found its way so thoroughly into the Chinese language that 230
of the 5,000 most common characters of the mandarin "alphabet" have silk as their "key".
A SECRET OUT TO THE WORLD: In spite of their secrecy, however, the Chinese were
destined to lose their monopoly on silk production. Sericulture reached Korea around 200
BC, when waves of Chinese immigrants arrived there. Silk reached the West through a
number of different channels. Shortly after AD 300, sericulture traveled westward and the
cultivation of the silkworm was established in India.

14

It is also said that in AD 440, a prince of Khotan ( today's Hetian)--a kingdom on the rim
of Taklamakan desert -- courted and won a Chinese princess. The princess smuggled out
silkworm eggs by hiding them in her voluminous hairpiece. This was scant solace to the
silk-hungry people of the West, for Khotan kept the secret too. Why share it with the
westerners and kill a good market?
Then around AD 550, two Nestorian monks appeared at the Byzantine Emperor
Justinian's court with silkworm eggs hid in their hollow bamboo staves. Under their
supervision the eggs hatched into worms, and the worms spun cocoons. Byzantium was
in the silk business at last. The Byzantine church and state created imperial workshops,
monopolizing production and keeping the secret to themselves. This allowed a silk
industry to be established in the Middle East, undercutting the market for ordinary-grade
Chinese silk. However high-quality silk textiles, woven in China especially for the
Middle Eastern market, continued to bring high prices in the West, and trade along the
Silk Road therefore continued as before. By the sixth century the Persians, too, had
mastered the art of silk weaving, developing their own rich patterns and techniques. It
was only in the 13th centurythe time of the Second Crusadesthat Italy began silk
production with the introduction of 2000 skilled silk weavers from Constantinople.
Eventually silk production became widespread in Europe.
SILK AND ITS TRADE: Silk became a precious commodity highly sought by other
countries at a very early time, and it is believed that the silk trade was actually started
before the Silk Road was officially opened in the second century BC. An Egyptian female
mummy with silk has been discovered in the village of Deir el Medina near Thebes and
the Valley of the Kings, dated 1070 BC, which is probably the earliest evidence of the
silk trade. During the second century BC, the Chinese emperor, Han Wu Di's
ambassadors traveled as far west as Persia and Mesopotamia, bearing gifts including
silks. A Han embassy reached Baghdad in AD 97, and important finds of Han silks have
been made along the Silk Road. One of the most dramatic finds of Tang silks along the
Silk Road was made in 1907 by Aurel Stein. Some time around 1015, Buddhist monks,
possibly alarmed by the threat of invasion by a Tibetan people, the Tanguts, sealed more
than ten thousand manuscripts and silk paintings, silk banners, and textiles into a room at
the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas near Dunhuang, a station on the Silk Road in northwest Gansu.
From about the fourth century BC, the Greeks and Romans began talking of Seres, the
Kingdom of Silk. Some historians believe the first Romans to set eyes upon the fabulous
fabric were the legions of Marcus Licinius Crassus, Governor of Syria. At the fateful
battle of Carrhae near the Euphrates River in 53 BC, the soldiers were so startled by the
bright silken banners of the Parthian troops that they fled in panic. Within decades
Chinese silks became widely worn by the rich and noble families of Rome. The Roman
Emperor Heliogabalus (AD 218 - 222) wore nothing but silk. By 380 AD, Marcellinus
Ammianus reported, "The use of silk which was once confined to the nobility has now
spread to all classes without distinction, even to the lowest." The craving of silk
continued to increase over the centuries. The price of silk was very hight in Rome. The
best Chinese bark ( a particular kind of silk) cost as much as 300 denarii (a Roman
15

soldier's salary for an entire year!). Many sources quote that Roman citizens' demand for
imported silks was so great as to be damaging to the Roman economy.
Silk was even beginning to have a civilizing effect on the barbarians. In 408 AD when
Alaric, a Goth, besieged Rome, his price for sparing the city included 5000 pounds of
gold, 3000 pounds of pepper, 30,000 pounds of silver and 4000 tunics of silk.
SILK TODAY: World silk production has approximately doubled during the last 30 years
in spite of man-made fibers replacing silk for some uses. China and Japan during this
period have been the two main producers, together manufacturing more than 50% of the
world production each year. During the late 1970's China, the country that first developed
sericulture thousands years ago dramatically increased its silk production and has again
become the world's leading producer of silk.
Silk in Ancient Rome (Smith's Dictionary, 1875) This is the article Serica in William
Smith's Dictionary of Greek & Roman Antiquities. The Roman sumptuary law to
prohibite the use of silk garments to men.

b. Silk Route
The Chinese kept the secret of the beautiful and value added material that, they were
producing from the rest of the world for more than 30 centuries. Travelers were searched
thoroughly at border crossings and anyone caught trying to smuggle eggs, cocoons or
silkworms out of the country were summarily executed. Demand for this exotic fabric
eventually created the lucrative trade route now known as the 'Silk Road,'. of which
mention is made as early as 300BC in the days of the Han Dynasty, taking silk westward
and bringing gold, silver and wools to the East.
Silk was exported along the Silk Road (the ancient trade route linking China and the
Roman Empire). This trade brought China a great wealth, but the Chinese did not give
away the secret on how silk was produced. The Chinese could not keep their monopoly
forever.
The industry is said to have spread to Tibet when a Chinese princess, carrying silkworm
eggs and mulberry tree seeds in her headdress, married the king of Khotan in Tibet. From
Tibet the industry spread slowly to India and Persia. According to Western historians,
mulberry-tree cultivation spread to India through Tibet during 140 BC and cultivation of
mulberry trees, rearing of silkworms began in the areas flanking the Brahmaputra and
Ganges rivers. According to some Indian scholars silkworms (Bombyx mori) were first
domesticated in the foothills of the Himalayas. Evidences in ancient Sanskrit literature
reveals that certain kind of wild silks were cultivated in India from time immemorial.
When British came to India, the flourishing silk trade exploited and developed silk
centres in many parts of the country. The Company exported large quantities of silk
produced in West Bengal to England. The Companys monopoly was abolished in 1836
and the entire trade turned over to private enterprise, due to improper organized system
the silk industry in West Bengal declined. By the time other silk producing states in the
country viz., Jammu & Kashmir, Mysore have developed the industry.

16

c. World output of silk, other natural fibres and man made

fibres
The previous year data shows that the world silk production in the year 2010 was
1,26,995 tonnes. Out of which India contributed 15.5% of the total silk production in the
world which is 19,690 tonnes. Trend shows that the silk production in India during the
previous years has faced ups and downs. In the year 2007 the silk production in India
increased from the previous year production but the very next year it declined. In the later
years there was increase in silk production yet this decline in production could no be
compensated for two consecutive years. After two years it was the year 2010 which led to
a steep climb in Indian silk production and it reached the unparalleled heights.
Other natural fibres and man made fibres: Fiber (also spelled fibre) is a class of materials
that are continuous filaments or are in discrete elongated pieces, similar to lengths of
thread. They are very important in the biology of both plants and animals, for holding
tissues together.
Human uses for fibers are diverse. They can be spun into filaments, string or rope, used
as a component of composite materials, or matted into sheets to make products such as
paper or felt. Fibers are often used in the manufacture of other materials. The strongest
engineering materials are generally made as fibers, for example carbon fiber and Ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene.
Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply and in large amounts compared to
natural fibers, but for clothing natural fibers can give some benefits, such as comfort,
over their man-made counterparts.
Natural textile fibers cotton, wool and silk dominated the world textile market until
mid-century. The beginning of cellulose and synthetic fibers and their sudden spurt
changed the textile fiber consumption pattern overnight. The post-war years review by
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) points out 52 per cent jump in the world
consumption of fibers during 1948-58 due to rise in population and better living
standards. During this post-war decade though the usage of natural fibers rose
substantially; cotton by 53 per cent, wool by 70 per cent and silk over 100 per cent, the
newly emerged manmade over took all targets and its consumption shot up by 2,000 per
cent. Even the beginning years of the 21st Century has not changed the rising trend of
manmade.
Though natural fibers have lost their share in global textile fiber consumption, these
fibers have successfully withstood severe competition from manmade and by the
beginning of the 21st century; their production and consumption are slowly rising. The
ecology conscious people in Europe and USA are seeking natural textiles; cotton, wool
and silk. Manmade blended with cotton, wool or silk have gained wide acceptance in the
world market. The blends provide comfort of natural fibers with properties of wash and
wear and durability of manmade. This trend has given boost to production of cotton, silk
and cellulose fibers dominated by versatile modified rayon.
Natural fibers include those produced by plants, animals, and geological processes. They
are biodegradable over time. They can be classified according to their origin:

Vegetable fibers are generally based on arrangements of cellulose, often with

lignin: examples include cotton, hemp, jute, flax, ramie, and sisal. Plant fibers are
17

employed in the manufacture of paper and textile (cloth), and dietary fiber is an important
component of human nutrition.

Wood fiber, distinguished from vegetable fiber, is from tree sources. Forms
include groundwood, thermomechanical pulp (TMP) and bleached or unbleached kraft or
sulfite pulps. Kraft and sulfite, also called sulphite, refer to the type of pulping process
used to remove the lignin bonding the original wood structure, thus freeing the fibers for
use in paper and engineered wood products such as fiberboard.

Animal fibers consist largely of particular proteins. Instances are spider silk,
sinew, catgut, wool and hair such as cashmere, mohair and angora, fur such as sheepskin,
rabbit, mink, fox, beaver, etc.
Mineral fibers comprise asbestos. Asbestos is the only naturally occurring long mineral
fiber. Short, fiber-like minerals include wollastonite, attapulgite and halloysite.
Natural Textiles Cotton: Cotton has been hailed as King of textile fibers and despite
manmade fibers rising over cotton production through engineered chemical process,
cotton continues to command royal respect and is much sought after among consumers of
textiles the world over. Cotton has a long history dating to 3,000 B.C. with India claiming
credit for origin of cotton. The Greek historical Herodotus (484 B.C.) made the first
historical mention of cotton. He wrote after his trip to India, There are trees in which
fleece grew... and natives made cloth. The ancient globetrotters, Marco Polo, Vasco-deGama and Columbus too mentioned about weaving and spinning of cotton and sheer silk
in China and India. In the following centuries cotton spread to east and west. It seems
Chinese developed spinning wheel and despite their efforts of keeping it secret, cotton
spinning spread to Japan and elsewhere. Arabs took cotton craft to Spain and from there
cotton cultivation and spinning became popular all over Europe. In America, Virginia
claims credit for first cultivation of cotton in USA in 1607.
Cotton, one of the worlds leading agricultural crops, provides textile fibers for a wide
range of uses from clothing through home furnishings to fabrics for industrial uses.
Cotton is most comfortable to wear, quite durable, resistant to abrasion, washable and
relatively inexpensive. Non-woven cotton made by bonding of fibers together is
extensively used for disposable products like towels, tea bags, tablecloths, bandages and
disposable hospital sheets. Modern textile finishes have made cotton crease resistant,
stain resistant and shrink resistant. Cotton is also ideal for blending with manmade and
other natural textile fibers.
World cotton production almost doubled within three decades from 1930 to 1960s but
since then the growth rate staggered with manmade production making strides since
1970s. According to International Cotton Advisory Committee (ICAC) the present
production of cotton is 19,800,000 m. MT (2001), with China bagging lions share of 4,
000, 000 m. MT, USA 3, 750, 000 MT, India 2, 280, 000 m. MT followed by Pakistan,
Uzbekistan, Turkey and others. The main consumers are China 4, 700, 000 m. MT,
India 2, 850, 000 m. MT and USA 2, 460, 000 m. MT. The total global consumption
which exceed production is estimated around 19, 700, 000 m. MT during end of 1990s.
Wool and Worsted Fibers: Man discovered wool even earlier than cotton. Man hunted the
sheep both for food and clothing in the Stone Age, some 1, 75,000 years ago. Both sheep
and wool seem to have been introduced by Central Asia to Europe. The finest, breed, the
Phoenicians took Marino into Spain long before the Christian era. The finer qualities of
wool from Marino are at present found in warm and dry regions of Australia, South
18

Africa and Argentina. The other breed of sheep wool, mostly found in Asia is long wool
type suitable for carpets and mixed wool fabrics. Wool yarns are classified as woollen or
worsted types according to spinning method employed. Woolen yarns are from short
fibers loosely spun with little twist; worsted yarns are smooth with higher twist and make
closely woven fabrics.
Like cotton, wool production rose mostly during the 20th century reaching record
production of 1,590,000MT raw wool by 1970. But during 1970-90 wool production was
stagnant till 1993. The production declined over 3 per cent from 1,657,000 m. MT in
1993 to 1,429,000 m. MT in 1997. Wool and worsted yarn are extensively used for
clothing, blankets, carpets and durries. The main fine quality wool producing countries
are Australia, Russia, New Zealand, Argentina and South Africa. India, Pakistan, China,
Middle East and North Africa are suppliers of wool suitable for carpets and furnishings.
Leading consuming countries are European Union, United States, Japan and Russia,
though the woolen clothes are also in demand in other countries in temperate regions.
Synthetic or man-made fibers: Era of Manmade Fibers Manmade fibers are the result of
mans urge to probe deep into secrets of nature and make a small wonder by him. The
first man to visualize the possibility of manmade fiber by imitating the silkworms
spinning process was an English scientist, Robert Hooke, who in 1664 put his
imagination in a book called Micrographia. The next man to carry forward Hookers
dream was a French scientist who in 1734 predicted that manmade fibers would be made
from gums and resins. A century elapsed, nothing happened. Again in 1845 an weaver
named Louis Schwabe and the Swiss chemist, C.F.Schonbein made news with the former
fitting a machine with a nozzle which forced out artificial fibers from a liquid and the
latter discovering nitrocellulose, a preparatory step towards rayon manufacture. It was
however, let to the genius of Count Hilarire de Chardonnet who produced first rayon
from pulp made of mulberry barks during middle of the nineteenth century. He is known
as Father of Rayon. The successful launching of rayon in Europe and America gave
necessary impetus to the chemists and fiber technologists the world over and began a
feverish research activity to discover new manmade fibers.
A major triumph of mans efforts came during the 1930s when nylon, a true synthetic
fiber was developed by a sheer accident in the laboratory of a well-known American firm,
E.I. Due Pont de Nemours. The firm had started studies on polymerization: how and
why certain small molecules unite to form giant molecules such as those found in rubber,
cotton or silk. One of the chemists after experimentation was trying to remove polymer
from a vessel and he found to his surprise that a fiber could be drawn from that sticky
tissue. Some more research undertaken to form nylon, first called Polymer 66, and was
placed in the market in 1938 as bristles in tooth brushes. Year later nylon hosiery hit the
textile fashion and within a year edged off silk from the hosiery market and gradually
nylon became a household word the world over. The post-war period brought out a host
of several other true synthetic fibers, which can broadly be put under three groups
polyester, acrylic and polyvinyl groups.
The basic method of manufacture of manmade fibers in its crude form is the imitation of
the silkworms spinning system. There are three basic techniques of producing manmade
fibers, though all of them in a simple way forced a chemical solution known as polymer
through a spinneret, a nozzle with tiny holes. A polymer is the union of simple molecules
or monomers into a giant molecule (macro-molecule). The process is called
19

polymerization. Thus all fibers including natural ones are composed of molecules, held
together within a macro-molecule by the manmade fibers, and represent mans attempt to
arrange molecules in the same way as nature arranges them and later converting them
into fibers by taking a clue from the silkworm, the master spinner.
The manmade fibers are broadly classified into four groups: (1) cellulose fibers, (2)
synthetic fibers, (3) protein-base fibers, and (4) inorganic fibers.
The cellulose fibers include: (a) viscose rayon, (b) cuprammonium rayon, and (c)
acetate. The synthetic fibers cover polyamide, polyester and other true synthetic fibers. A
host of new manmade fibers have burst upon the world textile scene in recent years. Fiber
manufacturers and textile laboratories are emerging with newer fiber concepts to meet
wide range of specific end-uses. Modern research and development work on manmade
fibers is the key to rising success and growing versatility of manmade. In fact, the
manmade fibers have given rise to almost a new textile technology by revolutionalising
almost every phase of textile production from fiber-spinning through weaving and wetprocessing to marketing and after-sales service. There are several new manmade fibers,
which have come out of experimentation recently claiming a measure of commercial
success. New concepts have emerged both among rayon and synthetic fiber ranges.
The international trade in manmade fibers is divided into three phases: the first phase
covers the period from 1890 when rayon was first introduced to the world to early 1920s;
the second phase spreads through 1920s through end of 1930s the period marked with
active commercialization of rayon and the birth of true synthetic nylon in 1939. There
was a complete dislocation for about a decade from 1940 to 1949 with the Second World
War destroying heavily the fiber-producing capacity of Japan and Germany. The third
phase covers the post-war period from 1950 to the beginning of 21st century the period
of phoenix-like resurgence of manmade fibers and their phenomenal rise to the present
world status.
Until 1920s the traditional practices of international textile trade were based on cotton,
wool and silk with cotton playing the premier role seconded by wool. The cotton
production accounted over 85 per cent and wool 15 per cent of the total global output.
During the second phase this conventional ratio changed. The process began in 1922
when rayon (92m.kg.) accounted for one per cent of the total output; rayons share rose to
two per cent by 1927, seven by 1935 and 12 per cent by 1940 a year when nylon was
added to rayon. During the Second World War the combined output of rayon and nylon
ranged between 12 and 15 per cent of the world production of textile fibers. Its output
was less than 1,200 m Kg a year. It was during the third phase the post-war years
which the manmade fibers blossomed into versatile fibers. While rayon remained
somewhat stagnant, synthetic fibers diversified. Nylon introduced in 1939-40, shot to
world popularity; and a host of other synthetic fibers, including polyester and acrylic hit
the market.
Multifibers, Microfibers and Blends: The manmade fibers have opened up an era of
multifibers and ushered in a new textile philosophy of co-existence among fibers. The
tremendous rise of manmade, particularly of non-cellulose fibers during the past fifty
years has completely revolutionized the traditional formulae, which hitherto governed the
world trade in fibers and fabrics. The manmade fibers account for over 52 per cent of the
total world output of major textile fibers and surpass the natural ones in both performance
and economic values. But no more manmade make a bid to compete with natural fibers;
20

on the contrary, through a new concept of blends the manmade seek a harmonious
development of all fibers to meet the rising demand of fibers for clothing and industrial
uses. In fact, the time has arrived when manmade fibers are no more grouped separately
from the natural ones. All are just fibers each playing its own role in meeting the world
demand.
The modern manmade fibers are blends two or more different fibers blended before
they are spun. There is a difference between the intimate blending of two or more fibers
before they are spun into yarn and mixed yarn, in which yarns spun from distinct fibers
are combined by weaving into a single fabric. The most popular manmade are cottonrayon, nylon-wool, nylon-cotton, polyester-cotton, polyester-wool and acrylic-wool. Then
there are solution-dyed or spun-dyed fibers, which are dyed before spinning.
Such colored fibers show remarkable resistance to fading when exposed to sunlight or
constant wear and washing. A host of new manmade fibers with versatile properties are
entering into the global textile market each year. In recent years microfibers with
polyester blends have entered the commercial fibers with silk look, but despite all
efforts to endow silk like look and silky touch, manmade have yet to go a long way to
meet the environment friendly and healthy characteristics of natural fibers.
Synthetic or man-made fibers generally come from synthetic materials such as
petrochemicals. But some types of synthetic fibers are manufactured from natural
cellulose, including rayon, modal, and the more recently developed Lyocell. Cellulosebased fibers are of two types, regenerated or pure cellulose such as from the cuproammonium process and modified cellulose such as the cellulose acetates.
Fiber classification in reinforced plastics falls into two classes: (i) short fibers, also
known as discontinuous fibers, with a general aspect ratio (defined as the ratio of fiber
length to diameter) between 20 to 60, and (ii) long fibers, also known as continuous
fibers, the general aspect ratio is between 200 to 500.
Cellulose fibers: Cellulose fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, regenerated from
natural cellulose. The cellulose comes from various sources. Modal is made from beech
trees, bamboo fiber is a cellulose fiber made from bamboo, seacell is made from
seaweed, etc.
Mineral fibers: Mineral fibers can be particular strong because they are formed with a
low number of surface defects.

Fiberglass, made from specific glass, and optical fiber, made from purified natural
quartz, are also man-made fibers that come from natural raw materials, silica fiber, made
from sodium silicate (water glass) and basalt fiber made from melted basalt.

Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals such as copper, gold or silver
and extruded or deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel, aluminum or iron.

Carbon fibers are often based on oxydized and via pyrolysis carbonized polymers
like PAN, but the end product is almost pure carbon.

Silicon carbide fibers, where the basic polymers are not hydrocarbons but
polymers, where about 50% of the carbon atoms are replaced by silicon atoms, so-called
poly-carbo-silanes. The pyrolysis yields an amorphous silicon carbide, including mostly
other elements like oxygen, titanium, or aluminium, but with mechanical properties very
similar to those of carbon fibers.

21

Polymer fibers: Polymer fibers are a subset of man-made fibers, which are based on
synthetic chemicals (often from petrochemical sources) rather than arising from natural
materials by a purely physical process. These fibers are made from:

polyamide nylon,

PET or PBT polyester

phenol-formaldehyde (PF)

polyvinyl alcohol fiber (PVA) vinylon

polyvinyl chloride fiber (PVC) vinyon

polyolefins (PP and PE) olefin fiber

acrylic polyesters, pure polyester PAN fibers are used to make carbon fiber by
roasting them in a low oxygen environment. Traditional acrylic fiber is used more often
as a synthetic replacement for wool. Carbon fibers and PF fibers are noted as two resinbased fibers that are not thermoplastic, most others can be melted.

aromatic polyamids (aramids) such as Twaron, Kevlar and Nomex thermally

degrade at high temperatures and do not melt. These fibers have strong bonding between
polymer chains

polyethylene (PE), eventually with extremely long chains / HMPE (e.g. Dyneema
or Spectra).

Elastomers can even be used, e.g. spandex although urethane fibers are starting to
replace spandex technology.

polyurethane fiber

Coextruded fibers have two distinct polymers forming the fiber, usually as a coresheath or side-by-side. Coated fibers exist such as nickel-coated to provide static
elimination, silver-coated to provide anti-bacterial properties and aluminum-coated to
provide RF deflection for radar chaff. Radar chaff is actually a spool of continuous glass
tow that has been aluminum coated. An aircraft-mounted high speed cutter chops it up as
it spews from a moving aircraft to confuse radar signals.
Microfibers: Microfibers in textiles refer to sub-denier fiber (such as polyester drawn to
0.5 dn). Denier and Detex are two measurements of fiber yield based on weight and
length. If the fiber density is known you also have a fiber diameter, otherwise it is simpler
to measure diameters in micrometers. Microfibers in technical fibers refer to ultra fine
fibers (glass or meltblown thermoplastics) often used in filtration. Newer fiber designs
include extruding fiber that splits into multiple finer fibers. Most synthetic fibers are
round in cross-section, but special designs can be hollow, oval, star-shaped or trilobal.
The latter design provides more optically reflective properties. Synthetic textile fibers are
often crimped to provide bulk in a woven, non woven or knitted structure. Fiber surfaces
can also be dull or bright. Dull surfaces reflect more light while bright tends to transmit
light and make the fiber more transparent.
Very short and/or irregular fibers have been called fibrils. Natural cellulose, such as
cotton or bleached kraft, show smaller fibrils jutting out and away from the main fiber
structure.
man-made fibre, fibre whose chemical composition, structure, and properties are
significantly modified during the manufacturing process. Man-made fibres are spun and
woven into a huge number of consumer and industrial products, including garments such
as shirts, scarves, and hosiery; home furnishings such as upholstery, carpets, and drapes;
and industrial parts such as tire cord, flame-proof linings, and drive belts. The chemical
22

compounds from which man-made fibres are produced are known as polymers, a class of
compounds characterized by long, chainlike molecules of great size and molecular
weight. Many of the polymers that constitute man-made fibres are the same as or similar
to compounds that make up plastics, rubbers, adhesives, and surface coatings. Indeed,
polymers such as regenerated cellulose, polycaprolactam, and polyethylene terephthalate,
which have become familiar household materials under the trade names rayon, nylon, and
Dacron (trademark), respectively, are also made into numerous nonfibre products,
ranging from cellophane envelope windows to clear plastic soft-drink bottles. As fibres,
these materials are prized for their strength, toughness, resistance to heat and mildew, and
ability to hold a pressed form.
Man-made fibres are to be distinguished from natural fibres such as silk, cotton, and
wool. Natural fibres also consist of polymers (in this case, biologically produced
compounds such as cellulose and protein), but they emerge from the textile
manufacturing process in a relatively unaltered state. Some man-made fibres, too, are
derived from naturally occurring polymers. For instance, rayon and acetate, two of the
first man-made fibres ever to be produced, are made of the same cellulose polymers that
make up cotton, hemp, flax, and the structural fibres of wood. In the case of rayon and
acetate, however, the cellulose is acquired in a radically altered state (usually from woodpulp operations) and is further modified in order to be regenerated into practical
cellulose-based fibres. Rayon and acetate therefore belong to a group of man-made fibres
known as regenerated fibres.
Another group of man-made fibres (and by far the larger group) is the synthetic fibres.
Synthetic fibres are made of polymers that do not occur naturally but instead are
produced entirely in the chemical plant or laboratory, almost always from by-products of
petroleum or natural gas. These polymers include nylon and polyethylene terephthalate,
mentioned above, but they also include many other compounds such as the acrylics, the
polyurethanes, and polypropylene. Synthetic fibres can be mass-produced to almost any
set of required properties. Millions of tons are produced every year.
Silk Survives, Succeeds: Silk enters the 21st century as strong, smooth, much-soughtafter environment friendly, healthy (next to human skin) textile fiber. Despite shrinking of
sericulture in Japan and Korea due to high cost industrialization and severe competition
from manmade, silk has not only survived but has succeeded globally in raising its
production and demand. The world silk demand shot up from 68,000 MT in 1993 to over
86,000 MT in 1998 registering 21 per cent rise within a span of five years (Courtesy
International Silk Association, Lyon). Though this a miniscule percentage of world textile
fiber production, silk continues to rule as Queen of textile fibers, just as cotton is
considered king of fibers.
Though historical development and international trade in silk is discussed in depth in the
book, it is necessary to highlight the salient features of silk development during close of
the century. There are three emerging trends, which have completely changed the
production and consumption pattern of silk industry. First, Japan and Korea are gradually
abandoning sericulture due to high labor cost and pressure from high-tech industries, but
China, India, Thailand and Brazil seem successful in raising silk productivity and
production. The second important development is availability of medium priced silk
garments; crease-resistant silk apparels, which are in big demand among middle class
23

professionals particularly women workers. The demand for both high-priced and
medium-priced silk garments continue to rise due to growing concern for protecting
environment, particularly among industrial countries which are even prohibiting use of
certain chemicals, dyes and prefer natural to chemical fibers. Thus natural textiles
cotton and silk are witnessing a new era of global demand, which may sharply rise in the
next millennium.
The Secretary General of the International Silk Association (ISA) forecasts rising global
demand for silk and points out factors behind the rise: (i) New Concept: Until 1980s silk
was worn only for special occasions but silk is no more a luxury or ceremonial dress; it is
now a casual wear, and even sportswear; (ii) New products: This includes thermal wear,
sportswear, undergarments, shirting and crease-resistant fabrics. The sand-washed
garments which were popular during mid 1990s have lost their share in the market; (iii)
New Prices: Silk was hitherto confined to a small affluent minority but thanks to new
industrial production methods and economy of scale, combined with low wages in many
developing countries, prices of silk have come down during 1990s; (iv) New Channels of
Distributions; silk, no more an exclusive product for high-priced boutiques, has now
become more visible and touchable on the shelves of the super markets and departmental
stores; (v) New Consumers: Silk was confined mostly to womens wear and men could
expect at the most a silk tie. Now men can find shirts, jerkins, socks, T-shirts, shorts and
few other items, which are exclusively made from natural silk.
According to ISA Secretary General a large scale import of silk garments have not
captured the market share once held by traditional products but have created a new
market in which silk was never present in any appreciable quantities. Though there are
no in-depth market studies on this aspect, he feels it seems unlikely that there has been a
transfer of consumers from traditional up-market, luxury products to inexpensive
everyday products. Thus France, Italy and Switzerland continue to process raw silk to
turn out most expensive scarves, ties and women wear for high fashion aristocratic
clients. Even in Asia, though Japanese kimono has lost its appeal among young ones,
the silk consumption has shot up with Japanese going for western clothing. In India,
traditional silk sari continues to hold its sway over women, both young and old for
ceremonial wear, the young generation loves silk as dress material.
The wave of sand-washed silk garments seems to have ebbed in Europe and USA and
several ilk lovers did call this development as vulgarization and condemned the flood of
cheap silk garments as damaging the queenly status of silk. Even some purists also
condemn the growing concept of silk blends. But such fears are not likely to lower the
prestigious position of silk. It is the quality of the product which will make people
continue to buy silk, according to ISA, which feels quality can be guaranteed with
adoption of ISO 9000 standards, which are designed to offer the consumer guaranteed
performance and quality.
The future of silk through the 21st century seems quite bright. Though consumption is
likely to rise despite its high prices, the question mark is whether the silk production will
keep pace with the shooting demand. Japan is foremost in silk consumption; Chinese
enjoying high standard of living are also boosting demand for silk within the country and
almost 85 per cent of rising silk production in India is consumed within the country and
has to import up to 5,000 MT every year to meet shortfall in demand. The ecology factor
is pushing demand for silk in Europe and USA. And the Middle East Arabs adore silk for
24

the flowing robes, prayer mats and carpets. The global production during the twenty-first
century may not rise and with the spread of industrialization and shortage of farm labor,
the availability of natural fibers may shrink substantially. In fact, during 1998, the global
production of cotton is reported to have declined 6 per cent and wool production seems to
have dropped by two per cent.
The fiber trend also covers silk. The worldwide natural fiber survey by Fiber Organon
(December 1998) reports that the future global growth impacts appear to be dependent on
technical breakthroughs, perhaps from genetic engineering leading to high yield per acre
and a more competitive cost position versus synthetic fibers. China, the worlds leading
silk producer continues to lose its mulberry acreage, cocoon production and is not able to
raise its raw silk output. Brazil is also witnessing stagnant silk production. India and
Thailand produce mainly multivoltine silk and raw silk not suitable for automatic reeling.
Unless Indias recent success in producing bivoltine silk in tropical climate succeed
commercially and quickly covers most of silk producing regions in the country, there is
no hope of higher silk production during the century.
The purity and sanctity of silk can be best promoted through introduction of silk mark
and promotion campaigns. This is also ISA recommendation; it deplores lack of
promotion for silk even while advertising high-priced haute couture dresses. It is
necessary for ISA to evolve a joint strategy for silk promotion with worlds top fashion
designers and large departmental stores marketing their high priced silk.

25

Chapter 2: Morphology of silk gland, silk proteins and their

synthesis
The silk gland of larva Bombyx mori is a typical exocrine gland secreting large amounts
of silk proteins. The gland consists of three divisions. The posterior division secretes
fibroin which is the main silk component of a simple sequence of amino acids. The
gelatinous silk components, 3 types of sericin which coat the fibroin, are secreted by
different regions of the middle division. The anterior division is a mere duct lined with a
thick cuticular intima, and does not contribute to the secretion of silk materials. Tracheal
branches are distributed along the posterior and middle divisions.
The silk gland is basically a tube made up of huge polyploid cells, each with an
extremely ramified nucleus containing numerous nucleoli. Nuclear ramification develops
gradually as the larvae grow and reach conspicuous size in the 4 th and 5th instars.
Ramification considerably enlarges the nuclear surface and apparently facilitates the
transfer of materials related to the silk synthesis between the nucleus and cytoplasm. The
latter shows a basophilic striped structure with a faintly stained layer of fibroin. The 3
types of sericin secreted from different parts of the middle gland division, are called the
inner, middle and outer layer sericin. Shibukawa reported that the inner layer sericin also
reacts strongly in the histochemical Millon test for xanthoproteins. However a weak
response in histochemical protein tests is obtained with the outer layer sericin which
seems to contain predominantly lipids and polysaccharides. The three types of sericin can
also be distinguished by X-ray analysis.
According to secretory products and other characteristics the middle silk gland division is
further divided into a posterior part (piece), distal and proximal portions of a medial part,
and an anterior part.
The silkworm Bombyx mori possesses a pair of long, tubular organs called the silk
glands which are divided into anatomically and functionally distinct regions (Suzuki,
1977). The silk glands produce the major classes of silk proteins. Fibroin, the silk
fibre protein is synthesized in the posterior silk gland (PSG) (Couble et al., 1983;
Kimura et al., 1985), and sericins, a group of adhesive proteins that coat the fibroin are
produced in the middle silk gland (MSG) (Ishikawa and Suzuki, 1985). The genes that
encode these proteins are actively expressed in a developmental stage specific manner
mainly during the fifth instar of larval development (Suzuki,1977; Prudhomme and
Couble, 1979).
The silk glands of B. mori are fully formed at the end of embryonic development
(Goldsmith and Kafatos, 1984) and no further cell divisions take place afterwards.
However, the cells grow much larger in size as development progresses. The nuclei of
silk gland cells undergo dramatic changes in morphology in the course of larval
maturation. During larval development, DNA synthesis in the middle and the posterior
silk glands continues without cell division. The DNA content of these polyploid nuclei
increases by about 2105 times over that of the diploid nuclei (Gage, 1974; Tashiro et al.,
1968). Many rounds of endormtotic DNA replication (Suzuki et al., 1972; Suzuki,
1977; Tazima, 1978; Perdrix-Gillot, 1979) occur during the last 3 instars: an average of
18-19 doublings in the posterior, 1920 in the middle, and 13 in the anterior silk gland.
Due to polyploidization the nuclei of silk gland cells become progressively ramified. In
fact, at the middle of the fifth instar an extremely ramified nucleus spreads all over within
the cell (Akai, 1983). Fragility, the highly lobate nature of the ramified nuclei and the
26

presence within the cells of a large amount of silk proteins, which are either easily
transformed into insoluble masses or coprecipitate with nuclei, pose major difficulties
in preparing pure nuclei (Suzuki and Giza, 1976). It requires special care to isolate nuclei
of such unusual morphology. We have standardized a simpleprocedure to isolate the
nuclei in sufficient purity. The pure preparations of nuclei were used to analyse the
histone-and low-salt-extractable proteins. Electrophoresis of the extracted proteins from
middle and posterior silk gland nuclei on different days of the fourth and fifth instars was
carried out to examine any tissue and developmental stage specific variations. The silk
gland of Bombyx mori has served as a convenient model system for the study of tissue
specific and developmental stage specific gene expression (Suzuki, 1977; Prudhomme
and Couble, 1979). The MSG and PSG are made up of approximately 255 and 520
cells respectively (Goldsmith and Kafatos, 1984). During larval development, the cells
continue to grow larger in size without division. The nuclei also do not divide; however,
the DNA replication continues. As a result, the nuclei grow enormously large in size and
become ramified. It has proved to be a formidable task to isolate intact nuclei from the
silk gland. Isolation of nearly satisfactory preparations of nuclei from the silk glands have
been recently reported (Ichimura et al., 1985; Kondo et al., 1987). Fluorescence
microscopy of the nuclei after staining with acridine orange and their macromolecular
composition demonstrated their purity. Our nuclear preparations were clean and were
devoid of cytoplasmic contamination. However, the fragility of the ramified nuclei was
evident even in our preparations. It was of interest to investigate the origin and the
molecular mechanism of the formation of the higher order structure of the giant ramified
nuclei and the chromatin in the nuclei of silk gland cells of B. mori. The MSG and PSG
of different days of third, fourth and fifth instar, when treated with collagenase and
stained with dyes (orcein or acridine orange) showed the ramified morphology of the cell
nuclei. The ramification of the nucleus starts from the late third instar and due to
progressive ramification the nucleus occupies almost the entire cell volume by the middle
of the fifth instar.
The silk glands of B. mori are highly differentiated to produce the silk proteins. The
production of silk occurs in a tissue-specific and development stage specific manner.
From the reported literature on the control of gene expression in analogous systems, it is
evident that the formation of appropriate chromatin structures is necessary for the control
of in vivo transcription. The association and distribution of proteins on the chromatin are
expected to show differences depending on the stateexpressing or non-expressingof
the genome. The histone protein pattern in MSG or PSG did not show any differences at
any stage. The presence of a 50 kDa nonhistone protein, however, in both MSG and
PSG nuclei only during the fifth instar was conspicuous; this protein was absent in the
fourth instar. Since it is known that massive silk production starts only towards the end
of the fifth instar, the appearance of this protein during the fifth instar may be of
significance. The synthesis of silk involves the production of fibroin and sericin, and
other accessory proteins, as well as the necessary gearing-up of the system. Since the 50
kDa protein was found in both MSG and PSG, it may not be directly related to
fibroin synthesis but rather may be involved in the regulation of expression of any or
all of fifth instar protein(s) including the silk-related proteins. In order to assign a
specific function to this 50 kDa protein in silk glands, we have begun by taking an
immunological approach to detect it in nuclear extracts.
27

Although this protein was not highly antigenic, we could demonstrate the presence of
specific antibodies in serum of immunized rabbit by the sensitive Western blotting
method. We propose to use this antibody to isolate and purify the specific protein(s) from
the fifth instar glands by the immuno-affinity procedure. The relation, if any, between the
appearance of the 50 kDa protein in a developmental stage specific manner in both MSG
and PSG and the synthesis of silk proteins is not evident at this point of time.
With its many inherent merits, the silkworm Bombyx mori has been established as a
domesticated insect exploited for sericulture and as a model system for basic research.
The growing collection of the silkworm genetic stock worldwide some 3000 genotypes
places B. mori second to Drosophila for genetic studies in insects (Nagaraju et al.,
2001). Amongst the biological processes investigated in B. mori, the study of the
differentiation of the silk gland, the organ that synthesizes, secretes, and organizes the
silk proteins into a thread, has attracted constant attention.
The silk gland is very simply organized as a one-cell layered glandular epithelium that
comprises two distinct types of secretory cells, the one that produces fibroin and the other
that synthetizes sericins, the two components of silk. The high specialization of these
cells provides an excellent opportunity to study the repertoire of regulatory factors that
specify each of them. Investigations on the regulation of silk protein genes have
identified a series of transcription factors, which may also play key functions in the
development of the silk gland. They have, moreover, suggested that chromatinremodeling activities are very important in modifying the accessibility of the
transcription factors to their target DNA sequences in the two categories of secretory
cells. Thus, both qualitative and quantitative differences in regulatory gene expression
probably induce the selective activation of the promoters of the different silk encoding
genes in the two categories of cells. One challenging problem that remains is to
understand how these transcriptional differences are achieved during the course of
development of the silk gland and how they are maintained during the impressive
postembryonic growth of the organ.
This review aims at summarizing our current knowledge on the development of the silk
gland and the mode of production of silk proteins. The Functioning of the Silk Gland: 1.
The Silk Gland Epithelium: The silk gland of B. mori is a tubular epithelium p0015
divided in three regions with precise cell-to-cell boundaries and a fixed number of cells
(Figure 1). The posterior (PSG) and the middle (MSG) silk gland are secretory territories
specialized for the massive production of the silk proteins. The domesticated silkworm,
Bombyx mori Linn., a lepidopteran molecular model and an important economic insect
that are emerging as an ideal molecular genetic resource for solving a broad range of
biological problems. The silkworm, B. mori produces massive amount of silk proteins
during the final stage of larval development. These proteins are stored in the middle silk
gland and they are discharged through the anterior duct and spinneret, at the end of the
fifth instar. Two kinds of silk proteins have been distinguished as major components of
silk cocoons, the first being fibroin, a fibrous protein composed of heavy (H) chain, Light
(L) chain and glycoprotein linked by disulfide bonds and the second being sericin a
natural macromolecular protein, serving as an adhesive to unite fibroin for making silk
cocoons of silkworm, B. mori. Recently, silkworm is being used as biofactory for the
production of useful protein using the silk gland, which has promoted the technological
development in sericulture. With the above background silkworm can be classified as a
28

value added biomaterial for medical application, application of silk protein fibroin and
sericin as a biomaterial and other seri-byproducts. The present paper overviews some
important studies carried out on sericin and fibroin of silkworm, Bombyx mori Linn.
Insects mainly belong to two families, viz., Saturnidae and Bombycidae, which spins silk
fibre. Bombyx mori belongs to Bombycidae produces a delicate twin thread of silk
fibroin, which is coated by a protective cover of sericin. Silk protein is a kind of protein
like collagen, elastin, keratin, fibroin, sporgin etc.,is an essential constituent of cocoon
filament (Komatsu, 1975).
The silk fiber protein is synthesized by silk gland cells and stored in the lumen of the silk
glands. Subsequently, it is converted into silk fibres. When the silkworms secrete the
liquid silk during the spinning, it passes through the anterior gland and expelled out
through the spinneret opening (Shimizu,2000). Quantity and nature of sericin are
fundamental characteristics in conferring distinctive traits to the cocoon (Sadov et al.,
1987).
Sericin is insoluble in cold water, however, it is easily hydrolyzed, where by the long
protein molecules brakes down to smaller fractions, which are easily dispersed, or
solubilised in hot water (Gulrajani, 1988). Sericin protein is useful because of its special
properties viz., resists oxidation, antibacterial, UV resistant and absorbs and release
moisture easily, inhibitory activity of tyrosine and kinase etc. (Fig 1). Sericin, a major
component of silk fiber, has been selectively removed from fibroin during the silk
manufacturing process to make silk lustrous and the removed sericin goes as waste
material. Nowadays Seri- waste products and Seri- byproducts are used as a value added
products.
After Degumming, the leftover is fibroin made up of two brins. Silk fibre can be used for
many purposes including textile, medical and industrial applications. The silk fibre is
thin, long, light and soft. It is well known for its water absorbency, dyeing affinity,
thermo tolerances, insulation properties and luster (Fig 2). It is the raw material for
producing precious fabrics, parachutes, tyre lining materials, artificial blood vessels and
surgical sutures. Phillips et al., (2005) reported that ionic liquid could hold the key to the
production of designer silk fibers with enhanced mechanical and optical properties.
The silk fibers have outstanding natural properties, which rival the most advanced
synthetic polymers, yet unlike synthetic polymers the production of silk does not require
harsh processing conditions. It is reported that the introduction of ionic liquids to silk
processing opens an exciting avenue for controlling the microstructure to tune the
macroscopic properties.
It is estimated that out of about 1 million tons (fresh weight) of cocoons produced world
wide approximately 4, 00,000 tons of dry cocoon are generated, that have 50,000 tons of
recoverable sericin. Indian production of 1,600 tons of silk can be source of about 250 to
300 tons of sericin per year (Gulrajani, 2005). If this sericin protein is recovered and
recycled, it would be a significant economic and social benefit.
SILK GLAND: The natural silk synthesized by the silkworm and spun in the form of a
silk cocoon is originally synthesized in the silk gland. Silk gland of B. mori is a typical
exocrine gland secreting large amount of silk proteins. It is a paired organ consisting of
modified labial/salivary glands located at the two lateral sides under the alimentary canal.
Each gland is basically a tube made of glandular epithelium with two rows of cells
surrounding the lumen.
29

The cells constituting the gland are huge polyploid cells each with extremely ramified
nucleus containing numerous nucleoli. Nuclear ramification develops gradually as the
larva grows and reaches conspicuous size in the 4th and 5th instars. Ramification
considerably enlarges the nuclear surface and apparently facilitates the transfer of
materials related to the silk synthesis between the nucleus and the cytoplasm. According
to its morphology and function, the silk gland can be divided into three distinct regions
(Fig 3).
The posterior part, about 15 cm long and is composed of about 500 secretary cells, which
synthesize silk fibroin. The middle silk gland in the lumen of which silk proteins are
stored until spinning, is about 7 cm long and contains about 300 secretory cells producing
silk sericin, the protein which cements the fibroin thread of the cocoon. The anterior part
about 2 cm long is a thin duct composed of about 250 cells with no known secretory
function. Akai et al., (2005) reported that the Bombyx mori silk gland secretes one fibroin
and three layers of sericin from the each posterior and middle silk gland in a normal
larva. The Nd-sD mutant is silk fibroin secretion deficient. In the mutant, a disulfide
linkage between the heavy (H) chain and light (L) chain is not formed because of partial
deletion of the L-chain gene, which is essential for the intercellular transport and
secretion of fibroin. To utilize the inactivity of the mutant L-chain, Inoue et al., (2005)
investigated the possibility of using the NdsD mutant for the efficient production of
recombinants in the silkworm. The posterior silk glands are not sufficiently developed
and the liquid fibroin is scarcely secreted, but there is no such disorder in the middle silk
glands. Yamamoto et al., (2002) have introduced a new silkworm race which produces
only sericin in Japan in the name of Sericin Hope introducing Nd-sD mutant. Feiying et
al., (2005) studied the analysis of protein variety of middle silk gland cells of the fifth
instar larvae of silkworm, B. mori at different developmental stages.
The silk gland has the capacity to produce large amount of silk proteins. In order to use as
a foreign proteins, piggyBac vectors were developed to express transgenes in the silk
gland using silk gene promoters to drive the expression of the integrated foreign genes.
Several promoters were tested to synthesize foreign proteins like procollagen III or
globular ones and successfully produced in the silk glands of Bombyx mori (Chavancy,
2005).
COMPOSITION OF THE COCOON FILAMENT: Gulrajani (1988) reported that the silk
fiber is almost a pure protein fiber composed of two types of proteins viz., sericin and
fibroin. Sericin is chemically a non-filamentous protein. Besides sericin, raw silk also
contain other natural impurities namely, fat and waxes, inorganic salts and colouring
mater. Rui (1998) studied the outer layer of the silk fiber and revealed that the sericin
content is more in outer layer, where in fibroin content is less.
SILK PROTEIN FROM THE SILK GLAND: Silk fibroin secreted in the lumen of
posterior silk gland (PSG) of B. mori consists of three protein component: High (H)chain 350 k Da (Shimura et al., 1982, Zhou et al., 2000), Low (L) - chain 26 k Da
(Yamaguchi et al., 1989), and Glycoprotein P25 30 k Da (Chevillard et al., 1986a,
1986b). These three types of fibroin (H-chain, L-chain and P 25) are common among
different silk producing insects in Lepidoptera, although the fibroin of Saturnidae species
30

secreted as dimer of Hchain. Quantitative enzyme linked immuneosorbent assay (ELISA)

with specific antibody for each protein component showed that the molar ratio of Hchain, L-chain, and P 25 is 6:6:1 for the fibroin secreted into the posterior silk gland
(PSG). The N-linked oligosaccharide chain of P25 has been suggested to be involved in
the later interactions (Inoue et al., 2000). Fibrohexamer was proposed as a functional
name of P25 and its central role is maintaining the structure of elementary unit. The
disulfide linkage between Cys-172 of the L-chain and Cys-c20 of the H-chain (Tanaka et
al., 1999) is not responsible for the maintenance of the once formed elementary unit
(Inoue et al., 2000). But the H-L linkage is essential for the large-scale production of
fibroin (Mori et al., 1995), because fibroin is retained in endoplasmic reticulum in the
absence of disulfide linkage between the H and L-chains (Gamo and Sato, 1985). Akai et
al., (1987) observed the fine structural change of liquid columnar fibroin in the lumen of
silk gland during the passage from the posterior to the anterior silk gland during the
spinning stage, in order to analyze the mechanism involved in the formation of a single
cocoon filament.
In the posterior part of the posterior silk gland, the columnar fibroin located in the lumen
consisted of numerous spherical masses of fibroin fibers (MFFs). These MFFs adhered
closely together showing a higher concentration in the posterior part of the middle silk
gland, and become homogeneous and compact in the anterior silk gland. By the
observation of various portion of silk gland, it is concluded that the cocoon filament is
composed of oriented elementary fibroin fibers and these fibers are derived from MFFs
as they undergo structural change during the passage through the silk gland lumen.
Komatsu (1975) postulated molecular aggregating structure of sericin and its changes.
The part of the liquid sericin in the middle silk gland that is easily crystallized by drying
is possibly made of amino acid residues with short side-chains and is folded into the
globular matrix made of stretches with longer side-chains, crystallizing less readily and
on drying, become film of unoriented crystal structure. When this film is swollen in
water, stretched and dried, it changes to oriented fiber structure. However, since the
orientation is unstable by hot water treatment and thus there is a reversible relationship
between the orientation and non-orientation.

31

Chapter 3
Textile fibres and Silk
Merely mentioning silk causes the mind to think luxury. Reading how silk is made and
the history behind the production of silk is absolutely fascinating... and makes
understanding the cost associated with silk seem like a bargain! The variations in silk
prices come from the variety of silkworms and the quality of the cocoons associated with
the type of worm.
Sericulture is the production of raw silk by raising silkworms. The main producers of silk
are China and Japan. China is credited with the first production of silk around 3000BC.
Production of silkworms relies on many environmental elements which affect the
feasibility of silk production in other parts of the world.
Silk fibers are collected from cocoons of the silk worm which is the caterpillar stage of
the silk moth Bombyx mori. The silk worms are treated to a luxurious life to produce
their cocoons. Their environment is kept at controlled temperatures through their life
cycles to insure they will live to produce a cocoon. The worm stage is fed crushed
mulberry leaves around the clock, allowing it to multiply its weight 10,000 times within a
month.
Each silkworm cocoon is made up of a single fiber that is 600 to 900 meters long. Five to
eight strands of the filament that are unwound from a silk worm cocoon are used to create
silk thread. The silk thread is then used to create silk fabric. Imagine how many
silkworms were breed to produce one silk blouse!
Silk in eleven language: Chinese-Si, English-Silk, French-Soie, German-Seide, IndianResham, Italian-Seta, Japanese-Kino, Korean-Soi, Latin-Sericum, Russian-Solk, SpanishSeda
The textile tradition in India has been conditioned by a number of factors, like geography,
climate, local culture, social customs, availability of raw material etc. A variety of raw
material like silk, cotton, wool, jute etc is used in India for creating fabric. The geoclimatic and bio diversity of India has given birth to a myriad of textiles and weaving
throughout India. Local, foreign markets and export potential dictate the traditional
textile scenario of today.The hilly and alpine region of the country has a rich array of
woolen textiles.
The world famous pashmina and shahtoosh shawls of Kashmir are fine examples of the
woolen textile of our country, so are the shawls and garments from Himachal Pradesh and
the North Eastern states. Shawls from these regions are also popular abroad. The textiles
from the arid and semi arid regions are bright and have rich embroidery on them. The
people in the coastal areas of the south and eastern regions prefer garments made of white
fabrics. Cotton and silk textiles are popular in these areas. Utilitarian items such as
cushions, bed sheets, covers, table mats, napkins, curtains etc are produced throughout
the country. Each state has its own unique contribution in making these utilitarian items.
Silk and cotton weaving predominate the weaving traditions in India. Silk weaving is
common in most parts of the country, important centers being Mysore, Assam, Banaras,
Murshidabad, Surat, Kanchipuram and Paithan etc. There are numerous centers, which
specialize in silk and cotton sari weaving. Some of the sari traditions which are popular
32

are-Banarsi brocades, Maheshwari, Pochampalli, Kancheevaram, Patola, Paithani,

Baluchari etc to name a few. The famous himroo and mushroo fabrics of Hyderabad are
splendid examples of mixed fabric (cotton and silk).
The mulberry silk which is largely produced in Assam is also a rare variety of silk used
for making saree and traditional dress material. It's a traditional custom to wear mulberry
silk outfit in the new year festival of Assam called bihu. This is a yellowish and brown
colored delicate material produced from the mulberry silk cocoon which survives on
mulberry tree leaves.
The tradition of Appliqu and embroidery is well known to Indians since ancient times.
Punjab is famous for its Phulkari work, which is a rich form of Appliqu. Appliqu work
from Kutchh region of Gujarat is also very ornate and is done on bright fabrics. It is also
famous amongst the tribals of Orissa, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh. The city of
Lucknow is world famous for its Chikan style of embroidery, so is the crewelwork from
Kashmir. Gujarat, Punjab, Karnataka, Rajasthan and West Bengal all have their distinct
styles of embroidery.
Tie and dye, hand printing and block printing are common across the country and come
in numerous styles, influenced by local factors. The Tie and dye technique of printing in
particular is popular in the arid and semi arid regions of the country where people prefer
brightly coloured clothes. The states of Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh
are main centers for block printing.
What is silk: Man is always inquisitive for silk products. SILK - The Queen of Textiles,
spells luxury, elegance, class and comfort. Mankind has always loved this shimmering
fibre of unparalleled grandeur from the moment Chinese Empress Shiling Ti discovered it
in her tea cup. It withstood many a daunting challenges from other natural and artificial
fibres and yet, remained the undisputed Queen of Textiles since centuries. Exquisite
qualities like the natural sheen, inherent affinity for dyes and vibrant colours, high
absorbance, light weight, resilience and excellent drape etc. have made silk, the
irresistible and inevitable companion of the eve, all over the world.
Chemically speaking, silk is made of proteins secreted in the fluid state by a caterpillar,
popularly known as 'silkworm'. These silkworms feed on the selected food plants and
spin cocoons as a 'protective shell' to perpetuate the life. Silkworm has four stages in
its life cycle viz., egg, caterpillar, pupa and moth. Man interferes this life cycle at the
cocoon stage to obtain the silk, a continuous filament of commercial importance, used in
weaving of the dream fabric.
Why is silk: Silk is a high value but low volume product accounting for only 0.2 % of
world's total textile production. Silk production is regarded as an important tool for
economic development of a country as it is a labour intensive and high income generating
industry that churns out value added products of economic importance. The developing
countries rely on it for employment generation, especially in rural sector and also as a
means to earn the foreign exchange.

33

Where do we find silk: Geographically, Asia is the main producer of silk in the world and
produces over 95 % of the total global output. Though there are over 40 countries on the
world map of silk, bulk of it is produced in China and India, followed by Japan, Brazil
and Korea. China is the leading supplier of silk to the world with an annual production of
153942 MT (2006).Out of Which the Mulberry raw silk product is 115092 MT.
India is the second largest producer of silk with 18475 MT (2006-07) and also the largest
consumer of silk in the world. It has a strong tradition and culture bound domestic market
of silk. In India, mulberry silk is produced mainly in the states of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Jammu & Kashmir and West Bengal, while the non-mulberry silks
are produced in Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Orissa and north-eastern states.
Types of silk: There are five major types of silk of commercial importance, obtained from
different species of silkworms which in turn feed on a number of food plants. These are:
Mulberry, Oak Tasar & Tropical Tasar, Mugaand Eri.

a. Introduction to Textile Fibres Natural Fibres vs. Man

Made Fibres
A textile is a flexible material comprised of a network (interlacement/interloping/bonded)
of a natural or artificial fibres. The term textile is a latin word taken from the word
texere which means to weave. The term textile covers fibres, yarns and fabrics.
Production methods include two processes-dry processing and wet processing. Dry
processing method includes- fibre processing, dry spinning, weaving, knitting,
crocheting, felting, braiding, knotting, netting. Wet processing includes following stepswet spinning, preparation process, coloration process, finishing process.
Fibre is a basic and fundamental unit of textiles. It is a long slender thread like structure
of cell. It is the smallest entity of textiles we wear. Thickness of these fibres tends to
range from about 10m to 50m.

b. Physical and Chemical Properties of Silk

Physical properties: Silk fibers from the Bombyx mori silkworm have a triangular cross
section with rounded corners, 5-10 m wide. The fibroin-heavy chain is composed
mostly of beta-sheets, due to a 59-mer amino acid repeat sequence with some variations.
The flat surfaces of the fibrils reflectlight at many angles, giving silk a natural shine. The
cross-section from other silkworms can vary in shape and diameter: crescent-like
forAnaphe and elongated wedge for tussah. Silkworm fibers are naturally extruded from
two silkworm glands as a pair of primary filaments (brin), which are stuck together, with
sericin proteins that act like glue, to form a bave. Bave diameters for tussah silk can reach
65 m. See cited reference for cross-sectional SEM photographs.
Silk has a smooth, soft texture that is not slippery, unlike many synthetic fibers. Silk is
one of the strongest natural fibers but loses up to 20% of its strength when wet. It has a
good moisture regain of 11%. Its elasticity is moderate to poor: if elongated even a small
amount, it remains stretched. It can be weakened if exposed to too much sunlight. It may
also be attacked by insects, especially if left dirty.
34

Silk is a poor conductor of electricity and thus susceptible to static cling. Unwashed silk
chiffon may shrink up to 8% due to a relaxation of the fiber macrostructure. So silk
should either be washed prior to garment construction, or dry cleaned. Dry cleaning may
still shrink the chiffon up to 4%. Occasionally, this shrinkage can be reversed by a gentle
steaming with a press cloth. There is almost no gradual shrinkage nor shrinkage due to
molecular-level deformation.
Natural and synthetic silk is known to manifest piezoelectric properties in proteins,
probably due to its molecular structure.
Silkworm silk was used as the standard for the denier, a measurement of linear density in
fibers. Silkworm silk therefore has a linear density of approximately 1 den, or 1.1 dtex.
Chemical properties: Silk emitted by the silkworm consists of two main proteins, sericin
and fibroin, fibroin being the structural center of the silk, and serecin being the sticky
material surrounding it. Fibroin is made up of the amino acids Gly-Ser-Gly-Ala-Gly-Ala
and forms beta pleated sheets. Hydrogen bonds form between chains, and side chains
form above and below the plane of the hydrogen bond network.
The high proportion (50%) of glycine, which is a small amino acid, allows tight packing
and the fibers are strong and resistant to breaking. The tensile strength is due to the many
interseeded hydrogen bonds, and when stretched the force is applied to these numerous
bonds and they do not break.
Silk is resistant to most mineral acids, except for sulfuric acid, which dissolves it. It is
yellowed by perspiration.
c. Uses of Silk.
Silk's absorbency makes it comfortable to wear in warm weather and while active. Its low
conductivity keeps warm air close to the skin during cold weather. It is often used for
clothing such as shirts, ties, blouses, formal dresses, high fashion clothes, lingerie,
pyjamas, robes, dress suits, sun dresses and Eastern folk costumes. Silk's attractive lustre
and drape makes it suitable for many furnishing applications. It is used for upholstery,
wall coverings, window treatments (if blended with another fiber), rugs, bedding and wall
hangings.[citation needed] While on the decline now, due to artificial fibers, silk has had
many industrial and commercial uses; parachutes, bicycle tires, comforter filling and
artillery gunpowderbags.
A special manufacturing process removes the outer irritant sericin coating of the silk,
which makes it suitable as non-absorbable surgical sutures. This process has also recently
led to the introduction of specialist silk underclothing for children and adults with eczema
where it can significantly reduce itch.[citation needed] New uses and manufacturing
techniques have been found for silk for making everything from disposable cups to drug
delivery systems and holograms. To produce 1 kg of silk, 104 kg of mulberry leaves must
be eaten by 3000 silkworms. It takes about 5000 silkworms to make a pure silk kimono.
The construction of silk is called sericulture. The major silk producers are China (54%)
and India(14%).
Silk: Silk has been intermingled with the life and culture of the Indians. Though India is
producing all the varieties of silk i.e., dress materials, scarves/stoles, readymade
garments, etc., the silk sarees are unique. The saree is almost synonymous with the word
silk. It is the traditional costume of Indian woman since time immemorial. There are
innumerable references in Indian literature about this draped garment and the style of
35

wearing differs from time to time, region to region and people to people. The silk sarees
of India are among the living examples of the excellent craftsmanship of the weavers of
the country.
The artistic and aesthetic sense of Indian weavers is not content with striking colours they
choose for the fabrics, but lies in their mastery over the creation of floral designs,
beautiful textures, fine geometry and the durability of such work. The weaver not only
weaves with yarn but with intense feeling and emotion. In India, there are a number of
silk weaving centers spread all over the country, known for their distinct and typical style
and products. For Indians, particularly ladies, silk is lifeline - the elixir. Silk is always
woven interwoven with way of life and culture of a region. Craftsmen all over the
Indian sub-continent tried to master the weaving of sarees as exclusive as one can think
of, putting motif designs, colours, pattern and versatility in them. No two sarees can be of
same design left to the choice of weaver, thus there is innumerable pattern or diversity.
Over the years, specific centres sprung and developed to promote a particular pattern of
design / weaving and they became distinct. Some of the famous silk centers in India are
as under:State Silk centre
1
Andhra Pradesh
Dharmavaram, Pochampalli, Venkatagiri, Narainpet
2
Assam Sualkuchi
3
Bihar Bhagalpur
4
Gujarat
Surat, Cambay
5
Jammu & Kashmir Srinagar
6
Karnataka
Bangalore, Anekal, Ilkal, Molakalmuru, Melkote, Kollegal
7
Chattisgarh Champa, Chanderi, Raigarh
8
Maharashtra Paithan
9
Tamil Nadu Kanchipuram, Arni, Salem, Kumbhakonam, Tanjavur
10
Uttar Pradesh Varanasi
11
West Bengal Bishnupur, Murshidabad, Birbhum
The Brocades of Banaras: Situated on the banks of the holy river Ganges, Varanasi is
famous for its finest silk sarees and brocades. These sarees are known for rich and
intricately woven motifs of leaf, flowers, fruits, birds, etc. on a soft colour background.
They are enriched with intricate borders and heavily decorated pallus. The centre is also
known for its gauzi silver and gold tissues, which are ultra light in weight and delicate.
The kinkab of Banaras is legendary. It is a glittering weave of gold and silver threads.
The pure silk with a touch of gold is called baftaand the finely woven brocade of
variegated silk is known as Amru.
The tricks of tie and dye: The resist dyeing techniques has been practiced in India since
centuries. There are two distinct traditions in this technique. Thepatola or ikat technique
involves the dyeing of the tie-resist yarn. Thebandhej or bndhini involves the dyeing of
the fabric.
The tie and dye weaves of Orissa known as ikats employ the yarn resist method for both
warp and weft with diffused effect. But the overall pattern is boldly articulated as in
confident strikes of a brush. Both mulberry and tasar silks are used in the weaving of
these ikats.
The patolas are known for their precision subtlety and beauty. Here, both warp and weft
are dyed by dye resist method in a range of five or six traditional colours like red, indigo,
36

blue, emerald green, black or yellow. The exact and highly skilled process ensures that
when the fabric is woven, the design will appear precisely and create a magnificently
coloured and figured ground of great richness and beauty with birds, flowers, animals,
dancers, etc. in a geometrically stylized perfection.
In bandhej or bndhini, the finely woven fabric is knotted tightly and dyed to achieve a
distinct design. The sarees, odhnis (veils) and turbans of these regions are a medley of
brilliant colours. The bndhini of Kutch is unmatched for their fineness of the minutely
tied knots, the magnificence of the colours and the perfect designs.
The tanchoi brocade was named after the three Parsi brothers called choi who learnt this
art in China and introduced it to Surat. The choi brocade is usually a dark satin weave,
purple or dark red in ground colour, embellished with motifs of flowers, creepers, birds
all over design. South India is the leading silk producing area of the country also known
for its famous silk weaving enclaves like Kancheepuram, Dharmavaram, Arni, etc. While
the temple towns like Kancheepuram are renowned for their magnificent heavy silk
sarees of bright colours with silver or gold zari works, the centers like Bangalore and
Mysore are known for their excellent printed silks.
The traditional handloom silks always score over the powerloom silks in the richness of
their textures and designs, in their individuality, character and classic beauty. Handloom
weaving remains a symbol of versatility and creativity of living craft. Today, Indian
silks, especially the handloom products, remain the most beautiful and cherished the
world over.
Sericulture is an agro-based industry. It involves rearing of silkworms for the production
of raw silk, which is the yarn obtained out of cocoons spun by certain species of insects.
The major activities of sericulture comprises of food-plant cultivation to feed the
silkworms which spin silk cocoons and reeling the cocoons for unwinding the silk
filament for value added benefits such as processing and weaving.
Why sericulture:

High employment potential

Provides vibrancy to village economics

Low gestation, high returns

Women friendly occupation

Ideal programme for weaker sections of the society

Eco-friendly activity

Satisfy equity concerns

High employment potential

60 lakh persons are engaged in various sericulture activities in the country

It is estimated that Sericulture can generate employment @ 11 man days per kg of

raw silk production (in on-farm and off-farm activities) throughout the year. This
potential is par-excellence and no other industry generates this kind of employment,
specially in rural areas, hence, sericulture is used as a tool for rural reconstruction.
Provides vibrancy to village economics: About 57 % of the gross value of silk fabrics
flows back to the cocoon growers with share of income to different groups as under:
56.8 % to cocoon grower

6.8% to the reeler

9.1% to the twister

10.7% to the weaver

37


16.6% to the trade
Thus , large chunk of income goes back to the villages from the cities.
Low gestation, high returns

Estimated investments of Rs.12,000 to 15,000 (excluding cost of land and rearing

space) is sufficient for undertaking mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing in one acre
of irrigated land.

Mulberry takes only six months to grow for commencement of silkworm rearing.
Mulberry once planted will go on supporting silkworm rearing year after year for 15-20
years depending on inputs and management provided.

Five crops can be taken in one year under tropical conditions.

By adopting stipulated package of practices, a farmer can attain net income levels
up to Rs.30000 per acre per annum.
Women friendly occupation: Women constitute over 60 % of those employed in downstream activities of sericulture in the country. This is possible because sericulture
activities starting from mulberry garden management, leaf harvesting and silkworm
rearing is more effectively taken up by the women folk. Even silk reeling industry
including weaving is largely supported by them.
Ideal programme for weaker sections of society:

Sericulture can be practiced even with very low land holding.

acre of mulberry garden and silkworm rearing can support a family of three
without hiring labour.

Features such as low gestation, high returns make sericulture an ideal programme
for weaker sections of the society.

Vast tracts of forest based tasar food plantations available in the country, if
judiciously exploited for rearing tasar silkworms, can offer supplementary gainful
employment for tribals.
Eco-friendly activity

As a perennial crop with good foliage and root-spread, mulberry contributes to

soil conservation and provides green cover.

Waste from silkworm rearing can be recycled as inputs to garden.

Dried mulberry twigs and branches are used as fuel in place of firewood and
therefore reduce the pressure on vegetation/forest.

Being a labour intensive and predominantly agro-based activity, involvement of

smoke-emitting machinery is minimal.

Developmental programmes initiated for mulberry plantation are mainly in upland

areas where un-used cultivable land is made productive.

Mulberry can also be cultivated as intercrop with numerous plantations.

Mulberry being a deep-rooted perennial plant can be raised in vacant lands, hill
slopes and watershed areas.

Currently, only about 0.1 % of the arable land in the country is under mulberry
cultivation.
Satisfies equity concerns

Benefits of sectoral value-addition primarily accrue to rural households. As the

end-product users are mostly from the higher economic groups, the money flows from
high end groups to low end groups.

38


Cases of landless families engaged in cocoon production using mulberry
contracted from local farmers are common in some states.
Tips on silk care: Precautions during washing

Always wash silks in soft water. Add a pinch of Borax or Ammonia, if water is
hard.

Use a good neutral soap in the form of either flakes or solution.

Light detergent may also be used in the case of hard water.

Wash in lukewarm water by kneading and squeezing or suction.

Rinse in warm water 2-3 times to remove traces of soap.

Add a few drops of citric acid or acetic acid to the final rinse in cold water.

Silk with doubtful colour fastness may be steeped in cold water with a small
amount of citric or acetic acid for 1-2 minutes before washing. Squeeze lightly by hand to
remove water.

Always dry flat, in shade.

Precautions during Ironing

Use low to medium heat.

Never spray water to dampen silk before ironing. This will cause water spots on
the fabric.

Silk should always be ironed on the reverse side if still damp.

Precautions for storing

Store your silks in a clean and dry environment.

If storage is prolonged, periodic airing and brushing is advisable.

Protect silk from insects, dust, excessive moisture and light.

Avoid direct contact with wood.

Wrap zari sarees in cotton cloth to avoid discoloring of zari.

Keep silica sachets in storage racks.

39

Chapter 4

Silk industry in the World

-Silk industry in China, Japan, South Korea, North Korea, India,
USSR, France, Italy, Brazil, Thailand, Iran, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh,
Pakistan and other countries
Making of silk fabric: The process of making silk is delicate and involves a number of
steps.The first stage is called sericulture. This is the cultivation of the silk worms. The most
popular species for obtaining mulberry silk is Bombyx mori. The worms are raised in a
controlled environment and are fed mulberry leaves. The worms form a cocoon around
themselves by secreting a protein from the top of their head. The farmers collect these
cocoons and deliver them to the factory, where they are subject to filature operations. The
first step is to sort the cocoons according to color, size, shape and texture. Then, the cocoons
are made to go through a serious of hot and cold immersions. In this way, the sericin (the
gummy substance that holds the fibroin strands in the silk filament together) is softened.
Once this is done, the filament is unwound from the cocoon and combined to produce a
thread of raw silk. This is the process of reeling. Usually, three to ten strands are reeled at a
time.
Finally the skeins into which the filament was reeled, are packed into bundles called books
which are then put into bales to be exported to the mill. In the mill, the silk fiber is woven
into silk fabric, using either a hand loom or a power loom.
QUALITY IS THE ISSUE: Silk must be a quality item, it is a natural fiber and appeals to a
lot of people for its smoothness, shine, softness and insulating properties. Silk, however, is
being widely attacked by chemical fibers that sometimes are called in misleading ways to
remind, yet in a wrong way to the customer of silk. Most of the time products are not silkmade, the customer is either deceived or does not really care and the silk market is
endangered. On the whole if we look at the market, the movement in depth is that silk is still
used by fashion and trend designers
in leading fashion countries; but the offer in shops that follows is not always to the same
level owing to slashed price-policy and silk like garments and accessories. In Paris, Milan,
London, New York, Tokyo, Shanghai and Delhi, present silk in the collections and the themes
of comfort, legendary aspects, glamorous looks, which make thriving forever.
HIGH VALUE IS THE SECRET OF SUCCESS: Creativity is besides quality an important
factor. Above all, in order to be seen, silk must be in the right trends for colors. This gives
value to the base fabric that otherwise will be used as a fabric among others. Designers do
not like polyester or acetate or polyamide better. They like the added value, the image content
value that is based on communication for the products. If silk is struggling to find a market or
40

if you continue to see appalling apparel with poor fashion oriented designs or if you give it
the granny award for creativity with losing colors and trims, and last but not least if you
dump the prices in a
fierce blind competition; then, no doubt silk will be killed. On the other hand, show it on
computer presentation, train your public to admire the qualities of silk, explain, educate,
teach, play, make silk a real show business with real qualities behind that you can trust, talk
of the strength of silk as to back the speech with relevant information and then the audience
will feel the magic of a luxury mix. With the amount of research that is put into the
development of new technologies for hybrids production, trans-genetics and breeding in labs,
and sericulture farms around the world, silk has got a very bright and shining future. Just as
smooth as silk.
There are three big sectors, viz., Apparel, Accessories, which is more or less a sub-sector of
apparel and Furnishing. According to these market sectors, people in countries where the
standard of living is high may buy silk because to them it represents something that is needed
for
their social, personal or sensual needs. It is also important to note that well focus here on
silk with a touch of class and high range products. Silk, Indeed is scarce, the last available
report showed that it represents some 0.18% of all the world fibers. Such a quantity is quite a
strong argument for selling silk. However, it must always be made quite clear that silk
demands a level of excellence at every stage of production.
The brisk markets for silk are to be found in the USA for apparel, accessories and furnishing;
in Japan mostly for accessories but also garments; in Europe for accessories, furnishing and
apparel; but also in China and in India where both countries have a part of their population
that enjoys a standard of living as high as some Europeans or North Americans. On the whole
the market for silk is having some difficult time as far as the exchange of raw materials is
concerned. Silk fabric weavers, printers and finishers in Western countries have to face fierce
competition from Asian countries where the level of quality is improving very quickly and
where creative fabrics are more and more to be found. For made ups, the sector of
accessories is the head of the sector pulling all markets upwards. The U.S.A, Japan, Europe,
but also China and India are consuming very high value products from fashionable designers.
They put a lot of money in spending on branded goods.
QUALITY IS THE ISSUE: Silk must be a quality item, it is a natural fiber and appeals to a
lot of people for its smoothness, shine, softness and insulating properties. Silk, however, is
being widely attacked by chemical fibers that sometimes are called in misleading ways to
remind, yet in a wrong way to the customer of silk. Most of the time products are not silkmade, the customer is either deceived or does not really care and the silk market is
endangered.
On the whole if we look at the market, the movement in depth is that silk is still used by
fashion and trend designers in leading fashion countries; but the offer in shops that follows is
not always to the same level owing to slashed price-policy and silk like garments and
accessories. In Paris, Milan, London, New York, Tokyo, Shanghai and Delhi, present silk in
the collections and the themes of comfort, legendary aspects, glamorous looks, which make
thriving forever.
41

HIGH VALUE IS THE SECRET OF SUCCESS: Creativity is besides quality an important

factor. Above all, in order to be seen, silk must be in the right trends for colors. This gives
value to the base fabric that otherwise will be used as a fabric among others. Designers do
not like polyester or acetate or polyamide better. They like the added value, the image content
value that is based on communication for the products.
If silk is struggling to find a market or if you continue to see appalling apparel with poor
fashion oriented designs or if you give it the granny award for creativity with losing colors
and trims, and last but not least if you dump the prices in a fierce blind competition; then, no
doubt silk will be killed. On the other hand, show it on computer presentation, train your
public to admire the qualities of silk, explain, educate, teach, play, make silk a real show
business with real qualities behind that you can trust, talk of the strength of silk as to back the
speech with relevant information and then the audience will feel the magic of a luxury mix.
With the amount of research that is put into the development of new technologies for hybrids
production, trans-genetics and breeding in labs, and sericulture farms around the world, silk
has got a very bright and shining future. Just as smooth as silk.
The global demand for natural textiles fibers has been rising despite growth of manmade
fibers with their diversified properties and cheaper prices; and the world consumption of silk
is also increasing despite its limited, stagnant production and high prices. Its popularity is no
more confined to super-rich or haute couture; silk is now an affordable luxury for the middle
class in Europe and USA, and continues to hold its way in Asia as traditional ceremonial
wear.
Here are gathered, indeed, the main information and analysis regarding the history of
production and trade of this exceptional textile fiber, from the origins of silk to the 21st
century, covering the important changes in the silk scenario, notably in the course of the 20th
century, which explain todays situation and enlighten the future. Japan, the top silk producer
until 1970s has receded to much lower place. Though Japan has made significant advance in
sericulture and silk technology, China has leaped forward both in silkworm rearing and postcocoon silk processing and is enjoying a singular hold over the world market. India has
doubled its silk production and has emerged as the second biggest source to the world
clothiers. Indias recent advances in evolving better bivoltine silkworm strains and upgrading
rural processing technology have encouraged many tropical countries to adopt sericulture for
uplifting their rural population.
The technical sections are also particularly interesting, since they cover sericultural
technologies (mulberry culture, silkworms rearing, seed production) as well as modern
industrial technologies regarding cocoon processing, reeling, weaving and dyeing-printing.
The chapter dedicated to the current results and orientations of research is of a particular
interest and it is quite original in a book dedicated elsewhere to economical aspects and
marketing. The present source book traces recent global status of silk and describes in depth
the sericulture practices country- wise, both in temperate and tropic regions of the world, as
also silk processing, and marketing of raw silk, finished silk and ready-to-wear including
high fashion couture creations of Italy, France and Switzerland.
The 20th century ushered in revolutionary inventions in science and technology and the
global textile scenario too underwent spectacular changes with advent of manmade fibers
during middle of the century. The world of textile fibers, which had remained passive for
three thousand years, has been changing almost every year since middle of the century. The
42

change over from hard labor to mighty machine during the Industrial Revolution,
development of cotton gin during the close of the 19th century, emergence of rayon and
astonishing development of manmade have completely upset the traditional formulae which
hitherto operated the natural fiber industries.

Chapter 5

Silk industry in India

West Bengal, Jammu & Kashmir, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh
and other states (Mulberry and non -Mulberry Sericulture)
India is mainly an agriculture based country, with 65 per cent of its populationdependent
on agriculture for their livelihood. Further, about 70 per cent of the people live inrural
areas and more than 40 per cent of the rural population still live below the poverty line.In
developing countries like India, the small sized holdings of a large proportion of
farmersare considered as one of the main factors causing rural poverty and hindering
agricultural growth. Small holders are able to realize only a part of the production
potential due tophysical, technological and institutional constraints. Government of India
is committed toprovide employment guarantee to one person from each family of below
poverty line in therural areas. Further, in order to control migration of rural poor to urban
places, Government of India has been encouraging regular income and employment
oriented farming occupation, one such potential farming is sericulture.
Sericulture is an important agro based rural industry that helps our economy and
generates higher income and employment. It is practiced in a wide range of agro-climatic
regions like forests, hilly areas and plains. In fact, the recent technological advancements
have made it possible to practise it on an intensive scale, mainly due to increased profits
obtained from it as compared to most of the crops and enterprises.
According to historians, raw silk was exported from India to Rome during the reign of
Kanishka in 58 B.C. During 2006-07 export of Indian silk products earned a foreign
exchange of Rs.2463.87 crores. Silk has a place of pride in the social and cultural lives of
Indians, since it is superior to other textile fibres in qualities like durability, lustre and
low weight. Hence, it is regarded as the Queen of textiles. Sericulture has a special
place among the agro-based cottage industry of our country.
The Government of India initiated various programmes to promote sericulture in the
country,
following which sericulture took a rapid stride towards progress, emerging as one of the
most
economically viable, small scale agro based industries.
India has the unique distinction of being the only country in the world which produces all
the four, known, commercial varieties of silk viz., mulberry, tasar, eri and muga. India is
the second largest mulberry silk producing country after the Republic of China in the
world accounting for 19 per cent of the total global raw silk production. India holds the
world monopoly in the production of muga, the golden yellow silk. In India, during 1980
mulberry

43

area was just 1.55 lakh hectares, it increased to 1.85 lakh hectares during 2004 and silk
cocoon production slightly decreased to 1.17 lakh tonnes. During 2006-07, India had
produced 16,525 metric tonnes of raw silk of which mulberry silk accounts for about 90
percent. Sericulture industry supported millions of rural people in our country by way of
providing employment. The majority of them belong to the economically backward
sections of the society, as well as to scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and adivasis.
Sericulture in India has turned out to be a highly remunerative enterprise with minimum
capital base and yielding reasonably good returns vis--vis other enterprises. It is one of
the most stable enterprises which provides regular flow of returns in the tropical states of
the country throughout the year.
Sericulture effectively transfers urban wealth to rural producers. It provides not only
periodical return within a short period of time but also assure potential family
employment opportunities round the year. About 57 per cent of the gross value of silk
fabrics flows back to the cocoon growers.
Indian silk goods are exported to over fifty countries, important among them being
U.S.A., U.K., U.A.E., Italy, Honduras, Spain, Germany, France, Saudi Arabia, and Hong
Kong. The foreign exchange earnings from the export of silk are also increasing in the
recent years. It was reported that the country earned Rs.2463.87 crores from the export of
silk goods during 2006-07.
Sericulture industry, concerned with the production of silk, is divided into five phases,
viz., cultivation of mulberry, silkworm seed production, rearing of silk worms, reeling of
raw silk and weaving of silk. Cultivation of mulberry and rearing of silk worms are farm
based activities managed by the silk cocoon producers. Mulberry leaf is the host plant for
mulberry silk worm. It is possible to harvest four to six crops per year in tropical areas.
Although sericulture has been practiced on small or medium sized holdings in our
country, the remunerative returns from sericulture have enabled a few large scale ventures
also.
Mulberry leaves form the major share of the cost of cocoon production. Production of
silk depends upon the quantity and quality of the mulberry leaves produced, and in turn,
on cocoons produced. Since sericulture is a state subject, the Government of Karnataka
launched intensive
programmes like Karnataka Sericulture Project with the assistance from the World Bank
to
develop sericulture industry in the state. The idea was to expand the production base and
to
provide a sound infrastructure to the industry.
A large chunk of labour is employed in all the sericulture activities and the industry is a
boon to the labour-surplus countries like India. Sericulture also employs a sizeable share
of women labour. The women participation in sericulture ranges between 55 and 60 per
cent. The year 1994 was observed as The Year of Women in Sericulture. The area under
mulberry and production of silk cocoons in Karnataka during 2006-07 was 97,637
hectares and 58,967 tonnes. Yield gap refers to the difference between the potential yield
(Research Station Yield)
and actual farm yield (realised on the farmers field). Several studies have revealed the
existence of wide yield gaps between the potential yield and actual yields. The estimated

44

yield gaps ranged from 30 to 300 per cent. Such wide ranging yield gaps have been
attributed to varying resource management and cultural practices.
These facts, nevertheless, signify the broad scope for increasing the crop yields through
proper application of inputs at the recommended levels and better management practices.
It is apparent that for the success of new production technologies, proper resource mix
and appropriate cultural practices become prerequisites which are often within the reach
of majority of farmers due to a number of techno-economic and institutional reasons.
The yield gap analysis is a potent research technique that has been introduced in the
1970s. Developed by the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), it is extensively
used to measure and analyse determinants of the yield gaps. The concept of yield gap
provides the information base in this regard. This approach has gained widespread
popularity with researchers, research administrators and policy makers. The findings of
such research have many implications for policy formulation, aimed at alleviating the
constraints causing the yield gaps.
Yield gaps can be conceptually divided into two components; Gap-I and Gap-II. Gap-I is
the gap between experiment stations and the potential farm yield as obtained by an
efficient farmer or in demonstration plots, since the conditions in experiment station
cannot be duplicated on farmers fields. It is hypothesised that yield differences exist
between the levels
obtained at experiment station and the potential of the same varieties on farmers fields.
The
difference or gap is attributed to environmental differences between the experiment
station
and farmers fields and to non-transferable technology.
A gap or difference is also observed between the potential farm yield, (defined as the
highest yield that can be obtained on farmers fields, using modern technology) and the
actual yields obtained by the farmers. This gap, called Gap-II, mostly arises because
farmers use inputs or practices other than optimal, resulting in lower yields. This nonoptimal use of improved practices may be due to inefficient or inadequate extension
activities, besides other physical or socio-economic factors affecting the farming
community in the area. It is this gap that is the focus of this study.
In India, sericulture has made significant headway in the eighties. This has been mainly
because of the introduction of new agricultural technology in the early eighties. However,
it has been somewhat uneven. Varying soil and climatic conditions within the regions and
different levels of economic conditions among the farming population have tended to
cause this distortion. Together with existing disparities, these have led to further widening
of the levels of sericultural development between traditional and non-traditional
sericultural areas. It is also observed that, even though the production level has increased
to a great extent in the recent past; still there exists a wide gap between the actual yield
obtained by the rearers and the production level actually possible with the existing
modern technology. In the agricultural sector, India, which has exhibited average crop
yield of 1040 kg ha-1 for soybean, has still a yield gap index of 78.79 indicating that only
21.21 per cent of existing production potential of soybean is being realised in the country
(Bhatia et al., 2006).

45

Similarly in sericulture, such yield gap can be observed. Hence, the crux of the problem
of growth in agriculture as well as sericulture is how to increase the output per unit of
input and thereby reduce these gaps.
One way of approaching the problem of increasing production is to adopt modern inputs
and improved technology of production within the farms and examining how efficiently
the farmers are using their resources. Since resource use is inefficient, production can be
increased by making adjustments in the use of factors of production in the optimal
direction. Currently, the problem of concern to all is that, even though the cocoon yield
level has increased, there still exists a gap between what is achieved and what could be
achieved in cocoon yield among the rearers. The general belief is that, the silkworm
rearers are not fully exploiting their resources in order to achieve higher yields.
Therefore, an attempt is made to analyse the magnitude of the gaps in attainable cocoon
yields and to explore the possibilities of relaxing existing constraints in order to bridge
the attainable yield gaps and to assess the efficiency of silkworm rearers in resource use.
In this regard the following specific objectives
were formulated.
Sericulture means cultivation of silkworms which finally produces SILK. The word silk
sounds luxury and class. Till today, no other fabric can match it in lustre and elegance. As
long as human desire for silk garments continues, the demand for sericulture activity
remains. Silk is the queen of textile and the naturally produced animal fibre. Sericulture is
an ancient industry in India dating back to at least second century B.C. In its long history
sericulture has passed through periods of great prosperity as well as decline. Sericulture
involves agriculture, art and industry; silkworm rearing is an art in the hands of rural
people; reeling of the silk from the cocoons formed by the worms is an industry
ofdifferent financial investiments. Scientific sericulture is the meeting place for
agriculture and art, art and industry, ancient culture and civilization, the rich and the poor
it reflects the interdependence of these. Silk is a way of life in India. Over thousands of
years, it has become an inseperable part of Indian culture and tradition. No ritual is
complete without silk being used as a wear in some form or the other. Silk is the
undisputed queen of textiles over the centuries. Silk provides much needed work in
several developing and labour rich countries. More than 10 million farmers raise silk in
China today. Sericulture is a cottage industry par excellence. It is one of the most labour
intersive sectors of the Indian economy combining both agriculture and industry, which
provides for means of livelihood to a large section of the population i.e. mulberry
cultivator, co-operative rearer, silkworm seed producer, farmer-cum-rearer, reeler, twister,
weaver, hand spinners of silk waste, traders etc. It is the only one cash crop in agriculture
sector that gives returns within 30 days. This industry provides employment nearly to
three five million people in our country. Sericulture is cultivated in Karnataka, Bengal,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Gujrat, Kerala, Maharastra, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajastan, Bihar, Orissa etc.
In view of its potentiality for job oriented or self employment positions at various levels
can be suitable to +2 students after successful completion of vocational sericulture course
by providing suitable syllabi with maximum exposure to practical and or field work. With
this knowledge and application skills these can enter as entreprenuer or as an employ for
effective results in sericulture industry.

46

Sericulture, or silk farming, is the rearing of silkworms for the production of raw silk.
Silkworm larvae are fed mulberry leaves, and, after the fourth moult, climb a twig placed
near them and spin their silken cocoons. The silk is a continuous-filament fiber consisting
of fibroin protein, secreted from two salivary glands in the head of each larva, and a gum
called sericin, which cements the two filaments together. The sericin is removed by
placing the cocoons in hot water, which frees the silk filaments and readies them for
reeling. The immersion in hot water also kills the silkworm pupae.
Single filaments are combined to form thread. This thread is drawn under tension through
several guides and wound onto reels. The threads may be plied together to form yarn.
After drying the raw silk is packed according to quality.
If fashion is a fine art, then silk is its biggest canvas, and if silk is the canvas, then all its
weavers, dyers, designers, embroiderers are the greatest artists. Indian silk has enthralled
fashion watchers and all categories of consumers across the world with its vast repertoire
of motifs, techniques and brilliant hues. Indias traditional and culture bound domestic
market and an amazing diversity of silk garments that reflect geographic specificity has
helped the country to achieve a leading position in silk industry.
Present status: India is the second largest producer of raw silk after China and the biggest
consumer of raw silk and silk fabrics. An analysis of trends in international silk
production suggests that sericulture has better prospects for growth in the developing
countries rather than in the advanced countries. Silk production in temperate countries
like Japan, South Korea, USSR etc., is declining steadily not only because of the high
cost of labour and heavy industrialization in these countries, but also due to climatic
restrictions imposed on mulberry leaf availability that allows only two cocoon crops per
annum. Thus, India has a distinct advantage of practicing sericulture all through the year,
yielding a stream of about 4 6 crops as a result of its tropical climate.
In India, sericulture is not only a tradition but also a living culture. It is a farm-based,
labour intensive and commercially attractive economic activity falling under the cottage
and small-scale sector. It particularly suits rural-based farmers, entrepreneurs and
artisans, as it requires low investment but, with potential for relatively higher returns. It
provides income and employment to the rural poor especially farmers with small landholdings and the marginalized and weaker sections of the society. Several socioeconomic studies have affirmed that the benefit-cost ratio in sericulture is highest among
comparable agricultural crops.
Currently, the domestic demand for silk, considering all varieties, is nearly 25,000 MTs,
of which only around 18,475 MTs (2006-07) is getting produced in the country and the
rest being imported mainly from China. Indian domestic silk market has over the years
been basically driven by multivoltine mulberry silk. Due to inferior quality of the silk
produced, India could not meet the international quality standard. Though, R&D efforts
have been made to improve the quality of multivoltine silk, even the best of multivoltine
silk produced could not match the bivoltine silk in quality. Therefore, it is essential to
enlarge the production base and improve current productivity levels of bivoltine silk to
meet the international standards and quality demands of the power loom sector. Steps
47

need to be taken to ensure that export oriented units having automatic state of the art
weaving machinery.
Types of silks in India: India is a home to a vast variety of silk secreting fauna which
also includes an amazing diversity of silk moths. This has enabled India to achieve the
unique distinction of being a producer of all the five commercially traded varieties of
natural silks namely, Mulberry, Tropical Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri and Muga. Silk obtained
from sources other than mulberry are generally termed as non-mulberry or Vanya silks.
The bulk of the commercial silk produced in the world is mulberry silk that comes from
the domesticated silkworm, Bombyx mori L. which feeds solely on the leaves of the
mulberry (Morus sp.) plant. Tasar silk is copperish in colour, coarse in nature and is
mainly used for furnishing and interiors and secreted by the Tropical Tasar
silkworm, Antheraea mylitta which thrives on Asan and Arjun (Terminalia sp.). Rearing
is done on naturally growing trees in the forests and is the main stay for many tribal
communities in the states of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, Maharashtra, West Bengal
and Andhra Pradesh. Oak Tasar is a finer variety of Tasar produced by the temperate
Tasar silkworm, Antheraea proylei which feeds on natural oak plants (Quercus sp.) and is
found in abundance in the sub-Himalayan belt. Eri silk is a silk spun from open-ended
cocoons and secreted by the domesticated silkworm, Samia cynthia ricini that feeds
mainly on castor leaves. Muga silk is golden yellow in colour and an exclusive produce
of India, primarily the state of Assam where it is the preferred attire during festivities.
Muga silk is secreted by Antheraea assama that feeds on aromatic leaves of naturally
growing Som (Persia bombycina) and Sualu (Litsea polyantha) plants.

Trends in Indian sericulture: Over the last six decades Indian silk industry has registered
an impressive growth, both horizontally and vertically. Plans and schemes implemented
by central and state agencies and relentless efforts of thousands of dedicated persons in
the fields of research and extension have helped in this context. For instance, the age old
multivoltine hybrids have been replaced by multivoltine bivoltine and bivoltine
hybrids. The sericulture industry has witnessed a quantum jump in raw silk productivity.
The average yield of 25 kgs of cocoons/100 dfls in the recent past has increased and
currently the average yields are in the range of 60 65 kgs/100 dfls. The new technology,
besides doubling yields has also led to qualitative improvements in cocoon production
with considerably reduced renditta and has also helped break the climate barrier.
The market share of Indian silk exports in the global silk trade is 4 5 % which is not
significant considering the fact that India is the second largest producer of raw silk. This
is because India has a large domestic market for silk goods and about 85 % of silk goods
produced are sold in the domestic market. However, India exports approximately 15 % of
its output of all types of silk goods (including value-added items). The export of Indian
silk products consists of finished goods like fabrics, made-ups, ready-made garments and
furnishing materials like curtains, carpets, bed spreads, cushion covers etc. The export of
silk products has been showing a steady growth and the export earnings showed a rapid
increase during the last decade

48

Indian position in global sericulture: The global raw silk production was around
1,25,605 MTs in the year 2005-06, with China as the major player with 81.65 % share
followed by India with around 14 % (Table 3). Though, Indian breeds/hybrids have the
potential to produce the same quality, our system of sericulture practices is entirely
different from those of the Chinese. The strict maintenance of discipline and better
linkage from farmers to weavers, large-scale operation of egg production, reeling and
weaving using modern machineries, strict control measures for diseases, uniform
adoption of new technologies, supply of required quantity of quality eggs in time to avoid
the chances of contamination of young silkworm etc. make the Chinese sericulture more
vibrant, economically sound and sustainable. Another area of difference is that the entire
production is state controlled with no open marketing/auction systems for silk cocoons
and yarns. The comparative statistics (Table 4) indicate the strength of China in the areas
of seed production and distribution system, higher unit area productivity and quality thus
reducing the costs of production.
Science, Technology and Sericulture
Science and technology is used as an effective instrument of growth and change. It is
being brought into the mainstream of economic planning in the sectors of agriculture,
industry and services. The country's resources are used to derive the maximum output for
the benefit of society and improvement in the quality of life. About 85 % of the funds for
S&T come directly or indirectly from the Government. Central Silk Board
(CSB), Bangalore under the Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India is the apex body for
overall development of sericulture and silk industry in India. The functions assigned to
the Board are to promote development of the silk industry by all appropriate measures
like undertaking, assisting and encouraging scientific, technological and economic
research, improvement of mulberry cultivation, production and distribution of healthy
silkworm seed, production of quality raw silk and promotion of silk market etc. In
addition, the board is responsible for advising and reporting to the Govt. of India on all
matters relating to the development of the raw silk industry, including the import and
export of raw silk. Indian sericulture is not only vast, widely dispersed but also
multidisciplinary in nature involving silkworm seed sector, cocoon sector (cultivation of
food plants and silkworm rearing) and post cocoon sector (silk reeling, spinning, twisting,
processing and weaving). Therefore, Central Silk Board, recently, is coordinating and
implementing collaborative research activities in association with National level R&D
Institutions, State Sericulture Research and Development Institutes, Universities,
Department of Science and Technology, Department of Biotechnology,
CSIR/ICAR/IARI/IITs/IIMs and other Private and International Research and
Development Institutions to promote applied research and development of appropriate
technology towards attaining higher quality and productivity levels of Indian silk. R&D
achievements of CSB like technologies patented and commercialized are given in Table 5
and discussed below:
Mulberry Improvement

49

1. High yielding mulberry varieties like V-1 (leaf yield-70MT/ha/yr), G-4 (9%
more than V-1); G-2 and G-5 (20% - 30% more than existing
S36 i.e., 45MT/ha/yr).
2. Moisture stress rainfed improved mulberry varieties like AR-10 and AR-11 (1520 % more yield than existing S-13 i.e., 10-12MT/ha/yr), C-1730 (leaf yield-13.3
MT/ha/yr and suitable to red lateratic soil of West Bengal)
3. Alkaline and saline tolerant improved mulberry varieties like AR-12 and AR-14
(alkaline tolerant; 15-20% more yield than existing S-34), C776 (saline tolerant
with yield potential 37/MT/ha/yr suitable for West Bengal).
4. Water stress triploid mulberry variety like S-1635 during rainy season in high
rainfall areas of West Bengal and Assam. It has a potential to yield 6225
kg/ha/crop.
5. Shade tolerant mulberry variety like K2 x Kosen for cultivation under mulberrycoconut tree intercropping with potential yield of around 44 MT/ha/yr.
6. Low fertilizer input and better yield mulberry varieties like RC1 and RC2 (low
fertilizer inputs i.e., 50% fertilizers and 40 % irrigation and 10 20 % more leaf
yield than V1 variety).
7. Low cost tender mulberry shoot propagation using dried sugarcane leaf in place
of white polythene sheet as cover. Under the Development of economically
viable module of mulberry plantation intercropping with Lentil recorded a
maximum yield with a return of Rs. 10,800/crop.

Mulberry Productivity
1. Paired row system [(90 +150) x 60 cm] of mulberry propagation with
350:140:140 Kg NPK/ha/yr and 20 MT/ha of FYM under irrigated condition for
higher leaf productivity and improvement in leaf quality.
2. Moisture conservation technique of mulberry propagation with 90 x 90 cm
spacing and NPK @ 100:50:50 Kg/ha/yr for improved the leaf quality and higher
yield. Evaluation of micro-jet system recorded an optimum yield of 64 MT/ha/yr,
followed by micro-tubing systems (63 MT/ha/yr) like PC Dripper and in-line
system of drip irrigation to save 40% irrigation water.

50

3. Package of practices for the cultivation of mulberry in alkaline soils like 90 x 90

cm plant spacing, application of 40 MT press mud and fertilizer at 250:120:90 kg
NPK/ha/yr.
4. In-situ vermi-compost supplemented with 50% recommended dose of NPK
fertilizer to improve soil organic carbon content without affecting leaf yield and
leaf quality.
5. Application of phosphate solubilizing bacteria (Bacillus megatherium) along
with rock phosphate to mulberry garden to increase leaf yield by 1.8 MT/ha/yr
with a net saving of Rs. 1745/ha/yr towards phosphate fertilizer cost.
6. Application of Azotobacter biofertilizer supplemented with 50% nitrogenous
fertilizer along with foliar application of n-Triacontanol twice @ 125 ml/ 600 lt.
water. The leaf productivity remained on par with full dose application of nitrogen
fertilizer application. The cost benefit ratio of 1:1.98 indicates the positive
response of the technology. Over 32 thousand farmers recorded an average
increase in leaf yield by 15-20 %.
7. Seri-boost- Triacontanol based micronutrient formulation for spaying (@ 2.5
ml/l water twice per crop) to enhance leaf yield by 10-15%. Inoculation of
Vesicular - Arbuscular Mycorrhiza (VAM) fungi to mulberry roots to help
supplementation of phosphate fertilizers by 75%. Spraying of plant growth
regulators like Maleic hydrazide (MH) and 2 - Chloroethyl trimethyl ammonium
chloride @ 5 to 100 ppm to improve leaf yield by 2-10% marginally.

Mulberry Protection
1. Raksha (Trichoderma harzianum) to control the root rot disease.
2. Nursery-Guard (Trichoderma pseudokoningii) to prevent nursery disease.
3. Bionema (Verticillium chlamydosporium) to reduce root knot disease.
4. Neem formulation to suppress leaf roller infestation.
5. Acaciacide (an eco-friendly bio-nematicide) to reduce root gall and incidence of
tukra disease.
6. Ethanolic extracts of Eucalyptus to supressMyrothecium leaf spot disease.
51

7. Aqueous ethanolic extracts of two Cassia species to reduce powdery mildew

disease.
8. Eco-friendly technology involving a bio-nematicide and neem oil cake for the
control of root knot nematode disease results to increase leaf yield and additional
income of Rs. 7300/ha/yr.
9. Growth
promoting
bacteria Azotobacter
chroococcum,
Bacillus
megaterium and Pseudomonas fluorescens toinduce systemic resistance in
mulberry against leaf spot and leaf rust diseases.

Integrated Pest Management and Disease Control

1. Cost-effective integrated package comprising of biological agents (Cryptolaemus
montrouzierie), mechanical removal of affected parts and chemical measures (0.2
% DDVP) for effective management of mealy bug causing tukra a serious
disease results in a leaf yield loss up to 30 %. Adoption of IPM in three southern
sericulture states, covering 1105 ha of mulberry plantation led to 67% pest
suppression and 62% disease loss.
2. IPM
for
management
of
Leaf
roller (Diaphania
pulverulentalis) includes spraying of
DDVP
and
release
of
egg
parasitoids Trichogramma chilonis and pupal parasitoid Trichogramma howardii.
3. IPM for management of Whitefly (Bemisia spp) includes use of chemical
pesticides and botanicals like 0.05% Acephate, 0.05% Monocrotophos, 1%
Rakshak and 0.1% Dichlorvos as well as release of natural predators of
whitefly viz., Brumoides
suturalis,
Micraspis
discolor,
Micraspis
crocea and Serengium persesstosum to reduce pest population below economic
threshold Limit up to 14 days.

Silkworm Improvement
1. Productive Bivoltine hybrids like CSR2 x CSR4 and CSR2 x CSR5 (shell ratio>23.0%; raw silk -19-20%; average cocoon yield- 70-80kg /100 dfls; renditta-5.2
to 5.5 and silk grade-3A to 4A), CSR12 x CSR6, CSR3 x CSR6, CSR16 x
CSR17, CSR3 x CSR6 and CSR16 x CSR17 (average cocoon yield of 60-70kg /

52

100; raw silk-18- 20% and silk grade-2A to 3A) for commercial exploitation
during favorable months during September to February.
2. Robust Bivoltine hybrids of relatively temperature tolerant like CSR18 x CSR19
and Chamaraja (survival- >80 % @ 361C; average cocoon yield-60 70 kg/100
dfls; renditta- 5.5 to 6.0 and silk grade- 2A to 3A) for rearing throughout the year.
3. Double hybrid for high egg recovery like (CSR6 x CSR26) x (CSR2 x CSR27)
for rearing foundation crosses at P1 level for high egg recovery (10 15 % more).
4. Bivoltine hybrid for longer filament like CSR48 x CSR5 (filament length>1300m; thin filament size-2.45d; relatively tolerant to high temperature-77%
survival @ 361C and 855% RH; low boil-off loss-23.8%).
5. Productive bivoltine hybrids with high silk content like CSR21 x CSR16 (raw
silk: 20.9%; survival- >80% @ 36 1C and 855 % RH; high level of cocoon
uniformity- SD 7.2 and low boil-off ratio-23.6%).
6. Bivoltine hybrid of shorter larval duration and superior characters like SD7 x
SD12 (larval duration-28 h; pupation rate- >90%, cocoon weight- 2.076 g and
shell ratio- 24.4%).
7. Bivoltine hybrid of superior characters like CSR48 x CSR5 of thin filament
size, CSR2A x CSR4A and BL-67A x CSR 101 for artificial diet during chawki
worm stages, 1HT x 7HT, 2HT x 6HT and 8HT x 5HT tolerant to high
temperature (3610C), high humidity (855 %) and resistance to BmNPV and
BmIFV @ 1x105 PBOs/ml. The above hybrids are characterized with superior
qualitative and quantitative characters like higher cocoon yield, higher renditta
and gradable silk etc.
8. Productive Multivoltine x Bivoltine hybrids like Cauvery and Jayalakshmi
(average cocoon yield- 60-70 kg/100 dfls; survival-90-95 %; shell ratio- 20 22%; renditta- 5-6; silk grade- 2A to 3A) for commercial exploitation under
irrigated areas throughout the year.
9. Region specific productive Multivoltine x Bivoltine hybrids like BL23 x NB4D2
(26 kg /100 dfls with 8.5 renditta) under rain fed and BL24 x NB4D2 (47 kg /100
dfls and 7.5-8 renditta) under irrigated condition with gradable silk of 3A.
10. Season specific productive Multivoltine x Bivoltine hybrids like for spring season
(CSR6 x Pam101, Pam101 x A70, RSJ13 x RSJ15 and RSJ14 x RSJ11), summer
53

season (Pam 111 x B72 and A70 x CSR6), and autumn season (A70 x CSR6, Pam
112 x A60, RSJ3 x RSJ1 and RSJ3 x RSJ4).
11. Sex limited Multivoltine x Bivoltine hybrids like PM x CSR8 (SL) for separation
of male / female pupa through cocoon color in grainages. Four sex-limited
colored bivoltine breeds viz., SL4, SL5, SL6 and SL7 for better productive traits
like >90 percentage pupation and 22% SR this male Bivoltine component with
multivoltine females minimizes the production cost of Cross Breed layings.

Silkworm Productivity
1. Multi-bivoltine hybrids of higher feed conversion efficiency like BL68 x CSR5.
2. Promising Bivoltine hybrids with higher performance at field level like CSR2 x
CSR5, CSR2 x CSR4 and CSR18 x CSR19 (average cocoon yield- 56 and 70
kg/100 dfls; renditta- 6-6.5; silk grade- 2A 4A).
3. Evaluation of season specific hybrids showed maximum shell ratio of 23.63% in
CSR2 x YS3 out of 113 hybrids reared during spring 2001; and Pam109 x KY1
recorded maximum shell ratio of 22.13% out of 91 reared in autumn. Among the
multivoltine hybrids evolved, hybrids namely Sharavati, Cauvery and Tippu have
a potential to yield about 70 kg/100 dfls with a filament length of 900 m and silk
grade of 2A-3A.
4. Application of Phyto-ecdysteroid on CSR hybrids to shorten rearing period and
completes spinning within 18 hr after mounting against 26 to 47 hr under normal
rearing conditions.
5. Semi synthetic artificial diet for rearing young age silkworms.
6. Improved Tropical Bivoltine silkworm rearing technology package for young and
late age worms together with proper incubation method for successful crop.

Silkworm Protection
1. Sandwich ELISA assay for detection of pebrine spores up to a concentration of
10 4 /ml. using polyclonal antibodies (from Rabbit) and monoclonal antibodies
(from mouse) MA-575.
54

2. Silkworm body disinfectant like Vijetha, Vijetha Supplement and Resham

Jyothi to prevent disease outbreak.
3. Uzicide - an ovicide against Uzi fly and Uzi trap - a chemical formulation to
trap the adult flies to control the menace of uzi (a major pest of silkworm)
infestation.
4. IPM technology package for the control of Uzi fly through Nesolynx
thymus along with Uzicide and Uzitrap. Dermestid beetles causing damage to
seed cocoons in grainages be controlled by mechanical removal of grubs / adults
and spraying Deltamethrin (0.03%) in the cocoon storage rooms. An insecticidal
based chalk stick developed against ant attack in rearing house.
5. Simple staining technique for effective detection of intermediary stages of N.
bombycis(Pebrine spores) in larval mid-gut tissue.
6. Eco-friendly and biodegradable chemical based bed disinfectants utilizing 7
plant products and 4 eco-friendly products for effective management of common
pathogens of silkworm.

Silkworm Rearing Technology Innovation

1. Egg transportation bag provides optimum environmental conditions during
transportation of silkworm eggs.
2. Low cost incubation device

for the incubation of silkworm eggs.

3. Loose egg incubation frame toprovide optimum environmental conditions

duringincubation for loose eggs, these frames are also useful during incubation,
black boxing and brushing. Adopted in all NSSP / DOS grainages engaged in
bivoltine egg production.
4. Blue polythene sheet during chawki rearing
leaf input cost.

to reduce leaf drayage and reduce

5. Wrap up method to avoid moisture loss (all four sides of the paraffin paper are
folded from the rearing bed to increase humidity by 15-20%). This technique
gives an additional 3-4 kg more cocoons per 100 dfls at no extra cost.

55

6. A simple device for preservation of chawki leaf (made of a rectangular bamboo

tray, bamboo mat and a central funnel) in which chawki leaves can preserve for
10-12 hours without any deterioration in leaf quality and leaf drayage.
7. Plastic bottlebrush mountage
time towards labour.

to help silkworm to mount itself thereby save 40%

8. Jobarai method of mounting to save 20% time towards labour for mounting
silkworms manually and harvest quality cocoons.
9. Nylon net rearing technique for tasar silkworm larvae has been devised.

Innovations in Sericultural Machines

1. Mulberry Pruning Machine attached to power tiller to prune 15 cm dia. stumps
from one acre of mulberry plantation in 5 hr.
2. Machine for preparation of Cuttings to facilitate quick preparation of cuttings @
2000 cuttings/ hour.
3. Shoot crushing Machine
shoots/ hour.

to crush shoots into small bits / pieces @ 250 300 kg

4. Litter separator machine for separation of left over leaves and litter for use in
biogas plant.
5. Cocoon De-flossing Machine to de-floss cocoons @ 60 kg/day against manual
de-flossing of 10 12 kg/day.
6. Powder duster to dust disinfectants over silkworm body in prevention of
silkworm diseases.

Non-Mulberry Host plant and Silkworm

1. Standardization and recommendation of micro propagation technique for
Terminalia arjuna cultivation. Six strains of Antherea proylei was evolved and 82
genotypes of Terminalia arjuna and T. tomentosa were screened for genetic
selection of high yielding ones.
56

2. Survey and collection of wild tasar cocoons from various eco-regions of Bihar
yielded five promising eco-races. 9 biotypes, 4 evolved lines and 3 mutant lines
were evolved based on Blue, Yellow and Almond colour. Raily, Modal and Daba
as well as 3 hybrid combinations Sarihan x Laria, Sarihan x Daba and Laria x
Modal were identified as best hybrids for most of the commercial characters.
3. Adoption of seed cocoon selection procedure and use of cooling device to reduce
preservation loss upto 14.8% in Trivoltine [TV] and 21.1% in Bivoltine [BV]
breeds. The mating percentage of moths rose to 93.9% in Trivoltine [TV] and
94.7% in Bivoltine [BV]. Overall, the egg production increased to 49.3% in TV
and 60.1% in BV.
4. Egg laying nylon bag where the average ovipositor period is 178 hr and
fecundity of 48 hr. Female moth preservation frame designed and fabricated to
prevent pre-mating ovipositor, up to 20 hr without any loss of eggs.
5. New moth examination technique for pebrine detection through pricking method
developed over the conventional method of moth crushing and discarding.
6. Integrated Tasar Rearing Technology Package includes incubation, brushing of
neonate larvae, feeding and guarding young and late age larvae against diseases,
pest and predators.
7. Ideal grainage house and techniques

for Tasar egg production.

8. Tasar Keet ousadh for control of Tasar silkworm disease was developed.
9. Comprehensive package for chawki garden maintenance to enhance production.
10. Sun-pack collapsible mountages for indoor cocoon spinning for quality cocoons.
11. Foliar spray with desired level of bacteria during rearing consistently to reduce
virosis and bacteriosis and significant gain in effective rate of rearing.
12. Neem based compound (Azadiractin)

against pest of silkworm larvae.

13. Integrating cultural, mechanical and active compound of neem derivatives as

suitable control measures against major defoliators of primary tasar food plants.
14. Biological control measure against Uzi fly includes - nucleus culture of N.
thymus,Tetrastichus howardi, Trichopria spp., Dirhinus spp. and Brachymeria
lasus maintained on the puparia of uzi fly.
57

15. Nursery technique

16. Oviposite device

for raising of som (Machilus bombycina) seedlings.

for muga silkworms.

Post Cocoon Technology

1. Biopril-50 a substitute for dry reeling reeled on Tasar Reeling Charkha (TRC);
spinning of tasar silk waste, blends with the fibers on pedal spinning wheel and
NMC along with improved preparatory processes of weaving were transferred for
commercial use.
2. Standardization of tasar cocoon processing / cooking technologies of different
commercial cocoons on TRC and Motorized /Pedal operated reeling cum twisting
machine.
3. Multi-fuel smokeless economic oven reeling machine an improved charaka and
multi-end reeling machine capable of producing gradable silk of A-B grade.
4. Silk knitted fabrics in light and medium weight range in all silk and combination
of Silk-Cotton and Silk-Modal yarn. The blends have silk on the face of the fabric
and cotton or modal yarn on the inside/back of the fabric, combining the luxury of
silk and comfort of cotton, at the same time reducing the cost of the fabric
substantially.
5. Dupion silk reeling machine and technology package for production of superior
grade dupion raw silk (CSTRI, Bangalore). The advantages of the new dupion silk
reeling technology are-higher renditta in multivoltine cocoons, less de-gumming
loss, improve quality character of dupion raw silk produced and economics of the
technology indicate profitability than that of conventional technology. These
models can cater the needs of small-scale charka reelers and reelers who have
better facilities like boiler and cooking equipments.
6. Bivoltine silk reeling technology package to produce International grade raw
silk suitable to Indian conditions. In addition, long skein book making machine,
reel permeation chamber, stationery pressurized cooking and pressing disc etc.
developed by CSTRI, Bangalore demonstrated in the reeling units.

Seri-Biotechnology
58

1. Identification of DNA marker for NPV resistance in silkworm through multiinstitutional net work project (CDFD, Hyderabad and CSB/state level
institutions).
2. Identification of DNA markers linked to QTLs (cocoon weight and cocoon shell
weight) through collaborative project. Code for anti-viral (BmNPV) protein
partially characterized.
3. Genetic linkage map for the silkworm
sequence repeat or microsatellite markers.

established employing 518 simple

4. Large numbers of Expressed Sequence Tags (ESTs) have been made available to
the scientific community (as India joined International Consortium on
Lepidoperon Genomics) both for mulberry and non-mulberry silk.
5. High yielding productive silkworm hybrids (viz., Swarnandhra, Hemavathy and
Kalpavatharavu) developed using DNA marker technology and released to
farmers of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu.
6. Luciferase and green fluorescent proteins were successfully expressed utilizing
silkworm as a bioreactor (Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore).
7. Process for degumming of silk with fungal protease enzyme has been
standardized and found economically viable without chemical hazardous.
8. Mapping populations of mulberry for water use efficiency and genotyping of
trait-specific mapping population of mulberry is under progress.
9. Transgenic mulberry lines with HVA-1 gene for abiotic stress tolerance have
been developed (University of Delhi). Field evaluation has been initiated jointly
with sericulture institute

Indian Silk Fabric:

India is the second largest producer of silk after China and the largest consumer of silk in
the world. As per the 2001-02 records, India produced 17550 MT of silk.

59

Types of Silk Fabric :

There are innumerable varieties of silk moths, but only four main types of commercially
valuable natural silk:
Mulberry silk
Tasar silk: This is a copperish colored silk. It is coarse and is used mainly for furnishings. It
is produced by the silkworm Antheraea mylitta , which mainly thrives on the plants Asan and
Arjun. It is reared on trees in the open.
Muga silk: This is a golden yellow colored silk that is produced in Assam. It is obtained
from the semi-domesticated silkworm, Antheraea assamensis which feeds on the aromatic
leaves of Som and Soalu plants.
Eri silk: This is got from the domesticated silkworm, Philosamia ricini that feeds mainly on
castor leaves. The eri cocoons are open-mouthed.
In India, mulberry silk is produced in many states such as Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Jammu & Kashmir and West Bengal. The other types of silk are produced in
Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Orissa and the north-eastern states.
There are a wide variety of silk textiles made from these four kinds of natural silk. These
may be handwoven or woven in power looms. In the mulberry silk variety, some of these
silk fabrics are:
Plain silk : This variety of silk textile may be produced on both the hand loom and the
powerloom. Available in various shades and patterns, and an entire range of qualities.
Organza : This is a very thin silk cloth that is made of highly twisted yarn.
Crepe : This silk textile is woven froms' and z' twisted yarn. The crepe sarees of Mysore
are very beautiful.
Satin : An extremely elegant type of mulberry silk fabric. Banarasi satin sarees are very
popular.
Matka silk : A thick kind of silk fabric, used for furnishing. By varying the amount of yarn
used, the texture and thickness may be modified. It is produced in Bhagalpur in India.
Murshidabad silk : Produced in the Murshidabad district of West Bengal, this type of silk
cloth is used to make sarees and scarves. It is available in varying qualities.
Dupion : This type of Indian silk fabric, is a specialty of the handlooms in Bangalore, India.
It is available in a number of shades; and used for both garments as well as soft furnishings.
Charka silk : This is a thick variety of silk from India that is used to make zari sarees. It is
woven on a handloom.
Chiffon : A very soft and light variety of silk fabric, it is made of highly twisted yarn that is
woven on a power loom. It is a very thin, but strong fabric.
Chinnon : This is a very soft and crimped silk textile. It is woven of twisted yarn on a power
loom.
Tabby silk : This variety is produced in Kashmir and is used to make sarees and scarves.

60

Silks of India: Silk has been intermingled with the life and culture of the Indians. Though
India is producing all the varieties of silk i.e., dress materials, scarves/stoles, readymade
garments, etc., the silk sarees are unique. The saree is almost synonymous with the word
silk. It is the traditional costume of Indian woman since time immemorial. There are
innumerable references in Indian literature about this draped garment and the style of
wearing differs from time to time, region to region and people to people. The silk sarees
of India are among the living examples of the excellent craftsmanship of the weavers of
the country.
The artistic and aesthetic sense of Indian weavers is not content with striking colours they
choose for the fabrics, but lies in their mastery over the creation of floral designs,
beautiful textures, fine geometry and the durability of such work. The weaver not only
weaves with yarn but with intense feeling and emotion. In India, there are a number of
silk weaving centers spread all over the country, known for their distinct and typical style
and products. For Indians, particularly ladies, silk is lifeline - the elixir. Silk is always
woven interwoven with way of life and culture of a region. Craftsmen all over the Indian
sub-continent tried to master the weaving of sarees as exclusive as one can think of,
putting motif designs, colours, pattern and versatility in them. No two sarees can be of
same design left to the choice of weaver, thus there is innumerable pattern or diversity.
Over the years, specific centres sprung and developed to promote a particular pattern of
design / weaving and they became distinct
Brocades of banaras: Situated on the banks of the holy river Ganges, Varanasi is famous
for its finest silk sarees and brocades. These sarees are known for rich and intricately
woven motifs of leaf, flowers, fruits, birds, etc. on a soft colour background. They are
enriched with intricate borders and heavily decorated pallus. The centre is also known for
its gauzi silver and gold tissues, which are ultra light in weight and delicate. The kinkab
of Banaras is legendary. It is a glittering weave of gold and silver threads. The pure silk
with a touch of gold is called bafta and the finely woven brocade of variegated silk is
known as Amru.
The resist dyeing techniques has been practiced in India since centuries. There are two
distinct traditions in this technique. The patola or ikat technique involves the dyeing of
the tie-resist yarn. The bandhej or bandhini involves the dyeing of the fabric.
The ikats of Orissa: The tie and dye weaves of Orissa known as ikats employ the yarn
resist method for both warp and weft with diffused effect. But the overall pattern is
boldly articulated as in confident strikes of a brush. Both mulberry and tasar silks are
used in the weaving of these ikats.
The patolas are known for their precision subtlety and beauty. Here, both warp and weft
are dyed by dye resist method in a range of five or six traditional colours like red, indigo,
61

blue, emerald green, black or yellow. The exact and highly skilled process ensures that
when the fabric is woven, the design will appear precisely and create a magnificently
coloured and figured ground of great richness and beauty with birds, flowers, animals,
dancers, etc. in a geometrically stylized perfection. In bandhej or bandhini, the finely
woven fabric is knotted tightly and dyed to achieve a distinct design. The sarees, odhnis
(veils) and turbans of these regions are a medley of brilliant colours. The bandhini of
Kutch is unmatched for their fineness of the minutely tied knots, the magnificence of the
colours and the perfect designs.
The tanchoi brocade was named after the three Parsi brothers called choi who learnt this
art in China and introduced it to Surat. The choi brocade is usually a dark satin weave,
purple or dark red in ground colour, embellished with motifs of flowers, creepers, birds
all over design.
South India is the leading silk producing area of the country also known for its famous
silk weaving enclaves like Kancheepuram, Dharmavaram, Arni, etc. While the temple
towns like Kancheepuram are renowned for their magnificent heavy silk sarees of bright
colours with silver or gold zari works, the centers like Bangalore and Mysore are known
for their excellent printed silks.
The traditional handloom silks always score over the powerloom silks in the richness of
their textures and designs, in their individuality, character and classic beauty. Handloom
weaving remains a symbol of versatility and creativity of living craft. Today, Indian silks,
especially the handloom products, remain the most beautiful and cherished the world
over.

Mulberry area Cocoon production

Mulberry foliage is the only food for the silkworm (Bombyx mori) and is grown under
varied climatic conditions ranging from temperate to tropical. Mulberry leaf is a major
economic component in sericulture since the quality and quantity of leaf produced per
unit area have a direct bearing on cocoon harvest. In India, most states have taken up
sericulture as an important agro-industry with excellent results. The total area of mulberry
in the country is around 282 244 ha. The details of the area under mulberry cultivation in
different states in India is shown below
Area under mulberry in different states
State

Area (ha)

Andhra Pradesh

38 084
62

Assam

2 813

Jammu & Kashmir

4 717

Karnataka

166 000

Kerala

1 164

Madhya Pradesh

2 043

Manipur

*25 975

Tamil Nadu

9 491

Uttar Pradesh

5 665

West Bengal

21 358

Other

4 934

SPECIES AND VARIETIES UNDER CULTIVATION: There are about 68 species of the
genus Morus. The majority of these species occur in Asia, especially in China (24
species) and Japan (19). Continental America is also rich in its Morus species. The genus
is poorly represented in Africa, Europe and the Near East, and it is not present in
Australia.
In India, there are many species of Morus, of which Morus alba, M.
indica. M. serrata and M. laevigata grow wild in the Himalayas. Several varieties have
been introduced belonging to M. multicaulis, M. nigra, M. sinensis and M. philippinensis.
Most of the Indian varieties of mulberry belong to M. indica.

63

In China there are 15 species, of which four species, Morus alba, M. multicaulis, M.
atropurpurea and M. mizuho are cultivated for sericulture. In the former Soviet Union M.
multicaulis, M. alba, M. tartarica and M. nigra are present.
Though mulberry cultivation is practised in various climates, the major area is in the
tropical zone covering Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu states, with about 90
percent. In the sub-tropical zone, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh and the northeastern
states have major areas under mulberry cultivation. The details of the mulberry varieties
under cultivation in different states of India is given in Table 2.
GENERAL DESCRIPTION
Mulberry is a fast growing deciduous woody perennial plant. It has a deep root system.
The leaves are simple, alternate, stipulate, petiolate, entire or lobed. The number of lobes
varies from one to five. Plants are generally dioecious. Inflorescence is catkin with
pendent or drooping peduncle bearing unisexual flowers. Inflorescence is always
auxiliary. Male catkins are usually longer than the female catkins. Male flowers are
loosely arranged and after shedding the pollen, the inflorescence dries and falls off. These
are four persistent parianth lobes and four stamens implexed in bud. Female inflorescence
is usually short and the flowers are very compactly arranged. There are four persistent
parianth lobes. The ovary is one-celled and the stigma is bifid. The chief pollinating agent
in mulberry is wind. Mulberry fruit is a sorosis, mainly violet black in colour.
Most of the species of the genus Morus and cultivated varieties are diploid, with 28
chromosomes. However, triploids (2n=(3x)=42) are also extensively cultivated for their
adaptability, vigorous growth and quality of leaves.
Climatic requirements
Mulberry thrives under various climatic conditions ranging from temperate to tropical
located north of the equator between 28 N and 55N latitude. The ideal range of
temperature is from 24 to 28C. Mulberry grows well in places with an annual rainfall
ranging from 600 to 2 500 mm. In areas with low rainfall, growth is limited through
moisture stress, resulting in low yields. On average, mulberry requires 340m3/ha of water
every ten days in case of loamy soils and 15 days in clayey soils. Atmospheric humidity
in the range of 65-80 percent is ideal for mulberry growth. Sunshine is one of the
important factors controlling growth and leaf quality. In the tropics, mulberry grows with
a sunshine range of nine to 13 hours a day. Mulberry can be cultivated from sea level up
to an elevation of 1 000 m.
MULBERRY CULTIVATION IN SOUTH INDIA UNDER RAINFED CONDITIONS
Suitable mulberry varieties
Kanva-2, S-13 and S-34 varieties are recommended for rainfed (rainfall: 500-800 mm)
regions of South India (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu).
64

Kanva-2. Belongs to Morus indica. Diploid. Widely cultivated in Southern India.

Selection from natural population of Mysore local variety. Inflorescence and sorosis:
female, profuse flowering, many soroses. Production characteristics: medium leaf
maturity, yields about 30 to 35 tonnes/ha/year under irrigated conditions. Leaf moisture
content 70 percent, protein content 21 percent and sugar content 11.5 percent. High
rooting ability (80 percent) and wide adaptability. Resistant to leaf spot. Moderately
resistant to leaf rust and powdery mildew.
S-13. Belongs to M. indica. Selection from open pollinated hybrids of Kanva-2.
Recommended for rainfed areas of South India during 1990. Inflorescence: male, profuse
flowering. Production characteristics: yields 8-12 tonnes/ha/year under rainfed
conditions, depending on rainfall. Moisture content 70.6 percent protein content 24.3
percent and sugar content 13.8 percent. Resistant to leaf spot and powdery mildew,
moderately resistant to leaf rust and tukra infestation.
S-34. Belongs to M. indica Diploid. Selection from progeny of S30 x Berc 776.
Recommended during 1990 for rainfed areas with black cotton soils of South India.
Inflorescence and sorosis: male, profuse flowering, occasionally few soroses. Production
characteristics: under rainfed conditions, yields about 15 tonnes/ha/year. Moisture content
70 percent, crude protein content 23.7 percent. Soluble sugar content 13.2 percent.
Resistant to powdery mildew and leaf rust. Moderately resistant to leaf spot and
susceptible to tukra infestation.
Establishment of mulberry
Land Preparation. Land for mulberry cultivation is ploughed deep with a heavy mould
board plough up to a depth of 30-35 cm. Thereafter the land is repeatedly ploughed two
or three times with a country plough to bring the soil to a fine tilth. The land should be
properly levelled. A basal dose of welldecomposed farmyard manure (FYM) or compost
is applied at the rate of 10 tonnes/ha and thoroughly incorporated into the soil.
Spacing. The spacing commonly followed for a rainfed garden is 90 x 90 cm Pits of 35 x
35 cm are prepared. About 1 kg FYM/pit should be added.
Stakes and planting. Branches of 8-10 months old and about 50 mm in diameter should
be used for the preparation of stakes of 22-25 cm length with five to six healthy buds.
Three stakes are planted per pit in a triangular form with a spacing of 15 cm, leaving only
one bud exposed above soil surface. If planting is done with saplings, then one sapling is
sufficient perpit. Planting should be done during June/July after the onset of the
monsoon.
Intercultivation: During the first year, intercultivation should be done manually. Once
mulberry plants are established, bullock ploughing is carried out.
Fertilization: 50N:25P:25K (kg/ha/year) in two doses. First dose: suphala (15:15:15) 167
kg, after 2 months of planting. Second dose: urea 55 kg or cam (100 kg) or ammonium
65

sulfonate (125 kg), at end of September or early October before cessation of monsoon
rains.
Pruning and leaf harvest. The first crop should be harvested six months after plantation
when the mulberry is well established. Two more crops are harvested during the first year
by the leaf picking method. Mulberry should be pruned after one year at the onset of the
next monsoon. Pruning is done by sharp sickle or pruning saw at a height of 25-30 cm
from the ground.
Green manuring and mulching. Green manure crops can be grown as an intercrop with
mulberry during the monsoon only. Green manure crops (cowpea, horse gram, dhaincha)
should be incorporated into soil by ploughing before the flowering starts and well before
the rains cease. Subsequently, plots may be mulched with any dry material or plants that
will not cause needs.
Maintenance under rainfed conditions (second year onwards)
Recommended inputs (per ha per year) for gardens maintained under rainfed conditions
at a spacing of 90 cm x 90 cm:

FYM or compost, 10 tonness in a single dose at the onset of monsoon

Azotobacter biofertilizer, 4 kg/crop, twice a year (during rainy season)

VAM inoculum, 1 000 kg, once in mulberry lifespan (inoculation through maize
rootlets)

Suphala, 167 kg, first crop

Single super phosphate, 156 kg, first crop

Muriate of potash, 42 kg, first crop

Urea (55 kg) or cam (100 kg), third crop

Green manuring, 15 kg

Crops such as horse gram, cowpea, sun hemp and dhaincha should be incorporated into
the soil by ploughing before flowering and cessation of the monsoon.
Leaf harvest. Individual leaf harvesting should be carried out. The expected yield
(tonnes/ha/year) for different varieties is: Kanva-2, 10-12; S-13, 14-15; S-34, 14-15.
CULTIVATION IN SOUTH INDIA UNDER IRRIGATED CONDITION
66

Suitable mulberry varieties

Kanva-2, S-36, S-54, DD, MR-2 (especially in Tamil Nadu) and Victoria-1 varieties are
recommended for irrigated conditions.
Kanva-2. Belongs to M. indica. Diploid. Widely cultivated in southern India after it was
recommended for cultivation in 1969 by CSRTI (Mysore). Selection from natural
population of Mysore local variety. Inflorescence and sorosis: Female, profuse flowering,
many soroses. Production characteristics: Medium leaf maturity, yields 30-35
tonnes/ha/year under irrigated conditions. Leaf moisture content 70 percent, protein
content 21 percent and sugar content 11.5 percent. Resistant to leaf spot. Moderately
resistant to leaf rust and powdery mildew. High rooting ability (80 percent) and wide
adaptability.
S-36. Belongs to M. indica. Developed at CSRTI and recommended during 1984.
Evolved from Berhampore local by chemical mutagenesis. Cultivated in southern India.
Moderate rooting ability. Production characteristics: yields 38-45 tonnes/ha/year under
assured irrigated conditions of South India. Moisture content 76 percent, CP 22 percent
and carbohydrate content 28 percent. Tolerant to leaf spot and powdery mildew.
Moderately susceptible to leaf rust and to tukra infestation. Most suited to young age
silkworm rearing. Sapling plantation recommended because of moderate rooting ability.
S-54. Belongs to M. indica. Developed at CSRTI and recommended during 1984.
Selected from Berhampore local by chemical mutagenesis (EMS). Recommended for
assured irrigated conditions of South India. Production characteristics: yields about 45
tonnes/ha/year under assured irrigated conditions. Highly responsive to agronomical
input. Moisture content of leaf 70.5 percent, CP 23.9 percent and sugar content 13.8
percent. Moderately resistant to powdery mildew and leaf rust and resistant to leaf spot.
Loses moisture very quickly. Good rooting ability.
DD. Selected from natural population of Dehra Dun variety and recommended by
Karnataka State Sericultural Research and Development Institute, Thalaghattapura.
Recommended for southern India. Morphology: erect, thin branches, coarse leaves,
greenish grey bark. Lower branches spreading, leaves unlobed, big size, ovate shape.
Yields 35-40 tonnes/ha/year under assured irrigation conditions.
MR-2. Belongs to M. sinensis. Diploid. Selection from open pollinated hybrid population.
Developed at CSRTI and recommended for propagation in Tamil Nadu. Mainly cultivated
in Tamil Nadu under both irrigated conditions in the plains and rainfed conditions in hilly
regions. Production characteristics: yields 30-35 tonnes/ha/year under irrigated conditions
of Tamil Nadu. Moisture content 68 percent, protein content 23.2 percent, sugar content
13.2 percent (Fig. 7). Resistant to powdery mildew disease. Suitable for hilly areas.
Victoria-1 (V-1). Belongs to M. indica. Recently developed from a cross of S-30 and Berc
776 at CSRTI. Recommended during 1996 for assured irrigated conditions. Flower: male,
profuse flowering, occasionally few soroses. Production characteristics: yields about 70
67

tonnes/ha/year under assured irrigated conditions. Very high sprouting. Moisture content
78.9 percent and 72.5 percent in young and matured leaves respectively, protein content
24.6 percent and total sugar content 16.98 percent. Moderately resistant to leaf rust and
tukra infestation and resistant to leaf spot. Quick sprouting ability and very high rooting
ability (> 94 percent) high photosynthetic rate and higher water use efficiency are
additional advantages. Moreover, leaves are suitable for both young and grown bivoltine
silkworm rearing.
Establishment of mulberry
Selection of site. Mulberry flourishes well in soils that are flat, deep, fertile, well drained,
loamy to clayey, and porous with a good moisture holding capacity. The ideal range of
soil pH is 6.2 to 6.8. Mulberry can be grown in saline, alkaline and acidic soils after
suitably amending the soils.
Preparation of land. Land for mulberry cultivation is ploughed deep with heavy mould
board plough up to a depth of 30-35 cm. Thereafter the land is repeatedly ploughed tw or
three times with a country plough to bring the soil to a fine tilth. The land should be
properly levelled. A basal dose of welldecomposed FYM or compost is applied at the rate
of 20 tonnes/ha and thoroughly incorporated into the soil.
Planting. Plantations can be raised by using both cuttings and saplings. The varieties
ideally suited for irrigated conditions are Kanva-2, S-36 and V-1. Branches of 6-9 months
old and about 15 ml in diameter should be used for the preparation of cuttings of 15-18
cm in length with three to four healthy buds for raising in the nursery or for planting
directly in the field.
Spacing. Plant spacing of 90 x 90 cm is ideal for mulberry. Two cuttings per pit to be
used for direct planting. When using saplings, only one sapling/pit is necessary. A paired
row plantation with spacing of (90 + 150) cm x 60 cm, is recommended.
Inter-cultivation. Two months after planting, weeding is carried out. A second weeding is
done after another two to three months. Thereafter, intercultivation should be carried out
after every shoot or leaf harvest.
Irrigation. The plantation should be taken up during the onset of the monsoon to take
advantage of the rain. If the rain is not sufficient, the land should be irrigated at regular
intervals of 8-14 days depending on the type of soil. About one and a half to two acre
inches of water is required/irrigation.
Fertilization. The total dose of fertilizer to be applied in the first year is 100 N: 50 P: 50
K/kg/ha/year. This is applied in two doses. The first dose is applied when the plantation is
about two months old at the rate of 50 N: 50 P: 50 K/kg/ha. The second dose is applied
after leaf harvesting at the rate of 50 kg N/ha.

68

Pruning. After six months of plantating, mulberry attains a height of 1.5 to 1.75 m and is
ready for harvest. The first harvestng is by bottom pruning. The second leaf harvesting is
12 weeks from the first leaf harvest and the third harvest 12 weeks from the second
harvest by shoot harvest. From the second year onwards, harvesting is done at an interval
of 70 days by the shoot harvest method.
Maintenance under irrigation (second year onwards)
Spacing. 90 x 90 cm or (90 + 150) cm x 60 cm
Recommended inputs:

FYM (20 tonnes) in two equal doses with one tonne of vermicompost

Azotobacter (20 kg) in five equal doses

N-triacontanol (250 ml) in two equal doses (sprays): first between 10-15 days
after pruning, second, ten days after thefirst spray

VAM inoculum (1 000 kg) One dose in plantation of lifespan (inoculation through
maize as the host the plant). Not required for plantations established with saplings
inoculated with mycorrhiza

Ammonium sulphate (750 kg), urea (325 kg) or calcium ammonium nitrate (600
kg) in five equal doses

Single super phosphate (375 kg) in two equal split doses (crops 1 and 3)

Muriate of potash (200 kg) in two equal split doses crops 1 and 3 days after first
spray

Leaf harvest. Leaves are harvested either by individual leaf harvest or shoot harvesting.
The latter is more economical and used for the shoot method of silkworm rearing. The
expected yield (tonnes/ha/year) of varieties is Kanva-2, 32-35; S-36, 38-45; and Victoria1, 60-70.
CULTIVATION IN HILLY AREAS
Suitable varieties
S-1, S-7999, S-1635, S-146, Tr-10 and BC-259 varieties are recommended for the hilly
regions of north and northeastern India.
Establishment of mulberry
69

Land preparation. If the land has a gentle slope, it can be levelled by minor land shaping
and providing suitable type of bunds across the slope. If the slope is greater, contour
bunding terrace planting or contour line planting can be adopted. In more sloping areas,
platforms for individual plants on contour lines are more suitable since this involves less
soil cutting.
Spacing. Spacing for tree planting depends on soil topography, the extent of land
available for cultivation and training method. For gentle slopes, 3 x 3, 5 x 5 may be
adopted. In sloping more land 10 x 10 can be adopted. Pits are to be prepared for
plantation. In deep textured loose soils, 45 x 45 cm and in hard shallow soils 60 x 60 x 60
cm pits are to be prepared. For each pit, 5 kg (one iron pan) of FYM or compost must be
applied.
Planting. Saplings of five months age with five to six roots are suitable for planting
during the regular onset of the monsoon. One sapling per pit should be planted. The
saplings should be supported with a stick to ensure straight growth.
Maintenance. After one month, all the buds except the top five to six should be removed
carefully without damaging the bark. Weeds around the plant should be removed and
regular pot watering given. After three months of plantings second weeding should be
done and 25 g of suphala/plant should be applied in a trench and should be covered with
soil. A second dose of fertilizer (25 g urea/plant) should be applied before cessation of the
monsoon. Plants must be protected from grazing.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR HILLY AREAS (TROPICAL HIGH LAND)
Spacing. 90 x 90 cm.
Recommended inputs:

FYM/compost (20 tonnes) in one single dose in January or February

Azotobacter (7.5 kg) in three equal doses

VAM inoculum (1 000 kg) in a single dose in lifespan plantation.

Calcium ammonium nitrate (200 kg) in three equal doses

Single super phosphate (156 kg) in two equal doses

Muriate of potash (84 kg) in two equal doses

Since the recommendations are general, quantities of fertilizers and amendments may be
applied on the basis of soil test reports.

70

INPUTS FOR CULTIVATION IN TEMPERATE AND SUB-TEMPERATE REGIONS

The varieties Goshoerami and China white are suitable for temperate. Chak majra and S146 for sub-temperate regions. For Kashmir, 20 tonnes/ha/year of FYM should be applied
under irrigated conditions (bush or dwarf tree) after the annual pruning in July-August,
and 300:150:150 of NPK in two equal doses in April-May and in June-July.
The expected leaf yield of these varieties is: Goshoerami and China White 15-20
tonnes/ha/year and for Chak Majra 20-22 tonnes/ha/year.
MIXED FARMING
Mulberry can be successfully grown as an intercrop (medium mixed tree) between rows
of tea/coffee as shade plants. Besides providing shade, a substantial quantity of leaves can
be obtained for silkworm rearing and for feeding cattle and goats. Furthermore, the
pruned shoots are a good source of firewood.
Mulberry can also be grown as an intercrop for cultivation in coconut plantations. A
survey has shown that mulberry is intercropped with coconut in the areas of
Channapatna, Ramanagaram, Kanakapura and Bangalore in the state of Karnataka.
INSECTICIDE/PESTICIDE/FUNGICIDE AND OTHER INPUTS
The following products should be applied per ha/year, if needed, at the recommended
doses:

DDVP (Nuvan), 1.25 litres (in 480 litres of water), spray, to control tukra and leaf
roller. Washing soap (non detergent), 5 kg mixed with DDVP solution (not
required for leaf roller)

Ladybird (CSRT), 625 adult beetles as biological control of mealy bug

Bionematicide (shelf life of 180 days), 80 kg split in three doses every four
months during intercultivation operations to control root knot disease

Neen oil cake, two tonnes in four split doses every three months during
intercultivation operations to control root knot disease

Raksha (shelf life of 120 days), 1 kg for 100 plants with 50 kg FYM for root rot
disease

Bavistine (Carbendazim: a.i. 50 WP), at 0.2 percent, 1 kg dissolved in 500 litres

of water and sprayed to prevent leaf spot and powdery mildew diseases

71

Kavash (Choro-tholonil: a.i. WP), 1 kg dissolved in 500 litres of water and

sprayed to prevent leaf rust

Dithane M-45 (Mancozeb: a.i. 75 WP) 1 kg dissolved in 500 litres of water and
sprayed to prevent leaf blight due to fungi and bacteria

Zinc sulphate (agro grade) 4.4 kg in 440 litres of water to increase leaf quality and
quantity

Glyphosphate (agro grade) at 41 percent, 8.1 litres in two split doses (2 and 4
crop) to control weeds.

ANIMAL FEEDING PRACTICES AND OTHER TRADITIONAL USES

Mulberry is known in India as "Kalpa Vruksha" as all the parts of the plant have many
uses. It is essential to sericulture as the foliage constitutes the sole feed of the mulberry
silkworm. Mulberry is a fast-growing tree which, for the convenience of sericulture
practices, is maintained as a bush. It produces very large amounts of renewable biomass
in the form of branches, shoots, leaves and fruit. If mulberry is used for silkworm rearing
it is possible to obtain 30-35 tonnes/ha of leaf every year. By growing mulberry, a farmer
obtains fodder, fuel and fertilizer. With regard to fodder for animals, farmers in India feed
their cows and goats with leftover branches and leaves from silkworm rearing. Many
farmers feed their animals with surplus foliage but always mix it with straw. Farmers also
use the mulberry branches for fuel after pruning. Leftover twigs are allowed to dry in the
garden itself. Residues of rearing are also converted to valuable FYM for mulberry
gardena by putting them in a pit for four to five months prior to use. As mulberry is
mainly propagated by cuttings in the tropics and sub-tropics, a certain quantity of pruned
branches can be used for the preparation of cuttings and the remainder as fuel. One
hectare of mulberry garden yields about 12.1 tonnes of mulberry sticks. The energy
generated/ha (50 percent moisture loss) is 27 830 Kcal (@ 4 600 calories/kg of mulberry
wood). Mulberry could be exploited as an "energy crop" in cultivable, wasteland, lowlying areas, canal bunds, by roadsides and at fringe areas of the forest, etc. under various
afforestation, watershed development and soil conservation programmes.
The uses of the various species of the genus Morus are enumerated below:
M. laevigata
The trees of this species produce sweet fruits that are used in juice and jam making in
central India. In northeast India the wood is utilized as firewood; in house building and
furniture making; for making stocks, spokes, poles, shafts of carriages and casts. The
wood is suitable for plywood making and panelling, carving and making of toys and tea
chests. It is also used for making tennis rackets. The straight log of the tree is used as a
support in house-building work.
72

M. serrata
The wood is used for furniture making and carving, toy making, sports goods,
agricultural implements and cheap types of rifles and guns.
M. alba
This species is cultivated in the hilly and plain areas of India (Himalayan region) for
silkworm rearing. It is also used as a tree in roads and in social forestry. The fruit are
made into juice, liquor and stews. The wood is used in the sports goods industry. It is also
used for house building; agricultural implements; furniture; for making spokes, poles,
shafts and bent parts of carriages and carts. The stem bark is used for making paper.
M. indica
The cultivated forms that are utilized in silkworm rearing belong to M. indica. There are a
few profuse fruiting varieties occurring in Maharastra and Meghalaya that can be utilized
as the female parent in breeding programmes. The fruit is used for jam, jelly and juice
making in Maharashtra. The pruned branches are used as fuel.
Medicinal uses
The various parts of the mulberry plant find use in Ayurvedic preparations. The leaves
have diaphoretic and emollient effects and are used for making a decoction that can be
used as a gargle that throat inflammation. The fruits are used to treat sore throat,
depression, high fever and are both a coolant and laxative. The root extract has
hypoglycaemic properties. The root bark is used as an anthelmintic, purgative and
vermifuge. Mulberry root juice is administered to patients with high blood pressure. The
Chinese use the leaf tips from young leaves to boil with tea to control blood pressure. The
milky latex is used as a plaster for sores and for the preparation of dermal creams.
FRUITING HABIT
In South India, fruits are observed in two seasons a year: during October-November and
during March-May. However, whenever mulberry is pruned or defoliate flowering takes
place together with sprouting of auxiliary buds followed by fruit formation. This feature
of mulberry is utilized in mulberry breeding programmes. The immature fruits are green
in colour but change to purplish to violet black. In certain species such as M. alba the
fruits are white to pinkish and very sweet. In M. laevigata the fruits are very long,
sometimes measuring up to 18 cm.
Silk Production
SERICULTURE, the technique of silk production, is an agro-industry, playing an
eminent role in the rural economy of India. Silk-fibre is a protein produced from the silkglands of silkworms.

73

Historically, sericulture was introduced for the first time, into China by Hoshomin, the
Queen of China. For a long time, sericulture was considered to be a national secret by the
Chinese Government, and as an industry it was not known in other countries. Later, it
was introduced into Europe and Japan as well. According to reports available, sericulture
was introduced into India about 400 years back and the industry flourished as an agroindustry till 1857, with an annual production of two million pounds of silk fibre. The
industry survived the onslaught of the Pebrine disease during the period from 1857 to
1895. However, after 1928, the sericulture industry showed a decline in its production
owing to the fierce competition from advanced sericulture countries, such as Japan, China
and European countries. After the Independence, the industry is flourishing as an agroindustry, giving employment to over 3.5 million people in the Country.
The annual production of silk in the world is estimated at 45,000 tonnes of which Japan
and China contribute 18,936 and 13,200 tonnes respectively. South Korea, USSR and
India are the other leading sericultural countries in the world. The industry has survived
the stiff competition with the man-made fibres and it is now estimated by the Food and
Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations that the total requirement of silk by 1980
would be of the order of 80,000 tonnes, leaving a demand of 35,000 tonnes. Japan, which
is the premier silk-producing country, owing to its recent industrialisation, high cost of
labour and the shortage of land available foe mulberry cultivation, has its limitations in
increasing its production. Further, owing to heavy internal consumption, Japan has
become an importer of silk, thus widening the gap between production and demand. This
situation has given a boost to the sericulture industry in the developing countries,
e.g.India and South Korea.
Among the developing countries, India enjoys a very favourable position for doubling the
present status of of silk porduction of 2,969 tonnes owing to the low cost of labour.
sericulture is ideally suited for improving the rural economy of the country, as it is
practised as a subsidiary industry to agriculture. Recent research has also shown that
sericulture can be developed as a highly rewarding agro-industry.
BACKGROUND OF THE INDUSTRY
In developing countries, e.g.India, agriculture and agro-based industries play a vital role
in the improvement of rural economy.The limited availability of land, the limited cash
returns, and agriculture being confined to one or two seasons in the year, have made
villages to look for supporting rural industries, such as sericulture. Agriculture and
sericulture are adopted simultaneously by the agriculturists in regions where the
ecological conditions are favourable. In India, over three million people are employed in
various fields of sericulture. It is a cottage industry and provides ample work for the
womenfolk in the rural areas in rearing silk worms, while the male members work in
the fields. Recently the enforcing of new ideas by research institutions both in mulberry
cultivation and silk-worm-handling among sericulturists, the industry is now practised as
a main profession and as a major cash crop, of the country.

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Five varieties of silk worms are reared in India for producing this natural fibre. Bombyx
mori, the silk worm, feeds on the leaves of Morus to produce the best quality of fibre
among the different varieties of silk produced in the country. Antherea assama is
confined to only Brahmaputra Valley of India in the world.It produces the
famous mugasilk.Tasar silk is a product of Antherea mylitta, which feeds onTerminalia
tomentosa grown in the thick jungles of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Orissa. The recent
introduction of Antherea royeli and Antherea perniyi has enabled the country to produce
the oak tasar silk, Phylosamia ricini, the eri silkworm, which feeds on Ricinus communis,
is raised in Assam and Orissa commercially.
Of the total production of 2,969 tonnes of silk in India, as much as 2,445 tonnes is
produced by the mulberry silkworms,Bombyx mori.
Mulberry silk is produced extensively in the states of Karnataka, West Bengal and Jammu
and Kashmir. About 85 per cent of the country's production is contributed by the
Karnataka state by rearing multivoltine hybrids of silkworm and this activity enables the
sericulturists to harvest five to sixcrops a year. Jammu and Kashmir, owing to its
salubrious climate during autumn and spring, is producing silk by rearing univoltine
silkworms. Other states, namely, Andhra pradesh, Assam, Tamil Nadu, Uttar
Pradesh,Himachal Pradesh and Punjab, contribute roughly 1.8 percent to the total
production of mulberry silk in India.
Tasar silkworms are reared traditionally by the tribal people of Madhya Pradesh,Bihar,
Orissa. These 3 states mainly contribute to the production of tasar silk in the country. The
recent rearing ofAntherea royeli & Antherea perniyi has enabled the country to produce
the
oak
tasar
silk
in
the
sub-Himalayan
belt
&
in
Manipur.
Muga silk is grown exclusively in Assam & it is still considered to be a ceremonial dress
by
the
local
population.
Assam produces as much as 90% of eri silk in the country by rearing eri silkworms on
castor leaves.
The systematic cultivation of mulberry, the food plant of Bombyx mori, is the first step in
the production of mulberry silk. The total area under mulberry in India is 1,20,567
hectares, of which only 28,781 hectares is irrigated Whereas, mulberry is raised as a
bush plantation in Karnataka & West Bengal, it is grown as trees in Jammu & Kashmir.
Four Indian species of Morus, namely Morus alba, M.indica, M. serrata & M.
laevigata, are raised as main food plants of silkworms.
The propagation of mulberry in Karnataka & west Bengal is through vegetative
propagation, whereas root-grafting & bud-grafting are practised in the hilly areas of
Jammu & Kashmir & Uttar Pradesh. Considering the ecological conditions, such as
rainfall & the nature of soil, different systems ofplantations for raising mulberry are
practised in India.In the rain-fed areas,mulberry is planted at a distance of 7.6*7.6 cm
whereas under irrigation the spacing of 5 cm* 5cm & the row system ( 4 cm between
rows & 15 cm between plants) are followed. In West Bengal, a modified system of
rowplantation, popularly called 'Malda System' is practised even under rainfed
75

conditions, because of the rich soil & heavy rainfall.Recently, tree plantation have ben
introduced into Jammu & Kashmir.
The cost of producing mulberry has a direct impact on the cost of producing cocoons, as
nearly 605 of the total cost of production of cocoons goes to the production of mulberry
leaves.
Experiments conducted in the moriculture divisions of the research institutions to evolve
new varieties of mulberry & improved methods of cultivation have shown that over
30,000 kg of quality leaf can be produced per annum at competitive costs against 15,000
kg by adopting the traditional methods under irrigation. Many high-yielding varieties
have been introduced into the country, & they not only double the leaf yield, but also
maintain the succulence of the leaves, a factor which is very important under tropical
conditions.

Number of reeling units (Charka, Cottage, Basin, Filature basin,

Handlooms and Powerlooms)
There are 5 Govt. Silk reeling units and 3 Market cum Reeling units are functioning
in TamilNadu State. Govt. Silk Reeling Units
1. Hosur O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Hosur
2. Vaniyambadi O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Vaniyambadi
3. Talavadi O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Talavadi
4. Nannagaram O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Tenkasi and
5. Salem - O/o the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Salem.
Market cum Reeling units
1. Pudukottai O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Trichy
2. Nagercoil O/o. the Asst. Director of Sericulture, Tenkasi and
3. Sivagangai O/o. the Asst. director of Sericulture, Dindigul
Factors influencing Quality Silk Production: Raw silk reeling is a set of processes, which
aims at efficient extraction of silk filament from cocoons. It is a process of combining
number of ends of the cocoon filaments together to form a single thread of desired denier.
Silk reeling is carried out with the reeling devices viz, Charka, Cottage basin and
Multiend reeling machines. Multiend reeling machine is a suitable reeling device to
76

produce gradable raw silk economically under Indian conditions. Important factors which
have a direct bearing of productivity and quality of silk are as follows.
1. Raw material quality : Cocoon characteristics like race, size, shape, built,
reliability, filament denier, length, etc.,
2. Processing parameters adopted for stifling, cooking, reeling and rereeling.
3. Machinery / devices : Machinery / devices used for drying, cooking,
reeling and re-reeling processes
4. Water quality : Water source, and waters characteristics
5. Human skill: Human skill involved in manual and mechanical
operations
Charka Reeling: Presently, silk is produced mainly using three reeling technologies
namely Charka, Cottage basin / domestic basin and Multiend reeling technology in
the country. About 50% silk produced is of Charka and about 35 to 40 % is of
cottage basin and small quantity is from multiend reeling.Due to inherent
inadequacies in charka, it is not possible to produce good quality silk. Even though
the cottage basin produces better quality silk compared to charka, it still falls short
of international grade.
The main reason why charka is still dominating is that the bulk of raw silk
produced is used by handloom sector, wherein the cost factor of raw material has to
be kept low. Poor quality cocoon can only be reeled economically on charka.In
order to achieve better reeling performance, following have to be considered
1. Casting of cocoons to be such to have raw silk of uniform denier
2. The broken end during reeling has to be knotted to improve the
winding quality.
3. Water has to be changed after it becomes turbid to improve reeling
performance and colour of the silk.
4. Water quality has to be maintained to get clean silk.
5. Motorised charka to maintain uniform reeling speed and reduce labour
cost is must.
6. CSRTI economic oven reduces fuel cost.
7. Drying during reeling to reduce gum spots is important
8. Silk waste should be stretched, dried and stored properly.
Cottage basin Reeling / Domestic basin Reeling: Cottage basin reeling is an improved
technology over that of charka system, where in cooking process is separated from
reeling process. Silk is reeled on small reels first and then re-reeled on bigger reels to

77

improve the winding quality. Some of the practices, which are in vogue in cottage
reeling, are discussed in the following paragraphs.
1. Stifling of cocoons play a role in production of quality silk yarn.
Cocoons stifled by steam generate lot of slugs during reeling leading to
reduction in reeling efficiency and quality of silk.
2. Open pan cooking leads to production of poor quality silk.
3. High-speed reeling affects the uniformity and elongation characteristics
of raw silk.
4. Many of the cottage basin reelers are not introducing required croissure
length, which results in poor cohesion and tenacity of raw silk.
5. Usually, reeling basin water temperature is not maintained uniformly
throughout the reeling process. This affects cleanness, reeling efficiency
and reelability.
6. Re-reeling is also carried out at very high speed. This results in improper
drying of silk leading to gum spots.
Multiend Reeling
Raw silk reeling is a set of processes, which aims at efficient extraction of
silk filament from cocoons. It is a process of combining number of ends of the
cocoon filaments together to form a single thread of desired denier. Silk reeling is
carried out with the reeling devices viz, Charka, Cottage basin and Multiend
reeling machines. Multiend reeling machine is a suitable reeling device to produce
gradable raw silk economically under Indian conditions.
Multiend reeling machine is an improved machine over that of cottage
basin having 10 ends as against 6 ends in the Cottage basins. It is also provided
with a jetteboutes for easy attachment and maintenance of denier of silk. Unlike
cottage basin the speed of machine is fixed as constant, unlike that of cottage
basin it will improve the tenacity and elongation, cohesion of the silk. The
croissure pulley are arranged in improved way so as the length of the croissure is
not less than 1.5 to 2.0 cm to improve the cohesion strength of the filament. The
optimum speed 120 to 150 mts per minute enable the reelers to produce required
denier silk with less average size deviation and less number of breakages. The
individual reel stop motion device provided in the machine helps the reeler to
increase the productivity. Quality raw silk with required denier with less
breakages better cohesion, better elongation can be produced in the multiend
reeling machines.

78

The multivoltine and multibivoltine cocoon can be used for production of

quality raw silk in the machine. The usage of steam boiler in cooking and rereeling improves the quality of silk and reduce the cost of fuel. Quality gradable
silk of 2A to 3A grade can be produced by using this machine.
Multiend reeling machine developed by CSTRI, Bangalore is an improved
version of the cottage basin and is a suitable reeling device to produce gradable
quality raw silk economically under Indian conditions. In addition to multiend
reeling machine, good quality raw material, proper process parameters, proper
post reeling operations and required water quality are essential to obtain the
gradable silk.
Automatic Reeling Unit: The filature adopts the latest technology in silk reeling
consists of the latest machinery imported from China. It is the first of its kind in
TamilNadu. This unit aims to produce superior quality raw silk of 3A - 4A Grade
from Bivoltine Hybrid Cocoons. It has a capacity of 40 basins and in capable of
producing around 35 MT of Bivoltine Silk per annum. The unit started its
production on 23rd August 2008.
The Government of India through the Central Silk Board (CSB) is supporting for the
establishment of multi-end reeling units and automatic reeling units for the benefit of Silk
Industry under the Catalytic Development Program (CDP). The Government of India
through CSB has so far supported the establishment of 46 multi-end reeling units in
Tamil Nadu. This information was given by the Minister of State for Textiles, Panabaaka
Lakshmi in the Lok Sabha, in a written reply to a question by Sivasami C.
The Minister further said that with a view to facilitate production of quality raw silk of
international standards, support was provided for the establishment of one automatic
reeling unit in Gobichettypalayam under the X plan. The said automatic reeling unit was
inaugurated during August, 2008 and has started commercial production. This reeling unit
can absorb the cocoon produced in Udumalpet, Pollachi and Puravipalayam areas due to
its
proximity
to
Gobichettypalayam.
Under the XI Plan, Government of India through Central Silk Board (CSB) is extending
support for the establishment of two automatic reeling units, one in Udumalpet (Erode
District} and the other in Edappadi (Salem District), the Minister added.

79

Chapter 6
Prospects and Problems of Sericulture
If the goal of sericulture is to eradicate poverty, low-cost sericulture by rearing methods
adjusted to the economical and technical conditions of local farmers is desired, even
though the quality of cocoon may be lower. However, if the goal is production (cocoon,
raw silk) for export, quality at the international level and a volume of trade are required,
so technologies and equipments close to the level of of sericulture developed countries
such as Japan and China are required. Also, the silkworm race has been bred to achieve
high quality and high-yield, and needs a large amount of high quality of mulberry leaves,
and is prone to disease in comparison with other silkworm races such as the tropical
silkworm. As such, high quality mulberry leaves produced from a mulberry field with
good fertility management and a clean rearing environment is needed to rear silkworms.
Hence, a higher level of mulberry cultivation and silkworm rearing technologies are
required than sericulture, as well as a higher cost for mulberry field management, rearing
equipment, and sterilization.
Research and development: Sericulture involves growing of host plants, rearing of
silkworms, reeling, twisting, weaving and marketing of various value added products and
services. In order to meet this new varieties of mulberry silkworm, to suit various agro
climatic conditions and to increase productivity, quality and profitability of sericulture,
number of products, methodologies, package of practices, etc., have to be developed and
released.
In this context, Central Silk Board has established Central Sericultural Research &
Training Institutes, each at Mysore, Berhampore and Pampore, Silkworm Seed
Technology Laboratory at Bangalore, Seri-biotech Research Laboratory at Bangalore,
Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre at Hosur for mulberry sericulture
80

research. National Silkworm Seed Organization Head Quarters is located in Bangalore.

For non-mulberry sericulture research, two institutes namely, Central Tasar Research &
Training Institute at Ranchi and Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute at
Ladoigarh are functioning. The post-cocoon related research is carried out at Central Silk
Technological Research Institute at Bangalore.
IMPACT OF CSB'S R&D ON SERICULTURE IN INDIA

Leaf productivity has increased from 35 to 60 mt /ha/yr

Cocoon productivity increased from 40 to 60 kg /100 dfls

The cocoon productivity per ha increased from 659 kg/ha in 2002 to 706 kg/ha in
2007

The raw silk production per ha increased from 75.2 kg in 2002 to 86.12 kg in
2007

The renditta has improved from 8.7 in 2002 to 8.1 in 2007

40 Technologies were filed for patenting of which 16 technologies have been

commercialized

12 mulberry silkworm hybrids have been authorized (5 Bv x Bv, 6 Mv x Bv and 2

Mv x Mv) for various states and regions for commercial use.

Total technology management package for multi-end reeling has improved over to
2A to 4A International grade silk.

Cocoon productivity per unit of 100 dfls has increased from 45 to 60 kg during
the X Plan.
Authorized region specific mulberry varieties viz., S1635, S36, S13 and S34 for the
tropical climatic zones; S1 and S799 for the Eastern and Northern Zones ; S146, BC-259,
TR10, Chak Majra and Chinese white for the North Western Zone. Recently, a high
yielding mulberry variety V1 has been evolved which has a potential yield 60 MT/ha
under irrigation in the Southern zone; variety AR12 for alkaline soils and AR10 variety
for semi arid zones.
In recent years, several new silkworm breeds have been evolved. Authorised 36 region
and season specific hybrids ( 21 Bv x Bv and 13 Mv x Bv and 2 Mv x Mv) for
commercial use. Integrated technology packages for mulberry cultivation have been
developed which include new mulberry variety, plant spacing, fertilizer and manure
application including bio-fertilizer, shoot harvest, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and
separate mulberry garden for young age (chawki) and late age silkworms. A
comprehensive rearing technology package for bivoltine silkworms have been developed,
which include egg incubation, chawki rearing, shoot-cum-shelf rearing, use of more
effective disinfectants and improved mountages have resulted in higher productivity.
To reduce drudgery, several machineries have been designed and developed for
mechanization in mulberry cultivation including pruning, cultivator, leaf litter separator
and leaf chopper. A shoot crushing machine for compost preparation. Similarly
equipments like loose egg washing table, winnover, cocoon cutting, cocoon deflosser, egg
transportation box, incubation chamber, hand duster, Uzi trap, improved Acid Treatment
Bath, light weight rearing tray, Tewari Grainage tray and the like have been developed.
In silk reeling, to obtain international grade silk, several machineries and accessories
have been developed, which are fitted to multi-end reeling machine. The other
innovations are denier detecting device, permeation chamber, water softening kit, multi

81

fuel economic oven, ushnakoti, besides various gadgets like cocoon cage, reeling button,
slit button, slub- catcher, tail-end cutter, brushing unit, panel winder, soaking recipe, etc .
In recent years, seri-biotech research has acquired prominence to harness the benefit of
molecular biology research in sericulture. Genome analysis of mulberry silkworm using
molecular markers has led to DNA profiling of silkworm genotypes through PCR based
RAPD and DNA fingerprinting with micro-satellite probes. Distinct and unique DNA
profile which is specific to diapausing and non-diapausing strains has been identified.
Over the years, CSB R&D Institutions have developed many products / innovations /
technologies for the benefit of sericulture community. As at the end of January, 2008
there are around 81 technologies filed for patenting / commercialization. Of which, 16
technologies have been patented and 30 innovations commercialized.

A. Prospects of Sericulture
When the world is chasing behind green planet and green revolution we should also
approach green concept in our attire and be organic in life style. If we creed to be green in
attire, we may have no choice other than wearing silk every time. However, the idea may
sound interesting and attractive [because silk made dresses are simple astounding] but it
is not feasible because silk fabric is too sensitive for regular use.
However delicacy of silk fabric does not make vulnerable because silk fabric is one of the
strongest natural fibers and keeps body cool in summer and naturally warm in wintry
seasons. The summer textures of silk fabric are different than winter worn silk
fabrics.There are different hybrid qualities of silk fabrics, and some of the popular
varieties of silk fabrics are brocade, crepe, faille, Georgette, Organza, and chiffon fabric.
Whereas for everyday use attires silk is not a durable option, for party and celebrations,
there is nothing parallel to silk. Wedding gowns made of silk, scarves, kurta, silk made
sarees, suits and evening wears for men are popular all over the world for expensive
elegant look and gorgeous but sublime appeal of its magical presence.
Silk is not used in attire only. Rich and affluent elegant people all over globe uses silk
made upholstery for their house and it adds gorgeous and expensive look to the house
interiors. However silk made upholstery are quite expensive to maintain therefore it is not
advisable to use silk made up holstery where it may face regular abrasion and harsh
climate like direct sunlight or over humid air. Silk made bed sheets, pillow cases, and
throws are excellent for use although these silk items demand delicate care.
In home furnishing silk is used in making rugs, wall hangings, wall coverings, window
treatments etc. These silk made furnishing items are quite expensive and tough to
maintain but these items carry richness in their projected appeal which is quite
irresistible.
Although conventionally silk fabrics are widely used in attire and home furnishings,
nowadays, thanks to advancement of technology, a special kind of medicated silk has
been developed which is extremely good for treatment of wounds, cuts, bedsores, and
burn injuries because these special type of medicated silk fabrics are antibacterial and
help in keeping wounds safe and un-affected.
Silk fabric is widely used in making bridal dress and this is the reason often silk is called
bridal fabric.
Hypo-allergic silk is processed by reaction with water, steam, and heat but without use of
chemicals. As dust mites do not prefer to stay in silk, silk resists dirt and bad odor, and
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silk is not a congenial place for fungus and molds to grow, this fabric is recommended for
people with allergic problems.
Common varieties of silk available in market are chiffon, china silk, mulberry silk, muga
silk, and tussar silk etc. Except muga, mulberry, and tussar silk all silk varieties are
chemically processed and man-made varieties and hence less expensive, which are also
greatly used in making less expensive silk items. When the world is chasing behind green
planet and green revolution we should also approach green concept in our attire and be
organic in life style. If we creed to be green in attire, we may have no choice other than
wearing silk every time. However, the idea may sound interesting and attractive [because
silk made dresses are simple astounding] but it is not feasible because silk fabric is too
sensitive for regular use.
However delicacy of silk fabric does not make vulnerable because silk fabric is one of the
strongest natural fibers and keeps body cool in summer and naturally warm in wintry
seasons. The summer textures of silk fabric are different than winter worn silk
fabrics.There are different hybrid qualities of silk fabrics, and some of the popular
varieties of silk fabrics are brocade, crepe, faille, Georgette, Organza, and chiffon fabric.
Whereas for everyday use attires silk is not a durable option, for party and celebrations,
there is nothing parallel to silk. Wedding gowns made of silk, scarves, kurta, silk made
sarees, suits and evening wears for men are popular all over the world for expensive
elegant look and gorgeous but sublime appeal of its magical presence.
Silk is not used in attire only. Rich and affluent elegant people all over globe uses silk
made upholstery for their house and it adds gorgeous and expensive look to the house
interiors. However silk made upholstery are quite expensive to maintain therefore it is not
advisable to use silk made up
holstery where it may face regular abrasion and harsh climate like direct sunlight or over
humid air. Silk made bed sheets, pillow cases, and throws are excellent for use although
these silk items demand delicate care.
In home furnishing silk is used in making rugs, wall hangings, wall coverings, window
treatments etc. These silk made furnishing items are quite expensive and tough to
maintain but these items carry richness in their projected appeal which is quite
irresistible.
Although conventionally silk fabrics are widely used in attire and home furnishings,
nowadays, thanks to advancement of technology, a special kind of medicated silk has
been developed which is extremely good for treatment of wounds, cuts, bedsores, and
burn injuries because these special type of medicated silk fabrics are antibacterial and
help in keeping wounds safe and un-affected.
Silk fabric is widely used in making bridal dress and this is the reason often silk is called
bridal fabric.
Hypo-allergic silk is processed by reaction with water, steam, and heat but without use of
chemicals. As dust mites do not prefer to stay in silk, silk resists dirt and bad odor, and
silk is not a congenial place for fungus and molds to grow, this fabric is recommended for
people with allergic problems.
Common varieties of silk available in market are chiffon, china silk, mulberry silk, muga
silk, and tussar silk etc. Except muga, mulberry, and tussar silk all silk varieties are
chemically processed and man-made varieties and hence less expensive, which are also
greatly used in making less expensive silk items.
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a. Qualities of different types of Textile fibres

Natural fibres are greatly elongated substances produced by plants and animals that can
be spun into filaments, thread or rope. Woven, knitted, matted or bonded, they form
fabrics that are essential to society.
Like agriculture, textiles have been a fundamental part of human life since the dawn of
civilization. Fragments of cotton articles dated from 5000 BC have been excavated in
Mexico and Pakistan. According to Chinese tradition, the history of silk begins in the
27th century BC. The oldest wool textile, found in Denmark, dates from 1500 BC, and
the oldest wool carpet, from Siberia, from 500 BC. Fibres such as jute and coir have been
cultivated since antiquity.
While the methods used to make fabrics have changed greatly since then, their functions
have changed very little: today, most natural fibres are still used to make clothing and
containers and to insulate, soften and decorate our living spaces. Increasingly, however,
traditional textiles are being used for industrial purposes as well as in components of
composite materials, in medical implants, and geo- and agro-textiles.
In this section we present profiles of 15 of the world's major plant and animal fibres.
They range from cotton, which dominates world fibre production, to other, specialty
fibres such as cashmere which, though produced in far smaller quantities, have particular
properties that place them in the luxury textiles market.
Plant fibres
Plant fibres include seed hairs, such as cotton; stem (or bast) fibres, such as flax and
hemp; leaf fibres, such as sisal; and husk fibres, such as coconut.
Abaca - Once a favoured source of rope, abaca shows promise as an energy-saving
replacement for glass fibres in automobiles
Coir - A coarse, short fibre extracted from the outer shell of coconuts, coir is found in
ropes, mattresses, brushes, geotextiles and automobile seats
Cotton - Pure cellulose, cotton is the world's most widely used natural fibre and still the
undisputed "king" of the global textiles industry
Flax - One of nature's strongest vegetable fibres, flax was also one of the first to be
harvested, spun and woven into textiles
Hemp - Recent advances in the "cottonization" of hemp fibre could open the door to the
high quality clothing market
Jute - The strong threads made from jute fibre are used worldwide in sackcloth - and help
sustain the livelihoods of millions of small farmers
Ramie - Ramie fibre is white, with a silky lustre, and is one of the strongest natural
fibres, similar to flax in absorbency and density
Sisal - Too coarse for clothing, sisal is replacing glass fibres in composite materials used
to make cars and furniture
Animal fibres
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Animal fibres include wool, hair and secretions, such as silk.

Alpaca wool - Alpaca is used to make high-end luxury fabrics, with world production
estimated at around 5 000 tonnes a year
Angora wool - The silky white wool of the Angora rabbit is very fine and soft, and used
in high quality knitwear
Camel hair - The best fibre is found on the Bactrian camels of Mongolia and Inner
Mongolia, and baby camel hair is the finest and softest
Cashmere - Cashmere is exceptionally soft to the touch owing to the structure of its
fibres and has great insulation properties without being bulky
Mohair - White, very fine and silky, mohair is noted for its softness, brightness and
receptiveness to rich dyes
Silk - Developed in ancient China, where its use was reserved for royalty, silk remains
the "queen of fabrics"
Wool - Limited supply and exceptional characteristics have made wool the world's
premier textile fibre
In contrast to natural fibres, the composition and structure of man-made fibres can be
determined by man. This lends man-made fibres special properties and renders them
useful
for
many
different
purposes.
With the exclusion of ceramic or glass fibers all man-made fibers as well as natural fibers
are organic fibers.
In order to manufacture man-made fibres, viscous, stringy liquids are needed. The matter
that results from dissolving or heating is called the spin mass. Today, three manufacturing
processes are primarily used: polymerisation, polycondensation and poly-addition. The
resulting spinnable matter from these processes is called a polymer.
As a rule, a distinction is made between man-made fibres from synthetic polymers and
those from cellulosic polymers which both belong to the class of organic fibers. The
ACRYLIC-, POLYAMIDE-, POLYESTER- and ELASTANE FIBRES belong to the
man-made fibres made from synthetic polymers. In the case of man-made fibres
manufactured from cellulosic polymers the distinction is e.g. between the VISCOSE- and
the ACETATE FIBRES.
Among all fabrics available silk fabric is the most expensive and rich. It is considered in
all countries irrespective of the culture and dressing sense. Silk may vary from countries
to countries, name can be changed but the main material of the fabric that is silk is
unchanged and maintains the elegance throughout ages and styles. There are many other
types of fabrics like Cotton, Crepe, Georgette, Faux, Art silk, Viscose, Soft Crush, Satin,
Chiffon fabric, stretch fabric, Tissue, Brasso ,organza& Jacquard types. Apart from cotton
and Silk all others are man made fabrics.
Here are some talks on silk fabric. Silk fabric can be used as a clothing fabric or an
upholstery fabric. Silk is simply unmatched when its sensuous touch and softness
counted. When you will decorate your home, choose the curtains you will like to have
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silk fabric as your curtain maker. Silk fabric has the natural luster and softness. This
natural fabric is also one of the most durable fabrics that are made from silk fibers.
Associated with luxury and style, silk fabric has its own style statement. Not only in past
but today also silk is the symbol of richness, wealth and success. The durability of silk is
proved and tested. Among all natural fabrics used for clothing silk fabric is strongest. The
test is simple. At first take a steel filament of a diameter and take a silk fabric of same
diameter. You will experience the steel filament getting destroyed earlier than the silk
fabric. The other advantages of buying silk fabric is it is lustrous in look and gives all
clothes either it is a wedding dress or an evening gown or a party dress. You can choose
silk fabric as bridal fabric. You can make beautiful embroidery on the fabric or wear it
simple without any embroidery work. Silk fabric is also comfortable and airy as its
moisture absorbing capacity is great which makes it cool in summers and warm in
winters.
Silk fabric is actually protein fabric and its high lustrous quality and softness is because
of protein. Silk fabric is such a fabric which is made from threads and it is spun by the
silk caterpillars. To produce silk fibers, silk worms are cultivated in large numbers. Silk
caterpillars live on some specific tress and eat their leaves to live. These tresses are
cultivated in order to cultivate these worms. Before hatching of silk worm into moth the
cocoons are soaked in hot water to produce filaments. These filaments are then spun to
form silk fibers which are processed to silk fabric.
You can find number of silk in market like chiffon fabric, china silk, cotton silk, organza;
crape silk, satin silk etc but they are all chemically made. There are mainly four types of
natural silk fabrics. These are mulberry silk, taser silk, muga silk and eri silk. Among
these mulberry silk is the most popular and expensive one. It is produced by Bombyx
mori that completely feeds on the leaves of mulberry plant.
Like Silk Fabric or Chiffon Fabric, Bridal Fabric is also needed by people. The best place
to shop for these materials is Redtex. Inc.

b. Advantages of silk fibres over other fibres

Most people think of silk as an expensive fabric that is the ultimate in luxury, smoothness
but everyone should know how it could also benefit your health too. Besides its luxurious
softness and lustrous beauty, there are various other benefits of silk that other fabrics that
man-made fabrics simply cannot match. These advantages of silk have rightly earned silk
its reputation as the queen of fabrics. If Why Silk is still a question in your mind, the
following benefits of silk should remove any doubts. It is not just a question of
comparison with other fabrics, some of these benefits and advantages place silk in a
league of its own.
An all-climate fabric, silk is warm and cosy in winter and comfortably cool when
temperatures rise. Its natural temperature-regulating properties give silk this paradoxical
ability to cool and warm simultaneously. Silk garments thus outperform other fabrics in
both summer and winter. Silk worn as a second layer warms without being bulky
Here's how...Natural: Silk is a 100% natural fabric
Breathing: Silk is naturally hypoallergenic.

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Because of its natural protein structure, silk is the most hypoallergenic of all
fabrics

Silk is highly absorbent: it can absorb up to 30% of its weight in moisture without
feeling damp. Silk will absorb perspiration while letting your skin breathe

Silk is made from the cocoons. Like nearly anything in nature, there are natural
occurring substances in the cocoon of the silkworm that protect from various threats.
Because the process of turning those cocoons into silk is a gentle one that does not strip
away those natural substances, the benefits of them are still in the silk when you purchase
silk products.
Sensitive Skin

Silk works in two ways to assist sensitive skin.

Thanks to silks natural thermostatic properties, silk clothes will keep you warm
in winter and cool in summer.

Silk is 100% natural, and contains many amino acids in common with the human
body, these acids help moisture penetrate the skin (aid in absorption) and aid in skin
healing.

Silk will keep you warm without being bulky.

Silk is fine, durable, light. The individual fibres are approximately a half a mile
long, which is what gives the fabric its lustre and ultra smooth surface so beneficial to
sensitive skin. It has been said on more than one occasion that the amino acids in silk are
good for a person's skin and help delay wrinkling in the skin as well as being good for a
person's hair. They are also said to be helpful to the central nervous system helping to
calm a person.
Together these benefits will help:
Eczema

Sensitive Skin

allergic rash

skin inflammations (psoriasis)

shingles

post-chemotherapy sensitive skin

post surgery sutures

Durability

A fiber of silk that is of the same diameter as a fiber of steel is said to be stronger
than the steel.

One silk thread is typically four to eight of the silk thread filaments twisted
together. And because silk naturally tends to adhere to itself, the silk filaments bond
themselves making them less likely to pull apart even after years of use.

Silk will not deteriorate over time because of its natural fungal repellency and
because chemicals are not used in processing.

In spite of its delicate appearance, silk is relatively robust. Its smooth surface
resists soil and odors well. Silk is wrinkle and tear resistant, and dries quickly

While silk abrasion resistance is moderate, it is the strongest natural fiber and,
surprisingly, it easily competes with steel yarn in tensile strength

Silk takes color well; washes easily; and is easy to work with in spinning,
weaving, knitting, and sewing

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Silk is a protein fiber that is often woven into textiles in many different types of clothes.
Silk comes from several different insects, but the type of silk we wear is most often
woven by the larvae of the Bombyx mori (mulberry silkworm) which is raised in
captivity for production purposes. Silk is a versatile fabric that is used in many different
types of clothing because of its many benefits.
Temperature
o
Silk is a fabric that can be worn in all climates. The fabric is comfortable and cool
during the summer and cozy and warm in the winter. The temperature-regulating
properties of silk give it the ability to warm and cool at the same time. When silk is worn
as a second layer, it can warm the body without adding the bulk of some other fabrics.
Allergies
o
As silk is a natural structure of protein it tends to be one of the most
hypoallergenic of all the fabrics. It is thought that since silk is a substance created during
a protective period for silkworms, the cocoon-derived fabric protects against natural
threats like allergens. Dust mites, fungus and various other growths tend to stay off of silk
materials, keeping your bed or clothes more allergy free.
Skin and Hair
o
It is believed that the amino acids of silk are the same that are found in the human
skin and hair. This may cause the skin to be healthier and to delay the appearance of
wrinkles. In addition, it may cause hair to be healthier as well due to its constant exposure
to important nutrients. Other conditions silk may be able to prevent are arthritis and
vascular sclerosis.
Other Properties
There are many other properties of silk which make it an extremely useful fabric. Silk is
naturally flame retardant which makes it safe for cushions and bedding. The fabric
absorbs perspiration and lets the skin breath. It has a tensile strength that is nearly as
strong as steel yarn and it resists blemishes like soil and odors. Silk washes easily, takes
color well, and is easy to work with in weaving, knitting, spinning and sewing.
All silkClick.com products will definitely bring an elegant touch to your home decor or a
luxurious detail for your outfit. Whether it is a silk cushion cover, a table runner, an
elegant silk bathrobe or a scarf, it won't go unnoticed.
But silk is not just about how it looks, silk also has innumerable other advantages, among
which:

Silk is a 100% natural fabric.

Silk is a natural protein structure, therefore silk cloth is among the most
hypoallergenic of all fabrics.

Thanks to silks natural thermostatic properties, silk clothes will keep you warm
in winter and cool in summer.

Silk will keep you warm without being bulky.

Silk absorbs perspiration while letting your skin breathe.

Silk is a natural fire retardant material, making silk one of the safest fabrics for
bedding or cushions!

Silk has the same type of amino acids as human skin, therefore it is said that silk
fabric can prevent vascular sclerosis, arthritis and delay the appearance of wrinkles.
Besides its luxurious softness and lustrous beauty, there are various other benefits of silk
that other fabrics, whether natural or man-made, simply cannot match. These advantages
88

of silk have rightly earned silk its reputation as the queen of fabrics. If Why Silk is still a
question in your mind, the following benefits of silk should remove any doubts. It is not
just a question of comparison with other fabrics, some of these benefits and advantages
place silk in a league of its own.
[For general silk information, please visit the All About Silk section, which covers
various related subjects, such as Silk History, Silk Care, and Scarf Tying Guide.]
Because of its natural protein structure, silk is the most hypoallergenic of all fabrics
An all-climate fabric, silk is warm and cozy in winter and comfortably cool when
temperatures rise. Its natural temperature-regulating properties give silk this paradoxical
ability to cool and warm simultaneously. Silk garments thus outperform other fabrics in
both summer and winter. Silk worn as a second layer warms without being bulky
Silk is highly absorbent: it can absorb up to 30% of its weight in moisture without feeling
damp. Silk will absorb perspiration while letting your skin breathe
In spite of its delicate appearance, silk is relatively robust. Its smooth surface resists soil
and odors well. Silk is wrinkle and tear resistant, and dries quickly
While silk abrasion resistance is moderate, it is the strongest natural fiber and,
surprisingly, it easily competes with steel yarn in tensile strength
Silk takes color well; washes easily; and is easy to work with in spinning, weaving,
knitting, and sewing
Silk mixes well with other animal and vegetable fibers

c. International demand for silk

Future demand for silk: The present global silk production is fluctuating around 70, 000
to 90, 000 M.T. and the demand for silk is annually increasing by 5%. With the increase
in population and also with the increased demand for fashionable clothing items due to
fast changing fashion designs in developed countries, the demand for silk is bound to
increase even more. For increasing the silk production we require highly productive
mulberry varieties and silkworm races and also silkworm races tolerant to adverse
climatic conditions and diseases which can come mainly from the sericultural germplasm
resources and also from the wild relatives of Bombyx available in the natural habitats.

B. Constraints in silk production

Disease of silk worms, shortage and high wage rates of labour, non availability of good
quality leaf and improper disinfection of the rearing house were the most serious
constraints perceived by the farmers to the realisation of potential cocoon yields. As high
as 54.17 per cent of the respondents perceived that the attack of pest like uzi fly and the
disease was the major constraint for not attaining the potential yield, followed by
shortage and high wage rates of labour (51.67 per cent), about 48.50 per cent of
respondents were unhappy with technical guidance given by the extension personnel and
improper disinfection of rearing house (41.67 per cent). About 39.17 per cent of the
respondents were felt that water problem and high temperature during summer, high cost
of silkworm rearing equipments (29.17 per cent), difficulty in procuring mountages
(24.17 per cent). About 18.33 per cent of the respondents felt that non availability of good
quality leaf, non availability of inputs in time (16.67 per cent) and difficulty in obtaining
DFL (11.67 per cent) were the other reasons for not getting the potential yield.
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a. Diseases and pests of Silkworm

One of the major constraints in silk production is the diseases in silkworm rearing
.Silkworm Bombyx moriis domesticated for silk production and are reared in colonial
forms. A code of conduct for rearing silkworm is practiced to ensure survival of silkworm
and cocooning.
All the major pathogenic microbes cause disease in silkworm and the most common
among them are nuclear polyhedrosis , bacterial and viral flacherie, muscardine and
pebrine. Nuclear polyhedrosis is caused by a baculovirus Bombyx mori nuclear
polyhedrosis virus (BmNPV, Bcauloviridae). The viral flacherie is caused by Bombyx
mori infectious flacherie virus (BmIFV, Picarnaviridae), Bombyx moridensonucleosis
virus (BmDNV, Parvovoridae) and Bombyx mori cytoplasmic polyhedrosis virus
( BmCPV, Reoviridae) . Bacterial flacherie are caused primarily by serretia marcescens,
Streptococcus sp, and Staphylococcus sp of bacteria. Muscardine is caused normally by
Beauveria bassiana and Spicaria prassina. Pebrine, a dreaded uncommon disease is
caused by Nosema bombycis, and several other microsporidians Variomorpha,
Pleistophora, Thelophania, etc.
Survey on the prevalence of diseases in silkworm in different sericulture areas have been
conducted during different seasons of the past couple of decades. An estimated cocoon
loss of 12-15 kg/ 100 dfls has been reported A loss of 35 million Rupees was estimated
by Central Silk Board, India when muscardine was rampant during 1974-75 in Karnataka,
India (Anon.,1975). Pebrine disease was on rampage in 1991-92 causing crop loss of over
2000 million Rupees.
Among the diseases, the point prevalence of nuclear polyhedrosis, in final instar, is
reported to be 1.16% in winter, 2.34% in summer and 1.52% in rainy seasons while for
the flacherie disease it is 0.92% during winter, 3.4% in summer and 1.23% in rainy
seasons. The point prevalence of muscardine is 0.79% during winter, 0.03% in summer
and 1.08% in rainy season ( Selvakumar et al., 2002). A survey has been conducted to
determine the loss due to different diseases ( Patil et al 1993). The loss due to nuclear
polyhedrosis was determined as 11.90+ 3.65% ,14.77+ 5.7% and 5.90+ 1.25% during
summer, rainy and winter seasons. The loss due to flacherie and muscardine was 22.97+
3.82% and 0.36+ 0.29%, 11.39 1.84% and 4.08+ 1.10% , and 6.29+ 09% and 12.51+
6.92% during summer, rainy and winter seasons respectively.
Factors influencing the cause of diseases in silkworm
Diseased silkworm extrudes pathogens into the rearing environment, which form the
source for the diseases in the colony. The pathogens are extruded by infected silkworms
along with gut juice ( most viral diseases and pebrine disease) and faecal matter
(Cytoplasmic polyhedrosis, pebrine and bacterial disease). It also enters into the rearing
environment through breakage of fragile integument ( nuclear polyhedrosis, septicemia)
or form the body surface ( muscardine and aspergillosis). The dead and the fermented
larva. moth also form source of diseases. The wild insects may also form a source of for
diseases especially, pebrine and muscardine . In addition, the pathogens are light, easily
drift in air and have the ability to remain in active state in rearing environment, for longer
period ( three to several years). The pathogens contaminate the mulberry either in
mulberry garden or in the rearing house it self and infect silkworms when fed on them.

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The silkworm rearing practices followed in sericultural areas are not fool proof for
prevention of diseases. Silkworms are reared in rearing cum dwelling houses. Most of
these houses are unhygienic, badly ventilated and dark and damp helping in pathogen
survival. Silkworm rearing is continuous with little time for disinfection. In fact , most
sericulturists do not disinfect the rearing house at all . As the disinfectant Foramline cause
discomfort to the residents. Farmers are not self sufficient with rearing appliances , such
as rearing trays and chandrike and borrow them leading to contamination. Silkworm bed
cleaning practices involving cleaning with hand helps in contamination. Diseased larvae
are not picked and even if picked, most farmers do not discard them but rear in separate
tray forming a source of infection in the rearing house. The bed refuse are transported in
baskets or gunny bags that are sometimes also used for transportation of mulberry leaves
to feed silkworms. While transportation, the bed refuse and diseases silkworms are
dropped on the way to litter pit. In some cases the bed refuse is transported directly to the
mulberry field which it self gets contaminated. In addition to unhygienic condition, the
rearers do not practice rearing and personal hygiene. All these factors lead to prevalence
of diseases in silkworm rearing and crop failure or low yield.
MANAGEMENT OF DISEASES IN SILKWORM REARING
Silkworm diseases are best prevented than cured. The diseases in silkworm are prevented
through proper disinfections and rearing hygiene. The disinfections aims at destruction of
pathogens in the rearing house and on appliances before the start of the rearing and
during rearing of those pathogens that enters into rearing area mainly from the infected
larvae. Personal hygiene and rearing hygiene aims to prevention of entry of the pathogen
into the rearing house and secondary contamination during rearing. Disinfection of
rearing house and appliances eliminates the persistent pathogen. However, the
disinfection performed at the beginning of the rearing has no effect on the pathogens that
gain entry into the rearing environment during the rearing. The practical approach for the
management of disease in silkworm rearing is as follows.

Disinfection of silkworm rearing house, surroundings and rearing equipments

using physical and chemical methods of disinfection.

Rearing early instar silkworms following strict hygienic, congenial environmental

and nutritional conditions.

Rearing later instar silkworms under optimum rearing area, feeding sufficient
quantity and quality mulberry under suitable environmental and hygienic.

Prevention of entry of pathogen from outside through meticulously practice of

rearing and personnel hygiene during the silkworm rearing.

Prevention of spread of silkworm diseases by using silkworm body and rearing

seat disinfectant.
In addition to the above, early diagnosis, nutrious mulberry, sufficient ventilation and
rearing space adds to the prevention of diseases in silkworm rearing.
CONSTRAINTS IN MANAGEMENT OF DISEASES
IN SILKWORM REARING
The major constraint in silkworm disease management is the need for a disinfectant
suitable to the infrastructural facilities available with sericulturists. Formalin was used as
a disinfectant in sericulture for the past several hundred years. The unsuitability of the
disinfectant under the infrastructural facilities available with sericulturists and its
hazardous nature has been responsible for improper disinfection and hygiene. Recently
91

disinfection with bleaching powder solution was introduced as a disinfectant in

sericulture. While the disinfectant eliminated the constraints associated with formalin, its
high corrosiveness, unsuitable nature and unsure of quality lead to the similar situation as
formalin.

i. Diseases-Protozoon disease, Bacterial diseases,

Viral diseases, Fungal diseases
Since mulberry silkworms are domesticated, they are suseptible to disease and pest
attack.
Proper disinfection and strict hygiene will prevent diseases and ensure successful harvest.
Common silkworm diseases are Grasserie, Pebrin, Flacherie and Muscardine. Foliar. Leaf
spot, leaf rust, powdery mildew, leaf blight and bacterial blight
Soilborne. Root rot and root knot
Nursery diseases. Stem canker, cutting rot, collar rot and dieback
1. Viral Disese
Symptom:

The larvae will be sluggish with swollen intersegmantal region

The integument of diseases larvae will be fragile and brakes easily

On infury milky fluid containing many polyhedral inclusion bodies oozes out
from the larval body

The diseases larvae do not settle for moult and showshining integument

The larvae appear to be restless

The dead larvae hand by hind legs head downward

Management
1.
Sun drying of rearing appliances for one/two days
2.
Disinfection of rearing room and appliances with 5% bleaching powder
3.
Disinfection of worms, trays and discarding of diseased worms
4.
Ensure proper ventilation and air circulation
5.
Provide proper bed spacing
6.
Feed the larvae with nutritious mulberry leaves
7.
Collect and burn infected larvae, faecal matter and bed refuses
8.
Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots
9.
Dust the bed disinfectant, Vijetha (or) Resham Keet Oushadh on the larvae, after
each moult and hr. before resumption of feeding (3 kg/100 dfl).
10.
Spray 1% of extract of Psoralea coryleifolia on mulberry leaves, shade dry and
feed worms once during third instars.
2. Bacterial Diseases
Bacteria and viruses cause the disease individually or in combination. Fluctuating
temperature and humidity and poor quality mulberry predispose the
disease
development.

The diseased larvae will be stunted in growth, dill lethargic soft and appear
flaccid

The cephalothoracic region may be translucent

The larvae vomit gut juice, develop dysentery and excrete chain type fecus.
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The larvae on death putrefy, develop different and emit foul smell
Management
1.
Maintenance of hygienic condition
2.
Disinfection of rearing room and appliances
3.
Disinfection of worms, trace and discarding of sick worms
4.
Avoid injury to the worms, overcrowding of trays and accumulation of faeces in
the rearing bed
5.
Sound management, improving the rearing environment and feed stuff
6.
Feeding the larvae with healthy nutritious leaves.
7.
Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots
8.
Avoid spraying commercial B. t. insecticides in nearby mulberry field.
9.
Apply antibiotics like Streptomycin/Tetracyclin/Ampicillin
3. Fungal Diseases
Powdery mildew is caused by the fungal pathogen Phyllactinia corylea and is more
common in temperate region. In tropics, it is common during winter and rainy season.
Temperature 22-26C and RH of 60-70% favour the spread of disease. The disease is
characterized by white powdery patches on the lower surface of the leaves in the
beginning. As the disease advances, the patches spread to the entire leaf surface and turn
to blackish brown in colour.
White muscadine is caused by a fungus Beauveria bassiana and the green muscadine is
caused by a fungus Spicaria prasina. Aspergillosis is common in young age silkworms
and the infected larvae will be lustrous and die. Dark green (Aspergillus flavus) or rusty
brown ( Aspergillus tamari)mycelial cluster are seen on the dead body.

The diseases larvae prior to death will be lethargic and on death are flaccid

oil specks may be seen on the surface of larvae

They gradually be fome hard, dry and mummify into a white or green coloured
structure

The diseases pupae will be hard, lighter and mummifies

Magagement
1.
Sundry the rearing appliances.
2.
Disinfect the rearing room and utensils with 5 per cent bleaching powder
3.
Avoid low temperature and high humidity in the rearing room
4.
Keep the rearing bed thin and dry
5.
Early diagnosis and rejection of infected lots
6.
Apply Dithane M45 (3 kg/100 dfls) / Vijetha supplement as disinfectant on the
larvae
7.
Disinfect rearing rooms and trays with 4 per cent pentachlorophenol to control
Aspergillosis.
4. Protozoan disease : Pebrine

Diseases larvae show slow growth, undersized body and poor appetite.

Diseases larvae reveal pale and flaccid body. Tiny black spots appear on larval
integument.

Dead larvae remain rubbery and do not undergo putrefaction shortly after death.
Management of Pebrine
1.
Produce healthy eggs
2.
Disinfection of rearing room and utensils
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3.
Maintain strict hygienic conditions during rearing
4.
Surface disinfect the layings in 2 per cent formalin for 10 minutes before
incubation.
5.
Collect and burn the diseased eggs, larvae, pupae and moths, bed refuses, faecal
pellets, etc
Grasserie
Symptoms

The larvae will be sluggish with swollen inter-segmental region

The larvae will be fragile

On piercing, milky fluid containing many polyhedral inclusion bodies oozes out
from the larval body

The diseased larvae do not settle for moult

The larvae appear to be restless

The dead larvae hang by hind legs head downward

Young age larvae may get infected with grasserie if the silkworm egg surface is
not disinfected
Causes

The Pathogen comes from infected eggs laid by infected mother moths

May exist in rearing facilites or Mulberry gardens as spores

Comes from wild insects naturally infected with Nosema bombsycis

Control

Disinfect silkworm rearing house, its surrounding and appliances before brushing

Conduct additional disinfection with 0.3% lime solution. Rear young silkworms
as well as late age silkworms under strict hygienic condition

Avoid high temperatures (28-35C), low rearing temperatures (10-20C) and

rearing humidity (less than 70%)

Dust lime uniformly when larvae settle for moult

Dust every time the larvae come out of moult

Feed quality Mulberry leaf

Flacherie
Symptoms
The diseased larvae will be:

Stunted in growth

Dull and lethargic

Soft and appear flaccid

The thoracic region may be translucent

The larvae vomit gut juice

The larvae on dying rot and emit a bad smell

Control

Clean and disinfect rearing trays once again. The pathogens contaminate the
rearing tray, bed and Mulberry leaf in the bed. They survive in teh rearing tray/bed for a
long time and cause the disease if they are not disinfected effectively.

Control humidity as per guidelines above. If the temperature and humidty is too
high in the tray/bed, the accumulation of faeces, wasted leaves and poor air circulation
are suitable for the bacteria to multiply in the larvae and rearing bed.
Muscardine
94

Symptoms

The diseased larvae prior to death will be lethargic and on death are flaccid

Oil specks may be seen on the surface of the larvae

They gradually become hard, dry and mummify into white or green

The diseased pupae will be hard, lighter and mummified

Control

Disinfect rearing house and appliances

Reduce silkworm bed humidity by dusting lime powder after bed cleaning

Collect the entire diseased larva and burn them

Practice rearing and personal hygiene during rearing

Practice control measure against mulberry pests

Nosema bombycis is a microsporidium that kills 100% of silkworms hatched from
infected eggs. This disease can be carried over from worms to moths, then eggs and
worms again. This microsporidium comes from the food that silkworms eat. If silkworms
get this microsporidium in their worm stage, there are no visible symptoms. However,
mother moths will pass the disease onto the eggs, and 100% of worms hatching from the
diseased eggs will die in their worm stage. To prevent this disease, it is therefore
extremely important to rule out all eggs from infected moths by checking the moths body
fluid under a microscope.
Botrytis bassiana is a fungus that destroys the entire silkworm body. This fungus usually
appears when silkworms are raised under cold conditions with high humidity. This
disease is not be passed on to the eggs from moths, as the infected silkworms cannot
survive to the moth stage. This fungus can spread to other insects.
Grasserie: If grasserie is observed in chawkie stage, then the chawkie larvae must have
been infected while hatching or during chawkie rearing. Infected eggs can be disinfected
by cleaning their surface prior to hatching. Infections can occur as a result of improper
hygiene in the chawkie rearing house. This disease develops faster in early instar rearing.
Pebrine is a disease caused by a parasitic microsporidian, Nosema bombycis Nageli.
Diseased larvae show slow growth, an undersized, pale and flaccid body, and poor
appetite. Tiny black spots appear on larval integument. Additionally, dead larvae will
remain rubbery and do not undergo putrefaction after death.

ii. Silkworm pests

Silkworm pests include the Rats, Birds, Safari and Black ants, Snakes, Lizards. Key pests
of mulberry: Maconellicoccus hirsutus (mealy bug) - causing tukra in mulberry
Diaphania
pulverulentalis Leaf
roller
Spilarctia obliqua - Bihar hairy caterpillar (sporadic pest)
Minor pests of mulberry: Thrips, jassids, scale insects, shorthorned grasshopper.
Tolerance of varieties to pests: The tukra incidence in rainfed areas was found to be
maximum in the S-34 variety followed by MR-2, Berc 776, MS-7 and S-13 (Srinivas et
al., 1996). The spread of tukra in the V-1 variety is less compared to other varieties such
as Local, K-2, S-13, S-34, S-36, suggesting that the V-1 variety is relatively tolerant to
tukra (Anony. 1998; Sujatha, 1997). Screening of germplasm maintained at CSRTI
indicated the variety TOGHWASE - Acc. No. 257 was found to be tolerant to pest attack
(unpublished data).

95

Pest Control: Put coffee tray wire mesh on all the windows, crevices and any other
openings in the rearing house. Maintain cleanliness both within and outside the house.
Sprinkle one layer of bleaching powder (calcium chloride) around the rearing house

b. Other constraints- labour, land, environmental

conditions, skill and production cost
The art of silk production is called sericulture that comprises cultivation of mulberry,
silkworm rearing and post cocoon activities leading to production of silk yarn. Sericulture
provides gainful employment, economic development and improvement in the quality of
life to the people in rural area and therefore it plays an important role in anti poverty
programme and prevents migration of rural people to urban area in search of
employment. Hence several developing nations like China, India, Brazil, Thailand,
Vietnam, Indonesia, Egypt, Iran, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar,
Turkey, Papua New Guinea, Mexico, Uzbekistan and some of the African and Latin
American countries have taken up sericulture to provide employment to the people in
rural area.
Apart from silk, there are several other bye-products from sericulture. The mulberry fruits
are rich in minerals and vitamins and from the roots, barks and mulberry leaves several
ayurvedic and herbal medicines are prepared. Some of the woody mulberry trees provide
timber which are resistant to termites and the timber is used for making sports items, toys
etc. The mulberry branches after silkworm feeding are generally dried and used as fuel
particularly in the villages. The foliage of mulberry is used as a fodder for cattle. The
mulberry trees are also planted in the embarkment area for protection of the soil to
prevent soil erosion, and mulberry trees are planted as avenue trees. The silkworm pupae
are rich in oil content and pupal oil is used in cosmetic industry and the remaining pupal
cake is a rich source of protein suitable for poultry and fisheries. In some tribal
population, the people eat eri pupa as a source of protein and nourishment. The silkworm
litter is used for bio-gas production and used as a fuel for cooking in the rural area. Thus
sericulture not only provides silk for fashionable clothings, it also provides several very
useful bye products to the human society. Therefore, sericulture development provides
opportunities to improve the living standards of people in the rural area in developing
countries.
The present global silk production is fluctuating around 70, 000 to 90, 000 M.T. and the
demand for silk is annually increasing by 5%. With the increase in population and also
with the increased demand for fashionable clothing items due to fast changing fashion
designs in developed countries, the demand for silk is bound to increase even more. For
increasing the silk production we require highly productive mulberry varieties and
silkworm races and also silkworm races tolerant to adverse climatic conditions and
diseases which can come mainly from the sericultural germplasm resources and also from
the wild relatives of Bombyx available in the natural habitats.
Though accurate data are not available on the silkworm germplasm in different countries
of the world, an approximate information indicate that there are 4310 silkworm
germplasm accessions available in different countries (Table 1). There is every likelihood
that some of these silkworm accessions are duplicated; for instance the silkworm
germplasm from China, Japan, France, Russia and India might be represented in the
germplasm collection of other countries since these are the principal source of sericultural
96

germplasm and also several countries might have exchanged some silkworm germplasm
for silkworm breeding and hence a proper documentation on the availability of silkworm
germplasm in different countries is very much required.
A very recent compilation of silkworm genetic stocks indicate that there are around 3000
genotypes of Bombyx mori at the global level, which includes mutants, parthenoclones,
polyploids and geographical races (Nagaraju et. al 2001). In fact much of the genetic
diversity of Bombyx mori is derived from the inbred lines of land races and elite stocks
evolved by the silkworm breeders and also from hybridisation of different geographical
races; mainly the Japanese, Chinese, European and tropical races, which are distinct for
several economic characters. The geographical races also possess several heritable
characters for a variety of morphological, biochemical and quantitative characters.
Among the four geographical races, the bivoltine and univoltine races of temperate origin
and multivoltine races of tropical origin differ widely and exhibit contrasting characters.
The bivoltine and univoltine races produce high quantity of good quality silk, whereas the
multivoltine races are hardy, tolerant to pathogen load and thereby resistant to diseases
compared to the bivoltines but produce low amount of poor quality silk. Thus, these
geographical races are very valuable genetic stocks for further improvement of silkworm
races and evolution of superior breeds of B. mori.
Apart from a rich biodiversity of geographical races, there are also a large number of
mutants. The silkworm genetic stocks include more than 500 mutants for a variety of
characters viz., serosal colours; larval and adult integument colours; skin markings and
body shapes; cocoon colours and shapes; physiological traits such as diapause, number of
larval moults and timing of larval maturity; food habits and biochemical features such as
digestive amylase, blood and egg esterases, larval integument esterase, alkaline and acid
phosphatases; haemolymph proteins; silk production and fibroin secretion;
homeoproteins and body plan determination etc. and the various mutants, gene locus and
phenotype were documented recently (Nagaraju et. al, 2001).
Apart from the geographical races and mutants there is a large genetic stock of B.mori
evolved by the breeders mostly utilising the geographical races and mutants of larval,
pupal and cocoon colour variants of sex limited races, particularly in Peoples Republic of
China, Japan, India and erstwhile United Soviet Socialist Russia (USSR) and some of
these breeds are commercially exploited in these countries for silkworm rearing to
produce raw silk and the remaining breeds are maintained in the silkworm germplasm of
these countries as breeders genetic stocks and they are utilised as the genetic material in
the silkworm breeding programmes for evolution of more superior and elite races.
Thus, the geographical races, mutants and the elite breeders stock constitute the major
portion of the present day silkworm germplasm at the global level apart from the
parthenoclones, triploid, polyploids and wild relatives of Bombyx andBombycidae
The domesticated silkworm species, Bombyx mori L. evolved almost 4600 years ago
from the wild species, Bombyx mandarina Moore, which is a native of China and
Palaearctic region (Hampson, 1892; Hirobe, 1968). The eggs of silkworm,B. mori were
first introduced from China into Japan and Korea in the first century and subsequently
into Middle Eastern and European countries and later into the neighbouring countries
around China in the sixth century. The historical background of silkworm entry into India
is still a mystery; and the historical evidence indicates that a flourishing silk trade was
practising between India and Rome/Greece during Kaniska period (56 B C).
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This is the authentic historical record of silk production and trade in India, which
indicates the early history of Indian sericulture. The rich tradition of silk and silk use are
evident from ancient sacred literature like the Rigveda, the Ramayana, and the
Mahabharatha, which are more than 2000 years old, but the information about indigenous
silkworm races and their stock maintenance are not well documented. Silkworm rearing
was prevalent in Kashmir and North Eastern states during sixteenth century, the Moghul
period where the univoltine and multivoltine silkworms were respectively reared and the
Tippu Sultan introduced silkworm rearing in south India in 1875. During eighteenth
century, the British rule in India, quite a few univoltine and bivoltine races were imported
from Italy, France, Russia and China, and the races were bred and maintained by the
farmers (Krishna Rao, 1997); and there was no systematic maintenance of the silkworm
germplasm and hence only few races survived under Indian climatic condition.
At present only few old indigenous races are surviving viz. Barapolu, Chotapolu, Nistari,
Sarupat, and Moria, whereas the indigenous univoltine Kashmiri races are almost extinct.
Systematic silkworm stock maintenance and breeding started in the early nineteenth
century. Prior to 1922, only pure races were reared and hybrid silkworms were introduced
later, Pure Mysore C. Nichi was probably the first hybrid in Karnataka and exploitation
of hybrids in West Bengal and Kashmir came much later during 1956 and 1959
respectively (Thangavelu, 1997). Silkworm genetic stock maintenance started during
1940 in an organised way at Sericultural Research Station, Berhampore in West Bengal
and subsequently temperate silkworm germplasm stocks were established at Univoltine
Silkworm Seed Station, Pampore in Kashmir and multivoltine and bivoltine silkworm
stocks were established at Central Sericultural Research Institute, Mysore in Karnataka
and Coonoor in Tamil Nadu.
During the recent years, biodiversity conservation programmes have drawn the attention
of many countries including developing nations, because of the genetic erosion due to
indiscriminate use of bio resources and damage to the environment, destruction of forest,
human interference in eco-system, upsetting the equilibrium of the biosphere. The
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) organised by United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Jeneiro Earth Summit in 1992 made
an awakening call to draw the global attention for conservation of biodiversity. Since then
the biodiversity conservation and gene bank maintenance have gained greater momentum
since the germplasm resources are considered as "Common Heritage of Mankind" and
"Sovereign Right of Nations". The issues related to access the genetic resources and its
sustainable use, benefit sharing, farmers rights are being deliberated at various national
and international fora.
Realising the importance of biodiversity conservation for sustainable development of
agriculture, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
established the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) in 1974 at
Rome with a global network of genetic resources centres, mainly for conservation of
natural genetic resources including the wild species to promote crop improvement
programmes and increase the food production. The role of wild relatives and wild species
in agricultural crop improvement are well known (Rana, 1995). Similarly, there is an
urgent need for seribiodiversity conservation, particularly the wild relatives of Bombyx
and Bombycidae.

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Improvement in silkworm race heavily depended on the geographical races of B. mori

and the wild relatives of Bombyx were not explored, unlike in agriculture. Whereas in
agricultural, horticultural and sericultural crop improvement programme the wild species
of several crop plants have contributed very valuable genes for resistance to diseases and
pests and tolerance to adverse agroclimatic conditions (Jackson and Ford-Lloyd, 1990)
and similar exploitation of genes from wild relatives ofB.mori have not been reported.
The genus Bombyx Hubner (1818) has two species, Bombyx mori L. and Bombyx
mandarina Moore. Apart from the genusBombyx there are eleven other genera in the
family Bombycidae Hubner; 1) Genus - Theophila Moore (1867), 2) Genus -Ocinara
(Walker 1856), 3) Genus - Mustilia (Walker 1865), 4) Genus - Gunda (Walker 1862), 5)
Genus Penicillifera (Walker) 6) Genus - Ernolatia (Moore) 7) Genus - Norasuma Moore
8) Genus - Trilocha Dieri, 9) Genus - Prismosticta (Swinhoe), 10) Genus - Andraca
(Walker), and 11) Genus - Ectrocta (Hampson). Among these genera, Theophila and
Ocinara are very close to the genus Bombyx. The wild sericigenous species of Bombyx,
Theophila and Ocinara are naturally distributed in the Himalayan ranges of Indo-China
range and also in Andaman Islands in India, besides, Jawa, Sumatra, Borneo and Malaya
Peninsular (Barlow, 1982). The wild species of these genera have not been explored for
transferring the useful genes to confer resistance to diseases and tolerance to adverse
agro-climatic conditions into the domesticated species, B.mori. The useful genes from the
wild relatives of B. mori may be cloned and these cloned genes may be transferred into
the germ cells of the silkworm to develop transgeneic silkworm. Hence, there is an urgent
need to collect and conserve the wild species ofBombyx, Theophila and Ocinera and
study their genetics for possible use in the breeding programme of B.mori and widen the
genetic base as well.
Indian gene centre is harbouring great faunal diversity and nearly 11.9% of the world
flora are present in India and hence recognised as one among the twelve mega
biodiversity rich centres of the world. Floristically India is very rich, harbouring three
mega centres of endemnism i.e. Western and Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. It is
a treasure house of several diverse sericigenous flora and fauna. Wild species of Bombyx
and other genera of Bombycidae do exist in the great Himalayan ranges and Andaman
islands, under natural habitat and therefore the Indian gene centre possesses a rich serigenetic resources.
Eggs and cocoons of a wild silkworm belonging to Bombycidae were collected from wild
mulberry tree Morus serrata near Kedarnath (30.47 N, 79.02 E) at an altitude of 800
meter above MSL (Tikader 2001). The eggs were incubated and rearing was conducted
on the mulberry plants at Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre (CSGRC),
Hosur and the produced cocoons and eggs are very similar to B. mori (Fig-2). It is a
potential and interesting genetic material with several unique characters, utilising such
wild relatives of Bombyx, it is quite possible to create additional seribiodiversity and
widen the genetic base of B. mori.
Biodiversity is the result of evolution that is a continuous phenomenon induced by
natural selection pressure and the population of organisms evolve through adaptation to
the biotic and abiotic stress. Ever since B.mori was domesticated, the species does not
survive in the wild state in natural condition and also does not survive without human
care and hence natural selection induced genetic diversity in B.mori is rather very limited
to voltinism. Hence, it is very essential to conserve and utilise the wild relatives of
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Bombyx mori to broaden its genetic diversity, apart from the geographical races, mutants,
sex-limited races, evolved breeds and breeders genetic stocks. The wild relatives of
Bombyx are very vulnerable and the vulnerability at different spatial and temporal scales
are not known. The design of biodiversity network in sericulture involving the
complementarity of wild relatives and domesticated B. mori is also not well established.
Therefore, conservation of wild as well as domesticated seribiodiversity resources is very
essential for sustainable development of sericulture (Fig-3) since loss of genetic resources
of domesticated and wild relatives of Bombyx species along with their unique genes may
disadvantage future generation.

Chapter 7
Organisations of Sericulture Industry in India
a. Government of India
Government of India has shown its serious concerns for the development of world class
silk production in India. Government has constituted various statutory bodies and
organizations for the same.
In recent years, several new silkworm breeds have been evolved. Authorised 36 region
and season specific hybrids ( 21 Bv x Bv and 13 Mv x Bv and 2 Mv x Mv) for
commercial use. Integrated technology packages for mulberry cultivation have been
developed which include new mulberry variety, plant spacing, fertilizer and manure
application including bio-fertilizer, shoot harvest, Integrated Pest Management (IPM) and
separate mulberry garden for young age (chawki) and late age silkworms. A
comprehensive rearing technology package for bivoltine silkworms have been developed,
which include egg incubation, chawki rearing, shoot-cum-shelf rearing, use of more
effective disinfectants and improved mountages have resulted in higher productivity.
To reduce drudgery, several machineries have been designed and developed for
mechanization in mulberry cultivation including pruning, cultivator, leaf litter separator
and leaf chopper. A shoot crushing machine for compost preparation. Similarly
equipments like loose egg washing table, winnover, cocoon cutting, cocoon deflosser, egg
transportation box, incubation chamber, hand duster, Uzi trap, improved Acid Treatment
Bath, light weight rearing tray, Tewari Grainage tray and the like have been developed.
In silk reeling, to obtain international grade silk, several machineries and accessories
have been developed, which are fitted to multi-end reeling machine. The other
innovations are denier detecting device, permeation chamber, water softening kit, multi
100

fuel economic oven, ushnakoti, besides various gadgets like cocoon cage, reeling button,
slit button, slub- catcher, tail-end cutter, brushing unit, panel winder, soaking recipe, etc .
In recent years, seri-biotech research has acquired prominence to harness the benefit of
molecular biology research in sericulture. Genome analysis of mulberry silkworm using
molecular markers has led to DNA profiling of silkworm genotypes through PCR based
RAPD and DNA fingerprinting with micro-satellite probes. Distinct and unique DNA
profile which is specific to diapausing and non-diapausing strains has been identified.
Over the years, CSB R&D Institutions have developed many products / innovations /
technologies for the benefit of sericulture community. As at the end of January, 2008
there are around 81 technologies filed for patenting / commercialization. Of which, 16
technologies have been patented and 30 innovations commercialized.
Some of the institutions constituted by the government of India for the development of
sericulture are as follows

1. Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute, Mysore, Karnataka

2. Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute, Berhampore, West Bengal
3. Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute, Pampore, Jammu &
Kashmir
4. Central Muga Eri Research and Training Institute, Lahdoigarh, Assam
5. Silkworm Seed Technology Laboratory Bangalore, Karnataka
6. Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre, Hosur, Tamil Nadu
7. Seri-biotech Research Laboratory, Bangalore, Karnataka
8. Central Tasar Research and Training Institute, Ranchi, Jharkand
9. Central Silk Technological Research Institute, Bangalore, Karnataka
10. National Silkworm Seed Organisation, Bangalore, Karanataka
Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute (CSR&TI), Mysore: The institute
was established in 1961. Nested with the main institute are 4 Regional Sericultural
Research Stations (RSRS), 18 Research Extension Centres (REC) and 12 Sub-RECs
located within the mandated seri zone which includes the states of Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, and Gujarat. Over 150
scientists are working towards constant up-gradation of silkworm races, mulberry
varieties, development and evaluation of region and season specific technologies,
genetics and biotechnology including tissue culture, transfer of technology, extension
management and training offers structural course like M.Sc, (Sericulture technology) ,
101

Diploma and Certificate courses on regular basis. For more details on CSR&TI, Mysore,
its activities, services available, etc., contact :.
Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute (CSR&TI), Berhampore
The institute was established in 1943. Nested with the main institute are 4 Regional
Sericultural Research Stations (RSRS), 13 Research Extension Centres (REC) and 2 SubRECs located in the mandated seri zones which includes the states of West Bengal,
Assam, Orissa, Chattisgarh, Bihar and Jharkhand. Over 100 scientists are working
towards constant up-gradation of silkworm races and mulberry varieties, pest and
diseases of silkworm, development and evaluation of region and season specific
technologies, genetics & tissue culture, transfer of technology. Also offers structural
training courses, Post Graduate Diploma in Sericulture and Certificate courses on regular
basis.This Institute has initiated a new service for answering farmers questions related to
sericulture
through
email.
Farmers
may
post
their
questions
to
postquestion@csrtiber.res.in and get their reply within short time.
Central Sericultural Research and Training Institute (CSR&TI), Pampore
The institute was established in 1990. Nested with the main institute are 2 Regional
Sericultural Research Stations (RSRS), 11 Research Extension Centres (REC) and 5 SubRECs located in the mandated seri-zones which includes the states of J&K, Himachal
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Harayana, Uttar Pradesh & Uttarakhand . Over 40 scientists
engaged in constant up-gradation of silkworm races and mulberry varieties suitable to
temperate zone and hilly regions, development and evaluation of region and season
specific technologies, genetics and breeding, transfer of technology, extension, etc.
Central Muga Eri Research and Training Institute (CMER&TI), Lahdoigarh
The institute was established in 1999. Nested with the main institute are Regional Muga
Research Station (RMRS), Regional Eri Research Station (RERS), and 8 Research
Extension Centres (RECs) located in muga and eri seri-zone, which includes the states of
Assam, West Bengal, UP, AP. Over 20 scientists are working on mandated areas like
collection and conservation of muga and eri host plants and its silkworms, evolving
suitable package of practices for muga and eri silkworm, rearing technology, seed
technology and reeling and spinning in muga and eri sector.
Silkworm Seed Technology Laboratory (SSTL), Bangalore.
The laboratory established in 1991 is conducting research exclusively on silkworm seed
technology, developmental biology, reproductive physiology & biochemistry and seed
pathology. Also, conducts training programme on Seed technology, Seed production &
Grainage management. Over 20 scientists are engaged in the research activity.
Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre (CSGRC), Hosur
The center was established in 1991. It has a mandate to collect, protect and conserve
mulberry and silkworm germplasm resources. This is also a National Repository Centre
for mulberry germplasm and a National Active Germplasm Site (NAGS) for mulberry
germplasm under NBPGR. Over 10 Scientists are engaged in collection and conservation
activity. For exchange and dissection of information the centre has developed on-line
multiple query based Mulberry Germplasm Information System (MGIS) with retrieval
facility which is available on website www.silkgermplasm.com
Seri-biotech Research Laboratory (SBRL), Bangalore.

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The laboratory established in 1993, is conducting research on frontier areas of modern

molecular biology and its application towards improving silkworm races for better
productivity.
Central Tasar Research and Training Institute (CTR&TI), Ranchi
The institute was established in 1964. Nested with the main institute are 8 Regional Tasar
Research Stations (RTRS), 14 Research Extension Centres (REC) in tropical and
temperate tasar growing region of India. The institute has over 47 scientists working on
mandated areas like tasar and oak tasar silk production, conservation of eco races,
augmentation of food plant, integrated package of rearing and post cocoon technology
aspects. Also offer Post Graduate Diploma in Non-mulberry Sericulture on regular basis.
Central Silk Technological Research Institute, (CSTRI), Bangalore
The Central Silk Technological Research Institute was established in 1983 to give R&D
support to Post Cocoon activities of the entire nation with the mandate of :
Quality improvement

Productivity improvement

Services to the industry

Enterprise development

Market information dissemination

CSTRI has been addressing the problems faced by the industry with constant interactions
with the concerned groups. It is extending R&D support, technical services, training for
use of improved machinery, skills and entrepreneur development. It undertakes
promotional activities in post-cocoon sector. The institute has patented a number of
technologies, machineries and equipments available for commercialization.
Nested with the main institute are 16 Demonstration cum Technical Service Centres
(DCTSCs). Over 60 scientists are working on areas of reeling, weaving, wet processing
and training & extension. Regular structured course leading to P.G. Diploma and
Certificate Courses are available.
CSTRI is propagating the importance of quality of silk yarn by assessment and testing
activities through its sub-units Silk Conditioning & Testing Houses (SCTH) and Textile
Testing Laboratory
National Silkworm Seed Organisation (NSSO), Bangalore
Established in 1975, it is a premier organization catering to the need of quality silkworm
seed in the country. It helps in introduction and popularisation of new high productive
breeds and helps the other research organization in fine tuning technologies. In recent
years, NSSO is playing a role of quality leader and supporting the production of high
grade silk by way of meeting substantial requirements of quality seed. It promotes
production of silkworm seeds with quality tag. For the production and supply of Tasar
silkworm seed, Basic Tasar Silkworm Seed Organization (BTSSO) at Bilaspur and for
Muga Silkworm Seed Muga silkworm Seed Organization (MSSO) and for Eri Silk Seed,
Eri Silkworm Seed Organization (ESSO) at Guwahati are functioning

b. Central Silk Board

Central Silk Board established in 1949 as a Statutory body under Govt. of India, is a
national organization for overall development of sericulture and silk industry. Its
headquarters is located in Bangalore. Following is the complete address:
Central Silk Board,
103

CSB Complex,
B.T.M. Layout, Madivala,
Hosur Road,
Bangalore 560 068.
Karnataka State.
INDIA.
Ph: +91 80 26282699
Fax: +91 80 26681511
E-mail: csb@silkboard.org
CITIZENS/SERVICE CHARTER
II.
VISION
See India emerge as the leader in the world market for silk
III.
MISSION
Make continuous efforts in Research & Development and Transfer of Technology
To create greater opportunities for gainful employment and improve levels of income
from sericulture through spread of scientific sericulture practices
To improve productivity in all stages of silk production
Strengthen levels of efficiency through a commitment to quality
OUR MANDATE
CSB is statutorily committed to:
Promote development of silk industry by all appropriate measures, and for this
purpose, in particular
Undertake, assist and encourage scientific, technological and economic research in the
silk sector,
Devise means to improve cultivation of silkworm host plants,
Produce and distribute healthy silkworm seeds and ensure qualitative improvement
through Central Silkworm Seed Regulation/Amendment to CSB Act.
Improve quality and production of raw silk and marketing of silk
Advise and report to Govt. of India on all matters relating to development of the silk
industry, including import and export of raw silk
Regulation of silkworm seed production, multiplication and sale to ensure quality
silkworm seed supply,
to regulate import and export of silkworm seed to prevent transfer of disease across the
country
IV.
SERVICES OFFERED
1.
To States Sericulture Departments and NGOs

Basic planting material

of high-yielding varieties of silkworm food plants

Region and season-specific package of practices for food plant cultivation and
silkworm rearing

Collaboration in pest and disease surveillance and control

Technology packages for reeling and spinning

Post-cocoon research support

Assistance in supply of inputs to rearers and reelers

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Implementation of Centrally sponsored Catalytic Development Programme (CDP)in
collaboration with all state sericulture departments to provide Central share of subsidy to
the stakeholders of silk industry
2.
Sericulturists
Soil testing and soil analysis (within two weeks of receiving
the samples)

Supply of planting material for food plant cultivation (in suitable planting seasons
within a month of receiving the indent)

Supply of commercial silkworm seed to sericulturists (spot purchase if seed is

readily available if not, indents should be placed well in advance)

Training (depending upon Course schedule)

3
Silkworm Seed Producers

Training and provision of improved

technologies of silkworm seed preparation, preservation and handling (as per a training
calendar)

Ensuring quality improvement and to keep abreast with the latest technology,
provision has been made to provide Training to Licensed Seed Preparers (LSPs) and
Chawkie Rearing Centers (CRCs) in the Amended CSB Act & Central Silkworm Seed
Regulation-2010.
4
Silk Reelers / Spinners

Testing of reeling water samples and water

treatment for quality silk reeling (one week)
Training and provision of improved technologies of silk reeling/spinning (as per a
training calendar)
5
Exporters
Eco-testing of silk and silk products for physical and chemical
parameters (2 days depending upon number of samples and type of tests)
Undertaking voluntary pre-shipment inspection for quality and content of silk products
meant for exports (2 days)
Seed Certification / phyto-sanitory certification for export of silkworm seed (one week)
6
Entrepreneurs:
Assistance in Project selection, and Project preparation
(depending upon size of the Project)

Technical assistance and consultancy services (depending upon entrepreneurs

convenience and size of the Project)
7
Silk goods manufacturers:
Promotion of Silk Mark, a quality assurance label
affixed only on the pure silk products and generic promotion of Indian Silk popularized
through the Silk Mark Organization of India (SMOI)
8
Consumers: SMOI has taken an initiative to create awareness amongst general
public/consumers about silk and its purity aspects through familiarizing the Silk Mark
logo, which is introduced to ensure that the public/consumers always buy the pure silk
goods, with Silk Mark logo affixed on them. Silk Mark is a quality assurance label
authenticating the purity of silk.
In order to popularize Silk Mark, SMOI is providing intensive publicity by way of mass
communication, organizing buyers-sellers meet, workshops, road shows, exhibitions in
all major cities and by participating in National/International Fairs, Expos etc. These
Expos provide an excellent opportunity to common consumers to procure pure silk from
the Authorized users from across the country, besides popularizing the Silk Mark logo.
V.
Grievance Redress Mechanism/Public Information Cell Implementation of
Right to Information Act, 2005

105

The Central Silk Board (CSB) has setup an Information Centre at its headquarters at
Bangalore to facilitate computerized public interface aimed at dissemination of
information to the public on the services and activities of Central Silk Board. The
Information Centre provides information on major activities of Central Silk Board, its
organizational setup, services offered by the Board, technological advancement in
sericulture and silk industry, prices of silk commodities, sericulture production data, silk
export, import statistics, schemes/projects implemented by the Board either directly or
through the Department of Sericulture, NGOs, training imparted by various CSB units,
literatures, periodical publications, books, sericulture films available for sale, facilities
provided by the Board on quality testing, certification, seed supply etc., to farmers,
reelers, weavers, NGOs, quality clubs and other interested public. The Information
Centre is equipped with KIOSK ,computer, printed materials like pamphlets, brochures,
leaf lets, CDs, VCDs, audio cassettes, display boards etc..
Ministry of Agriculture, Govt. of India has launched Kisan Call Centres throughout the
Country by a network of call centres, which enable the farmers to get on the demand
expert advice through a toll free number 1551. Central Silk Board has integrated CSB
Information Centre to the Kisan Call Centre to provide sericulture related information
to the general public as well as stake holders of silk industry. Govt. of India has identified
Central Silk Board (CSB) as level II experts of this Kisan Call Centre network.
The role & scope of the Information Centre has been broadened consequent upon
enactment of the Right to Information Act, 2005. The Central Silk Board has designated
as many as 34 Central Public Information Officers (CPIOs) and 156 Assistant Public
Information Officers (APIOs) in the Central Silk Board Head quarters and its subordinate
units to provide information to the Public as per the provisions of the Right to
Information Act, 2005. The Public Information Cell receives application from the
applicants and send it to the concerned Central Public Information Officer for processing
and furnish reply to the applicant as per the provisions laid down under the Right to
Information Act, 2005. To understand all the provisions and for proper implementation
of the RTI Act, 2005, CSB has trained 145 CPIOs/APIOs and other officials of Southern,
Eastern, North Eastern & Northern zone in Bangalore, Kolkata & Delhi in association
with the National Productivity Council, Chandigarh.
THE CL IENT S/ CITI ZEN CAN APPROACH THE FOLLOWING AUTHORITIES
FOR HELP/GRIEVANCE REDRESSAL

Deputy Secretary (Tech), Regional Office of the Central Silk Board, Ministry of
Textiles, Govt. of India, 342-347, II Floor, A-Wing STD 011, August Kranthi Bhavan,
Bhikaji Cama Place, New Delhi-110066, Ph:(O) 011-26107316/ 26108316
Mob:09999800608,
Fax:011-26176177,
Grams
SILKBOARD,
E-mail
rocsb_newdelhi@bol.net.in, jstrond@bol.net.in

Deputy Director (Insp.) Regional Office of the Central Silk Board, Ministry of
Textiles, Govt. of India, No.16, Mittal Chambers, Nariman Point, Mumbai 400021,
Maharashtra, Phone:(O)022-22020326, 22020330(R) 25306390, Mob:09867238478,
Fax:022-22020329. Grams SILKBOARD, Email: csbro_mum@yahoo.com

Joint Secretary(Tech) Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles,

Govt. of India, I Floor, No.15, Ghariahat Road (South), Dhakuria, Kolkatta-700031, West
106

Bengal, Phone:(O) 033-24730912, 24736856(R) 26797269, Mob:09434303839 Fax:03324735090,

Grams
SILKBOARD,
Email:
rocsbkol@dataone.in,
ranjeet_1956@yahoo.co.in

Assistant Secretary(Tech), Regional office of the Central Silk Board H.No.12,

Sector-1, Nanaknagar, Jammu 180004, Jammu & Kashmir. Phone:(O) 0191- 2433882,
2436597
Fax:0191-2433882
Grams:
CENT RALBIVOLTINE
E-mail:
rocsbjam2009@rediffmail.com

Deputy Secretary(Tech), Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of

Textiles, Govt. of India, Prasashan Nagar, Near New Water Tank, Film Nagar Post
Office, Jubilee Hills, Road No.72, Hyderabad-500096, Andhra Pradesh. Phone:(O)04023554447,Fax:040-23541293,Mob: 09989191295, E-mail: rdocsb@yahoo.com

Deputy Secretary(Tech), Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of

Textiles, Govt. of India, No.28/22, K.K.Salai, Kaveri Rangan Nagar, Saligramam,
Chennai-600093,Tamilnadu, Phone:(O) 044-23760107-8, Fax: 044-23760106 (SMOI),
Mob:09884960315, E-mail:rdocsb@dataone.in

Assistant Secretary(Tech), Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of

Textiles, Govt. of India, 18, Satyanagar, P.O.Saheed Nagar, Bhubaneshwar-751007,
Orissa, Phone:(O) 0674-2570053, Fax: 0674- 2572705, Mob:09778980800,
Grams:SILKBOARD,e-mail: csbbbsr@gmail.com

Joint Secretary (Tech), Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles,
Govt. of India, Banphool Nagar Path, [Near Wireless] Baristha Road, P.O. Dispur,
Guwahati 781006, Kamrup, Assam, Phone: (O) 0361-2229774; Direct-0361-2229707,
Mob:09435045201, Fax: 0361-2229708, Grams SILKB OAR D, e-mail
csbghy@hotmail.com, csbghy@sify.com

Dy.Secretary(T),Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles,

Govt. of India, Vikasdeep, 5th Floor, No.22 Station Road, Lucknow 226001, Uttar
Pradesh, Phone/Fax: 0522-2635123, Mob:09452243291, Grams: SILKBOARD, e-mail
csbrdokol@rediffmail.com

Asst. Secretary (Tech), Regional Office, Central Silk Board, Ministry of Textiles,
Govt. of India , C/O Office of the Director (Handloom & Sericulture), Dept. of
Industries, Vikas Sachivalaya, Patna 800015, Bihar, Phone:(O) 0612-263572,
(R)263259, Grams: SILKBOARD.

Director, Central Sericultural Germplasam Resources Centre, Central Silk Board,

Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India , P.B.No.44, Thally Road , Hosur-635109,
Dharmapuri Phone:(O) 04344-222013; (D)220520; (JD)221148, (R)552043
Grams:GERMPLASM e-mail:csgrc@eth.netdirector@silkgermpalsm.com

Director, Seri-Biotech Research Laboratory of Central Silk Board , Ministry of

Textiles, Govt. of India, CSB Campus, Sarjapur Road, Carmelram Post, Kodathi,
Bangalore-5600 035 Karnataka, Phone:(O) 080-28439598, 2844065, 55379565,
55379575 Fax:080-28439597 e-mail:sbri93@vsnl.com

Scientist-E, Silkworm Seed Technology Laboratory, NSSO, Central Silk Board,

Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Carmalram Post, Kodathi, Bangalore 560035,
Karnataka, Phone:(O) 2080-8439297, 28440493, 28440492; (D/R) 25631004, Fax:08028439598, e-mailseedtech@vsnl.com

Director, National Silkworm Seed Organization (NSSO) of Central Silk

Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India , IV Floor, Hosur Road , B.T.M.
107

Layout Madivala, Bangalore-560 068, Karnataka, Phone:(O) 080-26282400, 26688831;

(D)26683251;(R)6564655 Fax:080-26680387 GRAM: CENT R ALSI LKBOARD email: dirnsso@rediffmail.com , nsso@silkboard.org

Director, Central Silk Technological Research Institute (CSTRI), Central Silk

Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, B.T.M. Layout Madivala, Hosur Road,
Bangalore-560068, Karnataka, Phone:(O) 080-26688831, 26282100 (R) 26677712
Fax:080-26680435 Mob:09449550964 Gram:CES ITEC H e-mail: cstri@silkboard.org.

Director, Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (CSR&TI), Central

Silk Board , Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Sirampura, Manandavadi Road,
Mysore-570 008 Karnataka, Phone:(O)0821-2362757, 2362440, 2362585, 2362383,
2362937,
2362399,
2362368;
(R)2480905,
2480349
Fax:0821-2362845
Gram:SILKBOARD email:director@csrti,ys.res.in, csrtimys.res.in

Director, Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (CSRTI) Central Silk
Board , Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Bherampore-742101 Dist. Murshidabad,
West Bengal, Phone: (O) 03481-253967, 251046; (R)252298 Fax:03481-251233
Mob:09434757372
Grams:SILKBOARD,
e-mail:
csrtiber@gmail.com,
csrtiber@rediffmail.com

Director, Central Tasar Research & Training Institute, Central Silk Board,
Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India , Piska Nagri P.O. Ranchi-835 303.Jharkhand. Phone:
(O) 0651-2775815, 2910239; (R)2510158 FAX: 0651-2775629 Mob: 09470590509 email: ctr&ticsb@rediffmail.com

Director, Central Sericultural Research & Training Institute (CSRTI) Central Silk
Board , Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Galander ,National Highway-1A, Pampore
Kashmir192121 P.B.No.88, G.P.O-Srinagar-190001 J&Kashmir. Phone:(O) 01933293865(WLL), 0194-2476790, 293852, 222839; (R)2496690 Fax: 223215, 223579
(PPR) 194-2476763 (SGR) Mob:09419001985 Grams: SILKBOARD PAMPORE emailcsrtippr@sancharnet.in, drmakhand07@gmail.com

Director, Central Muga Eri Research & Training Institute, Central Silk Board,
Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, P.B.131, P.O. Lahdoigarh Charali, Jorhat-785700,
Assam, Phone:(O) 0376-2335528, 2335513 Fax:0376-2335124; Mob: 09435052535
Grams: MUGRESEARCH e-mail;cmerti@rediffmail.com

Scientist-D, Basic Tasar Silkworm Seed Organization (BTSSO) Central Silk

Board, Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Satyam Commerical Complex, I-Floor,
Link Road, P.B. No.15, Bilaspur-495001, Chhattisgarh. Phone: (O) 07752-237265,
220126; (R)270320 Fax: 07752-233748 (Mob) 0942415384 Grams SILK BOA
RDBILASPUR e-mail: btssobsp@airtelmail.in dchakravorty@rediffmail.com.

Scientist-D, Muga Silkworm Seed Organization, (MSSO), Central Silk Board,

Ministry of Textiles, Govt. of India, Banphool Nagar Path, Basistha Road, Near
Housefed, P.O. Assam Sachivalaya, Guwahati781 006, Kamrup (M ETR O), Assam.
Phone:0361-2229774, 2229707, 2229045, Fax:0361-2229708, (Mob) 09435305089, email: prabhakarcj@gmail.com, msdp2004@gmail.com

Silk Mark Organization of India (SMOI), Central Silk Board, CSB Complex, BTM
Layout, Madiwala, Bangalore-560068, Karnataka. Phone:(O)080-26680841, 26282209,
26282114/117. Fax:080-26681511 e-mail: csb@silkboard.org
VI.
STAKEHOLDERS/ CLIENTS:

108


Departments concerned with sericulture development in all States of the
Country

Non-Government Organizations (NGOs)

Farmers practicing sericulture

Silk Reelers

Silk Spinners

Private Silkworm Seed Producers

Exporters

Entrepreneurs interested in taking up

Cocoon growing

Silk reeling/spinning

Silkworm seed production

Manufacturers of chemicals and bio-pesticides for controlling pests and diseases of

silkworms and its food plants.
VII .
RESPONSIBILITY CENTERS:
Main Research Institutes and nested units:

Three Central Sericultural Research and Training Institutes (CSR&TIs) at Mysore

(Karnataka), Berhampore ( West Bengal ), and Pampore (Jammu & Kashmir)

Central Tasar Research and Training Institute, Ranchi (Jharkhand)

Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre, Hosur (Tamil Nadu)

Silkworm Seed Technology Laboratory, Bangalore (Karnataka)

Seri-biotech Research Laboratory, Bangalore (Karnataka)

Central Muga Eri Research and Training Institute, Lahdoigarh ( Assam )

10 Regional Research Stations for Mulberry, 8 for Tasar, 1 for Muga and 2 for Eri
at various locations in the Country.

44 Research Extension Centres for Mulberry, 13 for Tasar, 3 for Muga and 2 for
Eri, 1 Satellite Silkworm Breeding Station at Coonoor(TN) and 18 Sub-RECs for
Mulberry and 1 Sub- REC for Muga.
Basic and Commercial Silkworm Seed Support:
The National Silkworm Seed Organisation (NSSO), Bangalore (Karnataka) has a network
of 2 Zonal Silkworm Seed Organisation (ZSSOs) at Malda (WB) and Dehradun
(Uttaranchal), 20 Silkworm Seed Production Centres, 23 Basic Seed Farms, 3 Seed
Cocoon Procurement Centres & 32 Sericulture Service Centres located at various places
in the country.

The Basic Seed Farms (BSFs) supply parent seed to the Departments of
Sericulture in various States on their request. The commercial silkworm seed produced by
NSSO supplements the production by States.

The Basic Tasar Silkworm Seed Organization (BTSSO), Bilaspur support basic
Seed multiplication, and production of these races through 21 BSMTCs located at various
locations in the country and also one Central Tasar Silkworm Seed Station (CTSSS) at
Kargi Kota, Chattisgarh and 1 Field Unit at Pallahara (Orissa)

The Muga Silkworm Seed Organization (MSSO), Guwahati support basic Seed
multiplication, and production of these races through 8 P4/P3 units and one Muga SSPC
at Kaliabari, Boko.

109


The Eri Silkworm Seed Organisation (ESSO) at Guwahati demonstrates organized
production methods through 5 Eri Silkworm Seed Production Centers (SSPCs) located at
Azara( Assam ), Dehradun(Uttarakhand), Hosur(TN), Shadnagar & Peddapuram (AP).
Post-Cocoon Support and Eco-testing:
The Central Silk Technological Research Institute (CSTRI), at Bangalore provides
research and extension support in the post-cocoon areas with the support of
1 Zonal Office at Bilaspur provides post cocoon support to the entrepreneurs

1 Regional Silk Technological Research Station (RSTRS) at Guwahati

6 Silk Conditioning and Testing Houses at Bangalore, Dharmavaram,

Kanchipuram, Malda, Jammu and Srinagar are equipped for testing raw silk for quality
based on standard parameters.

1 Textile Testing Laboratory at Varanasi for testing eco-friendliness of dyes used.

2 Raw Silk Testing Centers at Siddlaghatta and Kollegal (both in KAR)

11 Demonstration cum Technical Service Centres (DCTSCs) one each in West

Bengal, Bihar, Maharashtra, Orissa, Uttarakhand, Uttar Pradesh, Tamilnadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala, Karnataka and, 2 Cocoon Testing Centers at
Ramanagaram (KAR) and Coimbatore(TN) are functioning to provide technical and
training support to the local reeling and spinning industry.
Co-ordination and Market Support:
In order to co-ordinate the sericulture development programmes in different states, the
Central Silk Board has established 10 Regional Officers at New Delhi, Mumbai,
Kolkatta, Jammu, Hyderabad, Chennai, Bhubaneshwar, Guwahati, Lucknow and Patna.
These units maintain a close liaison with the State Sericulture Departments, field units
and CSB field functionaries to co-ordinate transfer of technology. Regional Offices are
also convenors of State Level Sericulture Co-ordination Committee meetings constituted
by the Central Silk Board.
In order to ensure economic and fair price to the primary Vanya cocoon growers, the
Central Silk Board has established a Tasar Raw Material Bank (TRMB ) at Chaibasa
(Jharkhand) along with 4 Sub-Depots at Raigarh (Chhattisgarh), Bhagalpur ( Bihar ),
Warrangal (AP) and Bhandara ( Maharashtra). Similarly for Muga cocoons, a Muga Raw
Material Bank (MRMB) was established at Sivasagar in Assam , with 3 Sub-Depots at
Dhakuakhana, Sualkuchi ( Assam ) and at Coochbehar in West Bengal .
For the sustained development of Ericulture and to safeguard the interest of poor farmers
in the new areas, CSB has established an Eri Raw Material Bank (ERMB) at RO,
Hyderabad with 2 cocoon procurement Centers at Hyderabad and Rampachodavaram in
Andhra Pradesh.
VIII.

INDICATIVE EXPECTATIONS FROM SERVICE RECIPIENTS

Information on subsidy on Centrally sponsored Schemes,

Availability of Silkworm Seed, planting material

Details of improved Mulberry varieties, Silkworm seed, improved technology

packages,

Details of the disinfectant manufacturers, machinery manufacturers, availability of

spare parts etc.
Prices of cocoons, Raw silk and silk commodities
110

IX.
REVIEW OF THE CHARTER
In order to implement, monitor and review the Citizens Charter, CSB has a Review
Committee headed by the Member Secretary, Central Silk Board. The Committee will
review the Citizens Charter on quarterly basis along with Right to Information Act. Last
review meeting was held at CSB, Bangalore on 23rd November, 2010 and it is proposed
to convene the next Review Meeting during the month of March, 2011.
EXPORT PROMOTION SCHEME
The Central Silk Board is a statutory body established on 28th April 1949 by an
act of Parliament. It functions under the administrative control of the Ministry of Textiles,
Government of India. One of its main functions is to advise the Central Government on
all matters relating to the development of silk industry including import and export of raw
silk.
The Pre-shipment Inspection Authority for Natural Silk goods meant for export
under the EXIM Policy is the Central Silk Board, having its Head Quarters at CSB
Complex, B.T.M. layout, Madiwala, Bangalore-560068. Under the EXIM Policy
compulsory Pre shipment Inspection of Natural Silk goods was dispensed by Ministry of
Textiles with effect from 01.04.2000. However, Central Silk Board extended its services
to Silk trading Community by offering voluntary Quality inspection of Natural Silk goods
meant for exports through its Certification Centers spread across the country whenever it
is desired by the exporters. List of Certification Centers (annexed)
It is imperative on the part of Indian Manufactures and exporters to initiate
suitable measures towards strengthening its quality assurance, for the purpose of
continuing the survival in the competition with the global traders. Hence Central Silk
Board felt it should assist the Indian Silk Trade and Industry in the field of quality
appraisal in an effective manner. Therefore the conception of New Voluntary Quality
Inspection Scheme for all types of Natural Silk Products was evolved.
VOLUNTARY QUALITY INSPECTION SCHEME FOR NATURAL SILK GOODS
Scope:
Voluntary Quality Inspection of Natural Silk Goods would be available to all
Exporters/ Manufacturers of Indian Silk Goods, and Importers of Silk goods to India.
Services extended by Certification Centers of Central Silk Board:
Voluntary inspection of Natural Silk / Silk mixed products, inspection of Silk Carpets
are undertaken by the officials of Central Silk Board. In addition, the Board offers Silk
Testing facilities for raw Silk, silk mixed and finished products such as fabrics, sarees,
made-ups, garments, carpets etc. on payment of prescribed fees.
Issue of various Tariff Certificates:
Under the bilateral Agreements Generalized System Preferences (G.S.P.) and
various other tariff Certificates are also issued by the Boards designated officials against
payment of requisite fee prescribed by the Board
1. Generalized system preferences.
2. Hand woven certificates to EEC countries
3. Handicraft product certificates to EEC countries
4. Handicraft certificate to Australia:
5. Industrial craft certificate to Australia:
6. Swiss. Tariff certificate:
7. Certificate of origin:
111

8. Special certificate of origin to U.A.E., Sri Lanka and Yugoslavia

Issue of Tariff Certificates on exporters declaration:
A provision is made where-in an exporter can avail tariff benefit for the
consignments of goods meant for exports either by tendering the goods for inspection or
by on self declaration by submitting the prescribed format along with 6 x 6 sample
swatches of representative samples. Incase of woven designs the samples should cover 2
repeats.
Service charges for Inspection:
The service charges for quality inspection of natural silk goods on voluntary
basis as per rates mentioned below:
a) Consignment valued up to Rs.One lakh Rs.200.00 (Rupees two hundred only)
b) Consignment valued more than Rs.One lakhand up to Rs.5.00 lakh
Rs.350.00
(Rupees three hundred fifty)
c) Consignment valued above Rs.5.00
Rs.700.00 (Rupees seven hundred)
Prices for various blank forms of tariff Certificates:
Prices for various blank forms viz EEC (Handloom), EEC (Handicraft), Certificate of
Origin, Swiss. Tariff Certificates, Yugoslavia Tariff Certificates, and other tariff
certificates is Rs.50.00 (Rupees fifty only)
Certification fees for all the above Tariff Certificates including GSP is Rs.150/- (rupees
one hundred & fifty each).
Guidelines for availing inspection:
Application for Voluntary Quality Inspection in the prescribed format indicating
there-in, the scope of inspection required to be submitted to the Officer In-Charge of
Certification Centre of the Central Silk Board Application in duplicate accompanied by
relevant invoices and packing list in duplicate. A copy of contract may be enclosed
whenever the inspection required as per contract.
Voluntary quality inspection of natural silk/ Silk mixed products are undertaken
by CSB on payment of service charges along with sample swatch of 6 x 6 inches
representing each variety of the consignment, is to be submitted in prescribed format by
the exporter. In case of additional parameters under Part-II of prescribed format the
sample size will depend upon the type of the test.
Inspection and criteria:
Inspection of the material will be with reference to specification by the applicant
or as stipulated in the contract. The inspection would be governed as per CSB Voluntary
Quality Inspection Rules.
Visual inspection:
Verification and purity of the constituent yarns in the materials, Denier or count of
the constituent yarns, ends and picks, in case of fabrics, the weight/ sq mt. will be arrived
based on the weight of the inspected pieces. In case of Made-ups, Garments etc the
weight/ sq mt will be calculated from the sample of base fabrics.
a)
Dimensional particulars
b)
Serious flaws
c)
Major flaws.
d)
Dyeing and printing defects.
e)
Other defects.

112

f)
The Inspecting Officials will flag the serious and major flaws found in the pieces
during inspection unless otherwise requested by the applicant.
g)
Each inspected piece will be stamped with A.D.(I) s monogram stamp.
h)
The samples will also be tested for the following parameters and a test report will
be issued on specific request
i)
Colour fastness to light washing,
i)
Rubbing and perspiration.
ii) Tensile strength of fabric.
iii) Eco-parameters.
j)
There will be no rejections unless and otherwise specified by the applicant by
furnishing range or tolerance limit for all the parameters.
k)
Consignment inspected and passed will be sealed by the Inspecting Officials as per
the procedure prescribed under Inspection Rules.
A factual inspection report incorporating actual findings will be issued.
Packing and sealing:
Pieces inspected and passed shall be marked with monogram stamp of the
Assistant Director ( Inspn ) and packed in the bales or cartoons or as specified by the
applicant or as specified in the contract In the presence of Assistant Director ( Inspn ). All
other bales or cartoons of the consignments shall be sealed by the Assistant Director
( Inspn ).
Issue of inspection certificate:
After completion of inspection, stamping, Packing and sealing of the packages,
the Assistant Director ( Inspn ) shall issue certificates in the prescribed formats indicating
factual finding during inspection.
Custom Clearance Endorsement:
After the completion of inspection and sealing of the certified parcels, the
inspecting official shall issue a custom clearance endorsement on the invoice duly
affixing with rubber stamp & a passed stamp with date. The customs endorsed certified
invoice is categorized under
1) 100% Natural silk by weight,
2) Containing 50 % or more of Natural silk by weight,
3) Containing less than 50 % Natural silk by weight.
In case of exports of silk yarn, Silk wastes the customs endorsement shall show
the type of Silk yarn/ or Silk waste and their weight in Kgs.
Silk carpets
Inspection of 100% of silk pile carpets under silk mark Certification Scheme is
governed by the Trade Circular No.CSB 6 (1) / 89 EP & ES dated 25- 05- 89 and 1306-89.

c. State Departments of Sericulture

In the development of sericulture industry, the role of State Governments has customarily
been the expansion of sericulture activity and provision of farmer level extension as well
as other support services, including credit facilitation.
India being blessed with prevalence of favourable climatic conditions, mulberry is
cultivated in almost all states. But, traditionally sericulture is practiced in Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Jammu & Kashmir, which accounts for
113

major share in production of mulberry raw silk in the country. Muga is twined with the
culture of Assam and has the monopoly. In the recent years, muga rearing is extended to
other states like Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh,
and West Bengal. Now, as a result of growing realization, sericulture is gaining ground in
non-traditional areas too.
For the development of sericulture, State Governments have been implementing various
developmental schemes like supply of chawki silk worms to the farmers at subsidized
rate; development of mulberry gardens and distribution of high yielding mulberry
saplings to the farmers; supply of quality disinfectant material; capacity building of the
farmers; assistance for the construction of rearing sheds; supply of tool and equipments;
incentives for setting up of reeling units and marketing support,etc.
Accordingly, separate 'Sericulture Departments' have been set up by the State
Governments, some of which include the following.
Handlooms, Handicrafts, Textiles & Khadi Department, Government of Tamil Nadu
The Handlooms , Handicrafts , Textiles & Khadi Department was formed in 1985. This
Department is evolving policies and schemes aimed at developing the harmonious growth
of Handlooms, Power looms and Textile Sector. It is also concerned with the
development of Sericulture , Khadi , Village Industries , Handicrafts and Palm Products
Industry in the State. Various schemes are evolved for the welfare of weavers / artisans
involved in the above industries.
Directorate Sericulture and Weaving, Government of Meghalaya
Sericulture and Weaving in Meghalaya are the two most important cottage based, ecofriendly industries in the rural areas. These twin industries portray the cultural ethos and
rich heritage of the people of the State. The thrust area under sericulture sector is to boost
up cocoon and silk production by development of systematic and economic plantation at
sericultural farmers level so as to enhance the productivity per unit area through
implementation of need-based schemes such as Integrated Eri, Mulberry and Muga
Development Program Training facilities are provided to the farmers, reelers and spinners
on improved methods. In-service training of technical personnel and training for the
educated unemployed youth for self employment are also provided.
Department of Sericulture, Government of Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh produces all the four popular varieties of Silk worm cocoons namely
Mulberry, Tasar, Eri and Muga. A separate sericulture department has been set up with the
following objectives:
Production of International Graded Bivoltine Silk and to meet the gap between supply
and demand of silk
Production of seed through an organised 3 tier system of seed multiplication.
Transfer of technology to the farmers through Technical Service Centres.
Propagation of High Yielding Varieties .
Special attention on the improvement of the productivity and quality.
Economical water management system.
Promoting private Chawkie Rearing units for supply of Chawkie worms
Promoting construction of a separate rearing sheds
Providing marketing facilities to farmers through cocoon markets and broadcasting
of cocoon rates of different cocoon markets through different media.
Development of region specific & season specific races.
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Development of non-farm sector and Integration of non farm activities i.e. Reeling and
Twisting with weaving.
To achieve a quantum jump in production of Tasar and Eri cocoons.
Some of the state departments are
Sericulture Department, Government of Karanataka
Department of Sericulture, Government of Tamil Nadu
Karnataka State Sericulture Research & Development Institute
Handloom Textiles & Sericulture Department - Government of Assam
TAMIL NADU SERICULTURE TRAINING INSTITUTE
Government of ANDHRA PRADESH, Dept. Of Sericulture
Department of Sericulture and Weaving, Government of Meghalaya

Chapter 8
Mulberry Silkworm and Its Food Plants-Mulberry Sericulture
Silkworm, common name for the silk-producing larvae of any of several species of
moths. Silkworms possess a pair of specially modified salivary glands called silk glands,
or sericteries, which are used in the production of cocoons. The silk glands secrete a
clear, viscous fluid that is forced through openings, called spinnerets, on the mouthparts
of the larva; the fluid hardens as it comes into contact with air. The diameter of the
spinneret determines the thickness of the silk thread produced.
The best-known silkworm is the larvae of the common, domesticated silkworm moth.
This moth, native to China, was introduced into Europe and western Asia in the 6th
century AD and into North America in the 18th century. The moth has been cultivated for
many centuries and is no longer known in the wild state. Breeders have produced many
varieties of the moth, the most important of which produce three broods of young
annually.
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A typical adult silkworm moth is yellow or yellowish-white, with a thick, hairy body, and
has a wingspread of about 3.8 cm (about 1.5 in). The adult has rudimentary mouthparts
and does not eat during the short period of its mature existence; the female dies almost
immediately after depositing the eggs, and the male lives only a short time thereafter. The
female deposits 300 to 400 bluish eggs at a time; the eggs are fastened to a flat surface by
a gummy substance secreted by the female. The larvae, which hatch in about ten days, are
about 0.6 cm (about 0.25 in) long. The larvae feed on leaves of white mulberry, Osage
orange, or lettuce. Silkworm caterpillars that are fed mulberry leaves produce the finest
quality silk. Mature larvae are about 7.5 cm (about 3 in) long and yellowish-gray or dark
gray in color.
About six weeks after hatching, the common silkworm stops eating and spins its cocoon.
The length of the individual fiber composing the cocoon varies from 300 to 900 m (1000
to 3000 ft). The silkworm pupates for about two weeks; if allowed to complete its
pupation period, it emerges as an adult moth. Tearing during emergence damages the
silken cocoon beyond commercial use. Therefore, in the commercial production of silk,
only enough adult moths are allowed to emerge to ensure continuation of the species.
Most of the silkworms are killed by heat, either by immersion in boiling water or by
drying in ovens.
Other moths known as silkworm moths include the giant silkworm moths. The larvae of
these large moths also spin silken cocoons, but they are less widely used for commercial
silk production.
There are five major types of silk of commercial importance, obtained from different
species of silkworms which in turn feed on a number of food plants. These are:

Mulberry

Oak Tasar & Tropical Tasar

Muga

Eri

Except mulberry, other non-mulberry varieties of silks are generally termed as vanya
silks. India has the unique distinction of producing all these commercial varieties of silk.
Mulberry silk
The bulk of the commercial silk produced in the world comes from this variety and often
silk generally refers to mulberry silk. Mulberry silk comes from the silkworm, Bombyx
mori L. which solely feeds on the leaves of mulberry plant. These silkworms are
completely domesticated and reared indoors. In India, the major mulberry silk producing
states are Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Jammu & Kashmir
which together accounts for 92 % of country's total mulberry raw silk production.
Tasar silk

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Tropical Tasar: Tasar (Tussah) is copperish colour, coarse silk mainly used for
furnishings and interiors. It is less lustrous than mulberry silk, but has its own feel and
appeal. Tasar silk is generated by the silkworm,Antheraea mylitta which mainly thrive on
the food plants Asan and Arjun. The rearings are conducted in nature on the trees in the
open. In India, tasar silk is mainly produced in the states of Jharkhand, Chattisgarh and
Orissa, besides Maharashtra, West Bengal and Andhra Pradesh. Tasar culture is the main
stay for many a tribal community in India.
Oak Tasar: It is a finer variety of tasar generated by the silkworm,Antheraea proyeli J. in
India which feed on natural food plants of oak, found in abundance in the sub-Himalayan
belt of India covering the states of Manipur, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Assam,
Meghalaya and Jammu & Kashmir. China is the major producer of oak tasar in the world
and this comes from another silkworm which is known as Antheraea pernyi.
Eri silk
Also known as Endi or Errandi, Eri is a multivoltine silk spun from open-ended cocoons,
unlike other varieties of silk. Eri silk is the product of the domesticated
silkworm, Philosamia ricini that feeds mainly on castor leaves. Ericulture is a household
activity practiced mainly for protein rich pupae, a delicacy for the tribal. Resultantly, the
eri cocoons are open-mouthed and are spun. The silk is used indigenously for preparation
of chaddars (wraps) for own use by these tribals. In India, this culture is practiced mainly
in the north-eastern states and Assam. It is also found in Bihar, West Bengal and Orissa.
Muga silk
This golden yellow colour silk is prerogative of India and the pride of Assam state. It is
obtained from semi-domesticated multivoltine silkworm,Antheraea assamensis. These
silkworms feed on the aromatic leaves of Som and Soalu plants and are reared on trees
similar to that of tasar. Muga culture is specific to the state of Assam and an integral part
of the tradition and culture of that state. The muga silk, an high value product is used in
products like sarees, mekhalas, chaddars, etc.

d. Silkworm races
Commercially exploited sericigenous insects of the world and details (Common Name,
Scientific Name, Origin, Primary Food Plants) of their races are as follows Common Name Mulberry Silkworm, Scientific Name Bombyx mori, Origin
China, Primary Food Plant(s) Morus indica, M. alba, M.multicaulis, M.bombycis
Common Name Tropical Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea mylitta,
Origin India , Primary Food Plant(s) Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentose, T.
arjuna
Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea proylei, Origin
India, Primary Food Plant(s) Quercus incana,Q. serrata, Q. himalayana, Q. leuco
tricophora, Q. semicarpifolia, Q. grifithi
Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea frithi, Origin
India, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dealdata
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Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea compta, Origin
India, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dealdata
Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea pernyi, Origin
China, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dendata
Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea yamamai,
Origin Japan, Primary Food Plant(s) Q. acutissima
Common Name Muga Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea assama, Origin
India, Primary Food Plant(s) Litsea polyantha, L. citrate, Machilus bombycine
Common Name Eri Silkworm, Scientific Name Philosamia ricini, Origin India,
Primary Food Plant(s) Ricinus communis, Manihot utilisma, Evodia fragrance

The silkworm is the larva or caterpillar of the domesticated silkmoth, Bombyx mori
(Latin: "silkworm of the mulberry tree"). It is an economically important insect, being a
primary producer ofsilk. A silkworm's preferred food is white mulberry leaves, but it may
also eat the leaves of any other mulberry tree (i.e., Morus rubra or Morus nigra) as well as
the Osage Orange. It is entirely dependent on humans for its reproduction and does not
occur naturally in the wild. Sericulture, the practice of breeding silkworms for the
production of raw silk, has been underway for at least 5,000 years in China, from where it
spread to Korea and Japan, and later to India and the West.
The silkworm was domesticated from the wild silkmoth Bombyx mandarina which has a
range from northern India to northern China, Korea, Japan and far the eastern regions of
Russia. The domesticated silkworm derives from Chinese rather than Japanese or Korean
stock. It is unlikely that silkworms were domestically bred before the Neolithic age: it
was not until then that the tools required to facilitate the manufacturing of larger
quantities of silk thread had been developed. The domesticated B. mori and the wild B.
mandarina can still breed and sometimes produce hybrids.
The moth the adult phase of the life cycle cannot fly. Silkmoths have a wingspan of
35 cm (1.52 inches) and a white hairy body. Females are about two to three times
bulkier than males (for they are carrying many eggs), but are similarly colored. Adult
Bombycidaes have reduced mouth parts and do not feed, though a human caretaker can
also feed them.
Eggs take about fourteen days to hatch into larvae, which eat continuously. They have a
preference for white mulberry, having an attraction to the mulberry oderant cis-jasmone.
They are not monophagous since they can eat other species ofMorus as well as some
other Moraceae. Their droppings are black. Hatchlings and second-instar larvae are called
kego and chawki in India. They are covered with tiny black hairs. When the color of their
heads turns darker, it indicates that they are about to molt. After molting, theinstar phase
of the silkworm emerges white, naked, and with little horns on the backs.
After they have molted four times (i.e., in the fifth instar phase), their bodies become
slightly yellow and the skin become tighter. The larvae will then enter the pupa phase of
their life cycle and enclose themselves in a cocoon made up of raw silk produced by the
salivary glands. The cocoon provides a vital layer of protection during the vulnerable,
almost motionless pupal state. Many other Lepidoptera produce cocoons, but only a few
the Bombycidae, in particular the Bombyx genus, and the Saturniidae, in particular the
Antheraea genushave been exploited for fabric production.
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If the animal is allowed to survive after spinning its cocoon and through the pupa phase
of its life cycle, it will release proteolytic enzymes to make a hole in the cocoon so that it
can emerge as a moth. These enzymes are destructive to the silk and can cause the silk
fibers to break down from over a mile in length to segments of random length, which
ruins the silk threads. To prevent this, silkworm cocoons are boiled. The heat kills the
silkworms and the water makes the cocoons easier to unravel. Often, the silkworm itself
is eaten.
The cocoon is made of a thread of raw silk from 300 to about 900 meters (1,000 to 3,000
feet) long. The fibers are very fine and lustrous, about 10 micrometers (1/2,500th of an
inch) in diameter. About 2,000 to 3,000 cocoons are required to make a pound of silk. At
least 70 million pounds of raw silk are produced each year, requiring nearly 10 billion
pounds of mulberry leaves. According to E. L. Palmer, one pound of silk represents about
1,000 miles of filament. The annual world production represents 70 billion miles of silk
filament. This silk is usually processed to remove natural waxes or gums such as the
sericin, a water-soluble protective layer that solidifies immediately when exposed to air.
It is sometimes subsequently dyed.
The domesticated variety, compared to the wild form, has increased cocoon size, growth
rate and efficiency of its digestion. It has also gained tolerance to human presence and
handling and living in crowded conditions. It also cannot fly and lacks fear of potential
predators. These changes have made it entirely dependent upon humans for survival.
The silkworm is one of the world's most genetically modified animals. Silkworms were
first domesticated during the Han Dynasty in China about 2000 years ago. Since then, the
silk production capacity of the species has increased nearly tenfold. Silkworm is one of
the few organisms wherein the principles of genetics and breeding were applied to
harvest maximum output. It is next only to maize in exploiting the principles of 'heterosis'
and 'cross breeding'. Silkworm breeding is aimed at the overall improvement of silkworm
from a commercial point of view. The major objectives of silkworm breeding are
improving fecundity, healthiness of larvae, quantity of cocoon and silk production,
disease resistance, etc. Fecundity refers to the egg laying capacity of a breed. It is a very
important factor, since commercial sericulture is strongly dependent on silkworm egg
availability. Healthiness of larvae leads to a healthy cocoon crop. Healthiness is
dependent on factors such as better pupation rate, less number of dead larvae in the
mountage, shorter larval duration (the shorter the larval duration, the lesser the chances of
infection) and bluish tinged fifth instar larvae (it is observed that bluish colored fifth
instar larvae are healthier than the reddish brown ones). Quantity of cocoon and silk
produced is directly related to the pupation rate and larval weight. Healthier larvae have
greater pupation rates and cocoon weights. Quality of cocoon and silk depends on a
number of factors including genetics. Specific purposes apart from commercial purpose
are given attention by advanced countries to breed development for specific purposes like
sericin production, sex limited breeds, thin/thick filament production etc. Disease
resistance breeding is important, as the major reason for crop losses is pathogen infection.
Efforts are being made to select breeds which are tolerant or resistant to various
pathogens.
Silk is produced by painstakingly unraveling the cocoons of certain varieties of
caterpillars. These caterpillars are commonly known as silkworms, and there are several
different varieties that create different types of silk.
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Bombyx mori
The Bombyx mori species of silkworm relies exclusively on mulberry leaves as food, and
the silk that it produces is known as mulberry silk.The bulk of the world's commercial
silk comes from the Bombyx mori. This species is raised entirely indoors.
Antherea mylitta
Antherea mylitta, along with Anthera perniyi and Anthera royeli, are used in the
production of tasar silk. Tassar silk is also known as tussah silk. Raw silk from the
Antherea mylitta has a coppery color, and the silk that is produced is less lustrous than
mulberry silk. The silk produced by this species of silkworm tends to be used for
furnishings. These silkworms can be cultivated domestically or collected from the wild.
Antherea assama
The Antherea assama produces a golden yellow silk thread. This species is found only in
the Brahmaputra Valley in India, and they produce muga silk. They are considered to be
only semidomesticated due to the fact that they must be partially cultivated outdoors.
Philosamia ricini
The Philosamia ricini silkworm produces eri silk and feed off of castor leaves. This type
of silkworm produces very uneven fibers. Because of this, they cannot be reeled and must
instead be spun. The silk produced by this silkworm is noted for its natural shine and its
heat-retaining properties. It is often called wild silk because it is primarily produced by
the tribal communities

e. Classification of Mulberry silkworm on the basis of its

origin and voltinism
Classification of Mulberry Silkworm on the basis of its originKingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Arthropoda
Class:
Insecta
Order:
Lepidoptera
Family:
Bombycidae
Genus:
Bombyx
Species:
mori
Binomial name: Bombyx mori (Linnaeus, 1758)
Synonyms:
Phalaena mori (Linnaeus, 1758)
Classification of varieties of silk worms in generalOrder Lapitoptera -- Butterflies
Under Order Heteroneura -- Higher Butterflies
Family Bombycidae -- Genuine Silkworm
Genus Theophila
Theophila huttoni (India, Malaysia, Indonesia)
Genus Bombyx
Bombyx cythia -- Rhizinus Silkworm
Bombyx mori Mulberry Silkworm: most important silk producer
Family Saturniidae Eye Silkworm
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Genus Antheraea: following species supply Tussah-Silk(Tussak-, Tasar-,

Muga-Silk)
Antheraea yamamai - Japanese Tussah Silkworm
Antheraea pernyi - Chinese Tussah Silkworm
Antheraea paphia (A. mylitta) -- Indian Tussah Silkworm
Genus Philosamia
Philosamia cynthia -- Tree of Heaven Silkworm (nourishes itself of
Tree of Heaven sheets, Ailanthus glandulosa) (supplies Eri-Silk)
(Eastern Asia)
Genus Platysamia
Platysamia spp. (Spun Wild Silk)
Genus Telea
Telea spp. (Spun Wild Silk)
Genus Attacus
Attacus spp. (Realing Wild Silk) (America)
Genus Saturnia
Saturnia pyri Big Saturnia (Turkey)
Classification of Mulberry Silkworm on the basis of its voltinismVoltinism is a term used in biology to indicate the number of broods or generations of an
organism in a year. The term is particularly in use in sericulture, where silkworm varieties
vary in their voltinism.
Univoltine - (adjective) referring to organisms having one brood or generation per
year
Bivoltine - (adjective) referring to organisms having two broods or generations
per year
Multivoltine - (adjective) referring to organisms having more than two broods or
generations per year
Semivoltine - (adjective) referring to organisms whose generation time is more
than one year
The number of breeding cycles in a year is under genetic control in many species and
they are evolved in response to the environment. Many phytophagous species which are
dependent on seasonal plant resources are univoltine. These species also have the ability
to diapause.

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Chapter 9

Non-mulberry Silkworms and Their Food Plants

Non-mulberry varieties of silks are generally termed as vanya silk or wild silk. Wild
silk varieties are- Tropical Tasar, Oak Tasar, Eri, and Muga. Vanya sericulture remained
obscure for a long time as an exclusive craft of tribal and hill folks inhabiting the Central
and North Eastern India. It is in the recent past that this tribal tradition assumed
importance and attracted attention at National level. The rich production potentialities
within the country, steady demand for vanya silk products outside, eco-friendly nature of
the production and processing activities, women participation, promoted commercial
exploitation of this craft, which culminated in the transformation of this age old tradition
to an industry of immense potentiality. Vanya silks have been commercially exploited
way back in 17th Century. The Western World gained an appetite for these alien shaded
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silks in mid 1800 when a rampant silkworm disease destroyed the European sericulture
industry. Asia could not supply enough mulberry silk to cater to the needs of Europe and
North America, thus creating a market for vanya silks.
Tasar: Though there is no recorded document available regarding the origin of tasar in
India, one can find the mention of tasar silk in ancient epic Ramayana "Rams nuptial gift
to Sita includes tasar silk". Temperate tasar is of recent origin and was introduced during
mid 1960's.
Muga: The silk of Assam (Muga) was made known to the World during 1662 through a
famous European traveller Jean Joseph Tavenier. Sericulture was exempted from payment
of land revenue as the Kings of Assam patronised the development of sericulture. Around
1950, there was a great earth quake in Upper Assam and the large number of muga
plantations was destroyed, which hampered the growth of muga industry.
Eri: The word eri means castor plant, is derived from the word "eranda" of Sanskrit
origin. The advent of Ericulture is lost into the antiquity but, the fact remains that Assam
was the original home of eri silk from time immemorial, with the earliest reference
documented in 1779. The Britishers called it as "Palma Christi" silk. The eri silk was
woven into heavy clothes known as "Bar Kapoor". Captain Jenkins (1771) remarked that
eri silk was of incredible durability.
Distribution

of

Vanya

Silk

Industry

in

India:

Tasar: Tropical Tasar growing area forms a distinct belt of humid and dense forest
sprawling over the Central and Southern plateau, covering the traditional states of Bihar,
Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa and touching the fringes of West
Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Maharashtra. Temperate tasar (oak tasar)
extends from the sub-Himalayan region of Jammu and Kashmir in the West to Manipur in
the East covering Himachal Pradesh, Uttarkhand, Assam, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh
and Nagaland.
Muga: Assam accounts for more than 95% of the muga silk production. The culture is
also spread in different districts neighbouring Assam in Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur,
Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh and West Bengal.
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Eri: Eri culture was mostly confined to the Brahmaputra valley of Assam in the tribal
inhabited districts, followed by Meghalaya, Nagaland, Mizoram, Manipur and Arunachal
Pradesh. Ericulture is introduced on a pilot scale in States like Andhra Pradesh, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa etc.
Status

of

Vanya

Silks

in

India:

1. Production trends: Of the total raw silk production during 2009-10 (19,690MT)
Vanya silk contributes to around 17% (3368 MT). Of the total vanya silk production,
contribution of Eri, Tasar and Muga silks are 73%, 24% and 3% respectively. Vanya silk
production which was around 254 MT during 1950 gradually increased to 3368 MT
during 2009-10 registering about 13 fold increase over 6 decades.
2. Marketing of Vanya silk cocoons and yarn and products: Though the marketing of
Vanya cocoons in general and tasar cocoons in particular is monopolised by the cocoon
traders. In the last two decades establishment of Raw Material Banks (RMB) in Vanya
sector by CSB, Cocoon markets by Dept. of Sericulture and State government marketing
agencies viz., Sericulture Federation (SERIFED), Khadi Village Industries Commission
(KVIC), Tribal Federation (TRIFED) etc., have helped in marketing of cocoons.
Establishment of these agencies has resulted in improvement in the bargaining power of
primary cocoon producers. The Vanya silk products mainly sarees and fabrics for dress
material and furnishings are being marketed mainly by manufacturers and traders by
participating in various exhibitions all over India.
3. Export of Vanya silk products: The Vanya silk fabrics are being exported mainly
from Kolkota, Bhagalpur New Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore by the established
exporters.The share of export earnings by Vanya silk products is approximately 10% out
of total export of natural silk goods.

a. Different species of non-mulberry silkworm

There are five major types of silk of commercial importance, obtained from different
species of silkworms which in turn feed on a number of food plants. These are: Mulberry,
Oak Tasar & Tropical Tasar, Muga, Eri. Non-mulberry silk worms and their Food PlantsCommon Name Tropical Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea mylitta, Origin
India , Primary Food Plant(s) Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentose, T. arjuna
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Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea proylei, Origin India,
Primary Food Plant(s) Quercus incana,Q. serrata, Q. himalayana, Q. leuco tricophora, Q.
semicarpifolia, Q. grifithi
Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea frithi, Origin India,
Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dealdata
Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea compta, Origin India,
Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dealdata
Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea pernyi, Origin China,
Primary Food Plant(s) Q. dendata
Common Name Oak Tasar Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea yamamai, Origin Japan,
Primary Food Plant(s) Q. acutissima
Common Name Muga Silkworm, Scientific Name Antheraea assama, Origin India,
Primary Food Plant(s) Litsea polyantha, L. citrate, Machilus bombycine
Common Name Eri Silkworm, Scientific Name Philosamia ricini, Origin India, Primary
Food Plant(s) Ricinus communis, Manihot utilisma, Evodia fragrance
Except mulberry, other non-mulberry varieties of silks are generally termed as vanya
silks. India has the unique distinction of producing all these commercial varieties of silk.
Natural Silk is insect fibre. It comes from the silkworm cocoon that the silkworm spins
around itself to form its cocoon. A single filament from a cocoon can be as long as 1600
meters. It is considered an animal fibre because it has a protein structure. Just like other
animal fibres silk does not conduct heat, and acts as an excellent insulator to keep our
bodies warm in the cold weather and cool in the hot weather.
Silk has luster, drape and strength. There are three grades of silk; each is a product of the
three different stages of silk processing. The unwound filament makes the finest quality
silk, and is referred to as reeled silk. It is satiny smooth and pure white. Remaining silk
from the reeling process becomes the raw material for carded or combed, spun silk yarn.
The short fibres left behind after the carding or combing process are used to make noil
yarn, a richly textured nubbly silk.

b. Brief account of :
i. Tasar food plants
Food plants of tropical Tasar Silkworm are Shorea robusta, Terminalia tomentose, T.
arjuna.
Food plants of Oak Tasar Silkworm are Quercus incana,Q. serrata, Q. himalayana, Q.
leuco tricophora, Q. semicarpifolia, Q. grifithi, Q. dealdata, Q. dendata, Q. acutissima.

ii. Muga food plants

Food plants of tropical Muga Silkworm are Litsea polyantha, L. citrate, Machilus
bombycine.

iii. Eri food plants

Food plants of tropical Eri Silkworm are Ricinus communis, Manihot utilisma, Evodia
fragrance.

c. Types of cocoon and silk produced by them

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A cocoon is a casing spun of silk by many moth caterpillars, and numerous

otherholometabolous insect larvae as a protective covering for the pupa. Cocoons may be
tough or soft, opaque or translucent, solid or meshlike, of various colors, or composed of
multiple layers, depending on the type of insect larva producing it. Many moth
caterpillars shed the larval hairs (setae) and incorporate them into the cocoon; if these
areurticating hairs then the cocoon is also irritating to the touch. Some larvae attach small
twigs, fecal pellets or pieces of vegetation to the outside of their cocoon in an attempt to
disguise it from predators. Others spin their cocoon in a concealed location on the
underside of a leaf, in acrevice, down near the base of a tree trunk, suspended from a twig
or concealed in the leaf litter.
The silk in the cocoon of the silk moth can be unravelled to get silk fibre which makes
this moth the most economically important of all Lepidopterans. The moth is the only
completely domesticated Lepidopteran and does not exist in the wild.
Insects that pupate in a cocoon must escape from it, and they do this either by the pupa
cutting its way out, or by secreting fluids that soften the cocoon. Some cocoons are
constructed with built-in lines of weakness along which they will tear easily from inside,
or with exit holes that only allow a one-way passage out; such features facilitate the
escape of the adult insect after it emerges from the pupal skin.
Commercially four types of cocoons are produced by four different types of silk worms.
These are Mulberry, Tasar, Muga and Eri.
India produces all four varieties of natural silks viz., Mulberry silk, Tasar silk, Muga silk
and Eri silk. The Tasar, Eri and Muga silk are non mulberry silks which are wild silks and
also known as Vanya Silks.
Vanya silks arouse the creative passion in designers for innovation, ingenuity and
exclusively naturally and spontaneously. Vanya silks portray the rich crafts, culture and
folklore of the North Eastern and tribal zones of Central, eastern India and sub
Himalayan region. They are distinguish in looks and feel as they are procured from the
wild silkworms that feed on leaves of castor, kesseru, payam, som, sualu, oak, arjun,
asan, sal etc in the open jungles, imbibing the unevenness of nature, and reflecting it
in the silks they produce.
In unparallel textures, with natural sheen, easy affinity for natural dyes, light in weight
and high in moisture absorbency, and with baffling thermal propertieswarm in winter
and cool in summer, products of rich, salubrious climate and nourishing vegetation, each
of the Vanya silks has its own unique beauty and ethnic culture. They are distinguished in
four different forms: muga, tropical tasar, oak tasar and eri. They are the magnificent gifts
of nature to genius of global designers, to explore and create various designs for
garments, life style products and home furnishings for sophisticated homes, haute couture
as far as artistic imagination can stretch.
Irresistible Eri Silk: Also known as endi or errandi, this silk is produced by the eri
silkworm (Philosamia ricini).These worms feed mainly on Castor and Kesseru. As eri
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cocoons are open ended, the yarn is spun. Interestingly, in many parts of the North-East,
eri cocoons are produced for their edible pupae and silk is the by-product. Elegantly
designed eri shawls and chaddars are quite popular because of their thermal properties.
They can be blended with cotton, wool, jute or even mulberry silk to create exotic fabrics
for use in jackets, or suiting material, or for producing a variety of furnishings, making it
an interior decorators delight.
Tantalizing Tasar: Tasar silk is produced by tasar silkworms (Antheraea mylitta and
Antheraea proylei) that feed mainly on the leaves of Asan, Arjun and Oak. India is the
second largest producer of tasar silk and the exclusive producer of Indian tasar (also
known as tropical tasar),which is largely tended by tribals in the Gondwana belt. Oak
tasar (also known as temperate tasar) is mainly used for furnishing, dress materials and
sarees. Bomkai, Paithani, Ikkat (tie & dye) and Katki are some popular fabrics produced
using tasar silks. Bafta is a popular blend of tasar and cotton. Shawls and mufflers are
also produced using a blend of oak tasar and other natural fibers like wool, cotton, etc.
Tasar silk is ideal for making jackets for men and women or traditional costumes like the
salwar-kurta. This silk can be styled into beautiful dresses, stoles and scarves. Tasar
fabric can also be printed, hand-painted, or, even embroidered into traditional sarees and
beautiful dress-materials. In fact, in India, it is said that a brides trousseau is never
complete without a saree made of Tasar Silk!
Magnificent Muga Silk: The pride of India, muga silk is known for its natural
shimmering golden colour. Its production is confined to Assam, border areas of
neighboring Northeastern states and Cooch Bihar in West Bengal. It is produced by the
muga silkworms (Antheraea assamensis), which feed on Som and Sualu. The most
expensive of silks, muga is intrinsically woven into the cultural traditions of the people of
Assam. The vibrant Sualkuchi sarees and mekhla-chaddars are the traditional items made
from muga silk. In recent times, fashion designers have found exciting prospects in using
muga silk for developing new products and designs. Use of muga yarn as a substitute for
zari in sarees is finding favour with reputed weavers.
TYPES OF SILK FABRIC: The finest silk fibers, and most of what we use today, are
produced by "cultivated" silkworms grown in a controlled environment. The worms are
fed a diet of mulberry leaves and increase their body size 10,000 times in their short life
span. Once the cocoon is spun and before the worm hatches through the silk into a moth,
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the cocoon is soaked in hot water then unraveled, producing filaments that can be up to a
mile long in size.
The raw silk is then processed to remove the sericin - the natural "gum" that protects the
fibers and causes them to stick to each other as the cocoon was spun. Silk is a protein
fiber, similar to wool or to human hair. It is only natural for silks to have some
irregularities sometimes called "slubs". This is the nature of the 100% silk fabric. Silk
that has been processed can be woven or knit into a variety of fabrics. Silk will shrink, so
if you are using it to construct clothing, be sure to preshrink it. Silk often has a wonderful
feel, (referred to as a "hand"), and an almost iridescent sheen that makes us think of
luxury. The weight of silk is shown as "mm" pronounced "mommy" and varies within
the different types of silk. The following list of various types of silk may help you
understand some of the qualities of each:
Chiffon
Often the lightest weight and most diaphanous of the silks, Chiffon is also the most seethrough. It creates the "billows" of fabric that add dimension to garments, but generally
requires some kind of lining or backing unless it's used for scarves.
China Silk
China silk is a lightweight, sheer, plain-weave fabric. It's sometimes referred to as
habutai, or habotai, or pongee. It is one of the less expensive and more commonly
available silk fabrics.
Habotai can often be found as light as 5 mm and as heavy as 12 mm. Most of our scarves
are made of 8 mm Habotai. When purchasing for clothing construction, or purchasing
ready-made clothing, this fabric is not recommended for fitted garment styles because the
seams will tear from the stress.
Crepe de Chine
Crepe de chine is a lightweight fabric made by twisting some fibers clockwise and others
counterclockwise. The twisted fibers are then woven in a plain-weave fabric, but it's the
twisted fibers, not the weave, that gives crepe its distinctive "pebbly" look and feel rather
than a shiny luster. Both sides of the fabric look and feel the same.
Our drawstring pouches and some of our larger scarves are made of Crepe de Chine,
often in the 12mm to 15mm range. When purchasing ready-made clothing or considering
this fabric for sewing, avoid using it in tailored styles because the fabric is too soft to
hold a structured shape.
Crepe de chine doesn't ravel as easily as other silk fabrics, but it will tear if not handled
gently.
Charmeuse
Generally, when we think of traditional silk, this is the fabric we have in mind. The back
of the fabric is a flattened crepe while the front is a shimmery satin weave.
Charmeuse has even more drape than crepe de chine and works well for scarves, blouses
and lingerie. Occasionally we will offer scarves in Charmeuse.
Jacquard
Jacquard silks offer various woven patterns, using matte and reflective threads to create a
light and dark effect in the fabric. This effect is similar to brocade, although the Jacquard
is originally created in one color. These are generally heavier weight and more densely
woven. Patterns are often florals and paisleys.

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This added dimension (pattern) makes this fabric perfect for abstract for free-form
dyeing. Our Envelope Pouches are made from Jacquard, as are some of our Cell Phone
and Glass Cases.
Douppioni
Douppioni is a plain-weave fabric with slubbed ribs. It has a stiff, taffeta-like hand and is
usually dyed in bright colors.
Douppioni is often made into elegant evening gowns or semi-fitted vests and garments.
But make sure the style isn't too fitted, because the fabric doesn't stand up well to stress
and ravels easily.
It's often recommended that douppioni be drycleaned to resist abrasions. However, as
with most silk, you can generally wash douppioni with positive results. Just be sure to
serge the raw edges first to prevent raveling. Washing will make the fabric lose some of
its stiffness, which may be your preference, and the color will soften as the excess dye is
washed away.
Noil
Silk noil is made from the short fibers left after combing and carding so it doesn't shine
like many other silk fabrics. Noil looks similar to cotton, but has the soft feel of silk
against the skin. It also drapes better than cotton and resists wrinkling, so it's the perfect
choice when traveling.
It can be machine washed on gentle and dried on low, but this will cause a faded,
"weathered" look. If you prefer bright colors, dry-clean or hand wash.
Raw silk
Raw silk is any silk yarn or fabric that hasn't had the sericin - the natural "gum" that
protects the fiber - removed. The fabric is stiff and dull and the sericin tends to attract dirt
and odors.
Tussah
Tussah silk, often called shantung, is made from the cocoons of wild tussah silk worms
who eat oak and juniper leaves their "natural" food. Because the worm isn't grown in a
controlled environment, the moth hatches from the cocoon thus interrupting the filament
length and making the fibers short and coarse instead of long and lustrous.
Tussah silk is difficult to dye and to most often available in its natural color, a creamy
tan. Because of its irregular slubs and the fact that it ravels easily, tussah should be drycleaned. It is a good choice for traveling as it doesn't wrinkle easily.
Shantung
Once made from hand-reeled tussah silk, today's shantung is usually made with cultivated
silk warp yarns and heavier douppioni filling yarns. Depending on the filling yarn,
shantung may be lustrous or dull. It has a firm, semi-crisp hand and tends to ravel, so
avoid close-fitting styles.

Chapter 10

Out Line of Different Reeling Machineries and Reeling

Process
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According to Mark Elvin, 14th century Chinese technical manuals describe an automatic
water-powered spinning wheel. Comparable devices were not developed in Europe until
the 18th century. However, it fell into disuse when fiber production shifted from hemp to
cotton. It was forgotten by the 17th century. The decline of the automatic spinning wheel
in China is an important part of Elvin's high level equilibrium trap theory to explain why
there was no indigenous industrial revolution in China despite its high levels of wealth
and scientific knowledge.
The spinning wheel replaced the earlier method of hand spinning with a spindle. The first
stage in mechanizing the process was mounting the spindle horizontally so it could be
rotated by a cord encircling a large, hand-driven wheel. The great wheel is an example of
this type, where the fiber is held in the left hand and the wheel slowly turned with the
right. Holding the fiber at a slight angle to the spindle produced the necessary twist.[3]
The spun yarn was then wound onto the spindle by moving it so as to form a right angle
with the spindle. This type of wheel, while known in Europe by the 14th century, was not
in general use until later. It ultimately was used there to spin a variety of yarns until the
beginning of the 19th century and the mechanization of spinning.
In general, the spinning technology was known for a long time before being adopted by
the majority of people, thus making it hard to fix dates of the improvements. In 1533, a
citizen of Brunswick is said to have added a treadle, by which the spinner could rotate her
spindle with one foot and have both hands free to spin. Leonardo da Vinci drew a picture
of the flyer, which twists the yarn before winding it onto the spindle. During the 16th
century a treadle wheel with flyer was in common use, and gained such names as the
Saxony wheel and the flax wheel. It sped up production, as one needn't stop spinning to
wind up the yarn.

f. History of Reeling Industry (Charka, Cottage basin, Filature

basin, Multi end basin, Semiautomatic and Automatic reeling
machinery)
The earliest clear illustrations of the spinning wheel come from Baghdad (drawn in
1237), China, and Europe, and there is evidence that spinning wheels had already come
into use in both China and the Islamic world during the eleventh century. According to
Irfan Habib, the spinning wheel was introduced into India from Iran in the thirteenth
century.
In the 18th century, the Industrial Revolution had a big effect on the spinning industry by
beginning to mechanize the spinning wheel. Lewis Paul and John Wyatt first worked on
the problem in 1738, patenting the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-and-bobbin
system, for drawing wool to a more even thickness. Using two sets of rollers that traveled
at different speeds, yarn could be twisted and spun quickly and efficiently. However, they
did not have much financial success. In 1771, Richard Arkwright used waterwheels to
power looms for the production of cotton cloth, his invention becoming known as the
water frame.
More modern spinning machines use a mechanical means to rotate the spindle, as well as
an automatic method to draw out fibers, and devices to work many spindles together at
speeds previously unattainable. Newer technologies that offer even faster yarn production
include friction spinning, an open-end system, and air jets.
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Types of spinning wheels: Numerous types of spinning wheels exist, including the great
wheel also known as walking wheel or wool wheel for rapid long draw spinning of
woolen-spun yarns; the flax wheel, which is a double-drive wheel used with a distaff for
spinning linen; saxony and upright wheels, all-purpose treadle driven wheels used to spin
worsted-spun yarns; and the charkha, native to Asia. Until the acceptance of rotor
spinning wheel, all yarns were produced by aligning fibers through drawing techniques
and then twisting the fiber together. With rotor spinning, the fibers in the roving are
separated, thus open end, and then wrapped and twisted as the yarn is drawn out of the
rotor cup.
Hand-powered wheels
Hand powered spinning wheels are powered by the spinner turning a crank for flywheel
with their hand, as opposed to pressing pedals or using a mechanical engine.
Charkha
The tabletop or floor charkha is one of the oldest known forms of the spinning wheel. The
charkha works similarly to the great wheel, with a drive wheel being turned by hand,
while the yarn is spun off the tip of the spindle.The floor charkha and the great wheel
closely resemble each other. With both, the spinning must stop in order to wind the yarn
onto the spindle.
The charkha (etymologically related to Chakra) was both a tool and a symbol of the
Indian independence movement. The charkha, a small, portable, hand-cranked wheel, is
ideal for spinning cotton and other fine, short-staple fibers, though it can be used to spin
other fibers as well. The size varies, from that of a hardbound novel to the size of a
briefcase, to a floor charkha. Mahatma Gandhi brought the charkha into larger use with
his teachings. He hoped the charkha would assist the peoples of India achieve selfsufficiency and independence, and so used the charkha as a symbol of the Indian
independence movement and included it on earlier versions of the Flag of India.
Great wheel
The great wheel was one of the earlier types of spinning wheel. The fiber is held in the
left hand and the wheel slowly turned with the right. This wheel is thus good for using the
long-draw spinning technique, which requires only one active hand most of the time, thus
freeing a hand to turn the wheel. The great wheel is usually used to spin wool, and can
only be used with fiber preparations that are suited to long-draw spinning.
The great wheel is usually over 5 feet or 1.5 meters in height. The large drive wheel turns
the much smaller spindle assembly, with the spindle revolving many times for each turn
of the drive wheel. The yarn is spun at an angle off the tip of the spindle, and is then
stored on the spindle. To begin spinning on a great wheel, first a leader (a length of waste
yarn) is tied onto the base of the spindle and spiraled up to the tip. Then the spinner
overlaps a handful of fiber with the leader, holding both gently together with the left
hand, and begins to slowly turn the drive wheel clockwise with the right hand, while
simultaneously walking backward and drawing the fiber in the left hand away from the
spindle at an angle. The left hand must control the tension on the wool to produce an even
result. Once a sufficient amount of yarn has been made, the spinner turns the wheel
backward a short distance to unwind the spiral on the spindle, then turns it clockwise
again, and winds the newly made yarn onto the spindle, finishing the wind-on by
spiraling back out to the tip again to make another draw.
Treadle wheel
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This type of wheel is powered by the spinner's foot rather than their hand or a motor. The
spinner sits and pumps a foot treadle that turns the drive wheel via a crankshaft and a
connecting rod. This leaves both hands free for drafting the fibers, which is necessary in
the short draw spinning technique, which is often used on this type of wheel. The oldfashioned pointed distaff spindle is not a common feature of the treadle wheel. Instead,
most modern wheels employ a flyer-and-bobbin system which twists the yarn and winds
it onto a spool simultaneously. These wheels can be single or double-treadle; which is a
matter of preference and does not affect the operation of the wheel.
Double drive
The double drive wheel is named after its drive band, which goes around the spinning
wheel twice. The drive band turns the flyer, which is the horse-shoe shaped piece of
wood surrounding the bobbin, as well as the bobbin. Due to a difference in the size of the
whorls (the round pieces or pulleys around which the drive band runs) the bobbin whorl,
which has a smaller radius than the flyer whorl, turns slightly faster. Thus both the flyer
and bobbin rotate to twist the yarn, and the difference in speed continually winds the yarn
onto the bobbin. Generally the speed difference or "ratio" is adjusted by the size of the
whorls and the tension of the drive band.
The drive band on the double drive wheel is generally made from a non-stretch yarn or
twine; candlewick is also used.
Single drive
A single drive wheel has one drive band, that goes around the fly-wheel and the bobbin or
the flyer. Most of the drive bands for single drive wheels are made from synthetic cord,
which is elastic and does not slip easily on the wheel.
While the spinner is making new yarn, the bobbin and the flyer turn in unison, but when
the spinner wants to wind the yarn onto the bobbin, the bobbin or the flyer slows down
and thus the yarn winds on. The one part slows down because of the brake band, which
loops over that element. The tighter the brake band is, the more pull on the yarn, because
the more friction the bobbin has to overcome in order to turn in sync with the flyer.
Castle style
When the spindle and flyer are located above the wheel, rather than off to one side, the
wheel is said to be a castle wheel. This type of wheel is often more compact, thus easier
to store. Some castle wheels are even made to fold up small enough that they fit in carryon luggage at the airport.

g. Different types of cocoon stifling

Cocoon stifling: Stifling is the first process taken up as soon as the cocoons are
purchased/harvested, with the object of killing the pupae inside without breaking the silk
filament in the cocoon shell. If stifling is delayed, the pupa inside metamorphoses and
emerges by breaking open the cocoon and renders it unreelable. The three methods of
stifling are sun drying, steam stifling and hot air conditioning.
Sun drying
In this method the cocoons are exposed to the scorching action of direct sunlight till the
pupa inside is killed and dried. This requires a prolong exposure of freshly harvested
cocoons to bright sunlight. Sun dried cocoons are very light and produce a rattling sound
on shaking.

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Advantages : the chief merit of stifling by sun drying is that it is easy and cheap, and the
dried cocoons can be stored for any length of time. Reeling can be done immediately
also.
Disadvantages : the main disadvantage is that sunlight of sufficient intensity and duration
may not be available continuously in all seasons and in all areas. Further, prolonged
exposure to sunlight adversely affect the quality of silk and increases the proportion of
silk waste during reeling. The process is cumbersome, requiring more labour and space.
The shell hardens during sun drying, affecting the reelability.
It is still followed in many places in India where facilities for other methods of stifling
are not available. It is still followed traditionally in Jammu and Kashmir and West
Bengal.
Steam stifling
In this method, hot and wet steam is used. Depending on the number of cocoons, basket
steaming, barrel steaming or chamber steaming is used.
a. Basket steaming: this method is used for small amounts of cocoons. About 10kg
of cocoons are loosely filled in a bamboo basket loosely woven at the bottom. The
mouth of the basket is closed with a tightly stretched thick cloth tied to the sides
of the basket. The basket is placed over boiling water in a vessel. The steam
penetrates through the basket and stifles the cocoons. Heating is stopped when
dense smoke starts coming out of the sides of the basket with the characteristic
smell of the stifled cocoons. Stifling takes approximately half an hour. The
cocoons are removed and tested to ensure that stifling has been completed.
Properly stifled cocoons feel hot, damp, soft, and slimy to touch, and yield even
under slight pressure between the fingers. The pupae obtained by cutting open the
stifled cocoons do not wriggle when kept on the open palm.
This is practised in charkha and cottage basin establishments. The stifled cocoons
have to be dried in air.
b. Barrel steaming: This method, though adopted for small and moderate amounts of
cocoon, is superior to basket stifling, as it takes less time and ensures more
uniform steaming, being done are called melted cocoons. Fungus growth easily
occurs on wet cocoons kept in poorly ventilated rooms. Improperly seasoned
cocoons increase silk wastage. During seasoning, steam stifled cocoons have to be
spread in thin layers and repeatedly turned over to ensure uniform drying and to
prevent moulds from developing. This requires extra space and more labour.
Hot air stifling
In order to overcome the main disadvantages in steam stifling, modern filatures adopt
the method of stifling and drying together by hot air conditioning. In this method,
fresh cocoons are dried by means of hot air. Hot air stifling is suitable for good
quality cocoons such as bivoltines. The stifled cocoons can be stored for longer
periods.
The main parts of the conditioning unit are: 1. A chamber for the cocoons to be
conditioned, 2. A heating element for heating the air and 3. An air blower for blowing
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or circulating the heated air into the conditioning chamber. There are two principal
types of hot air stifling- the Italian and Japanese.

h. Different types of cocoon cooking

The silk baves are gummed together by the sericin in the cocoons. In order to unwind the
bave, the sericin has to be dissolved. This is done by putting the cocoons in hot water and
this process is called boiling or cooking. The sericin content ranges from 25% to 30% of
the shell and 7 to 8 % of it is dissolved during cooking. Boiling softens and swells the
sericin before dissolving it. Care should be taken to see that the sericin is not completely
dissolved, as it is the sericin that cements together the baves from more than one cocoon
so that silk thread of the desired denier is reeled. The water used should not be too hard.
The pH should be 6.8 and 7.4. CSTRI has developed softening agents to bring down the
hardness and pH to the desired level. The higher the alkalinity of the water used and the
longer the boiling time, the more the amount of sericin dissolved and this may affect the
cohesion and lusture of the silk reeled.
The method of boiling differs according to whether the floating system (top reeling) or
the sunken system is adopted for reeling. The sericin in the outer layers is more soluble
than that in the inner layers.
Boiling for top reeling
In the top reeling system, during cocoon boiling, only the outer shell is wetted and the
cocoons float in the water in the reeling basin. The cooked cocoons are reeled in the
reeling basins having a water temperature of 40-45C which is too hot for the reelers
hand and decreases his efficiency. Large quantities of water are required to supply water
and steam to the cooking and reeling basins.
Installation of water and steam pipes as well as production of steam is costly. Due to the
condensation of water vapour, humidity in the reeling room increases leading to mill
dampness. As the reeler has to do the brushing as well as reeling, his efficacy decreases.
As separate persons are required for cooking and reeling, labour cost also increases.
Boiling is done either by the open pan system or three pan system.
a. Open pan system: the boiling is done in an open earthenware or copper vessel, in
which water is boiled directly over the fire. Cocoons are put into boiling water
and kept immersed in it by a wooden ladle till they are cooked, i.e. become dull
transluscent and soapy to touch. The filament comes off easily only from the
cooked cocoons. The open pan is sometimes provided with an automatic brush
which serves to keep the cocoon inside the water as well as to brush the floss of
the cocoons. This system is adopted mainly in charkha reeling where only limited
amounts of cocoons are reeled at a time and the reeler himself can supervise and
ensure that cooking is done to the correct degree. It is easy cheap and requires less
labour. The major disadvantages are- all the layers of the cocoon are not cooked
and when the inner layers are cooked, outer layers are overcooked; wastage of
cooked due to overcooking and undercooking is common. The pan can hold only
a small amount of cocoons and hence cooking is a time consuming process. The
water becomes dirty quickly and has to be replaced periodically, which is
uneconomical as well as time consuming.
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b. Three pan system: this cooking system, commonly followed in cottage basin
units, is designed to overcome the open pan system. It can handle moderately
large amounts of cocoon and the boiling process can be continuous. It is suitable
for cooking compact shelled cocoons like bivoltines. The main parts of this
cooking unit are: 1. A platform or a table, 2. Three basins or vessels of copper of
moderately large size fixed permanently in a row on the platform, 3. Long
handled brass wire cage for holding the cocoons, 4. Long handled perforated
ladles, 5. An open shelf for holding the accessories, 6. Cocoon receiving trays, 7.
Cocoon transporting trolleys, 8. Steam and water connections to the cooking
basins.
Two methods are followed in this system. In the first method the cocoons are
initially subjected to cooking at a high temperature (98C) in the first pan, to
lower temperature (65C) in the second pan and finally to a high temperature
(97C) in the third pan. The wire mess cage is filled with 60-70 kg of cocoons and
immersed into the first chamber for 60 seconds. Due to the action of the hot water,
the outer cocoon layers are softened and air in the cocoon cavity gets heated,
expands and is expelled. Next the wire mesh cage is transferred to the next
chamber and held for 30-40 sec. the temperature of the water in this chamber
being lower, the air in the cocoon cavity gets condensed and water from the basin
is sucked into the cocoon, completely soaking the sericin and loosening the
cocoon layers. Next the cocoons are transferred to the third chamber and kept
immersed in its water with the help of the wooden ladle for one or two minutes till
the cocoons are cooked. Then they are transferred to a bucket of water at 45C for
10 minutes before loading them to cocoon transporting trolleys to be carried to the
reeling basins.
In the second system, the cocoons are first cooked at a low temperature (65C for
60 sec) in the first pan, a higher temperature (98C for 90 seconds) in the second
pan and once again to a low temperature (65C for 60 seconds) in the third pan.
As in the first system, the cooked cocoons are collected in a bucket of water at
45C and kept for 10 minutes before being taken up for brushing in the reeling
basin.
The improvements achieved in this system are: large amounts of cocoons are
cooked in a short time; the reeling quality is improved as water permeates through
the layer of cocoon into its cavity and softens the sericin in all layers; as the
cocoons are subjected to standardised treatment, cooking is uniform for all the
batches; as brushing and cooking are not combined, water does not get fouled too
quickly and as cooking basins have water and steam connections, changing of
water is easy.
boiling for sunken system of reeling
cooking for the sunken system of reeling has the following advantages over that for the
floating system. All the cocoons and all the layers of each cocoon are uniformly softened.
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This reduces silk wastages to the minimum. Number of workers required for cooking is
very much reduced and this brings down labour costs. Reelability is so much improved
that the cocoons are suitable for reeling in multi end reeling units in which each reeler
can reel about 40-50 ends at a time. As reeling is done in lukewarm water, not only the
steam consumption but also mill dampness is reduced. Percentage of gum spots, ribbing
and plastering defects are reduced and cohesion property is increased in the reeled raw
silk.
In this system of boiling, air in the cocoon cavity is largely replaced by water and the
heavy cocoon remains sunken within the water during reeling operation. This is actually a
modification of the three pan system in that by subjecting the cocoons alternately to hot
and cold water air in the cavity is made to expand and be expelled first and then contract
and condense facilitating the suction of water into the cavity.

i. Principles of reeling
Wild Silkmoth cocoons are difficult or impossible to reel under conditions that work well
for cocoons of the Mulberry silkmoth, Bombyx mori. Here we report evidence that this is
caused by mineral reinforcement of Wild Silkmoth cocoons and that washing these
minerals out allows for the reeling of commercial lengths of good quality fibers with
implications for the development of the Wild Silk industry. We show that in the
Lasiocampid silkmoth Gonometa postica, the mineral is whewellite (calcium oxalate
monohydrate). Evidence is presented that its selective removal by
ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) leaves the gum substantially intact, preventing
collapse and entanglement of the network of fibroin brins, enabling wet reeling.
Therefore, this method clearly differs from the standard degumming and should be
referred to as demineralizing. Mechanical testing shows that such preparation results in
reeled silks with markedly improved breaking load and extension to break by avoiding
the damage produced by the rather harsh degumming, carding, or dry reeling methods
currently in use, what may be important for the development of the silk industries not
only in Asia but also in Africa and South America.
Sericulture (the culture of the silkworm) and the weaving of silk have been practiced in
China from a remote period. Legend dates this back to 2640 B.C., to Empress Si Lingchi, who not only encouraged the culture of the silkworm but also developed the process
of reeling from the cocoon. This was a closely guarded secret for some 3,000 years. Silk
seems to have been woven very early on the island of Ks, which Aristotle mentions, in a
vague description of the silkworm, as the place where silk was first spun, In the 1st and
2d cent. A.D. silk fabrics imported to Greece and Rome were sold for fabulous prices.
Up to the 6th cent. raw silk was brought from China, but death was the penalty for
exporting silkworm eggs. About A.D. 550 two former missionaries to China, incited by
Emperor Justinian, succeeded (says Procopius) in smuggling to Constantinople, in a
hollow staff, both the eggs of the silkworm and the seeds of the mulberry tree. Byzantium
became famous for splendid silken textiles and embroideries, used throughout medieval
Europe for royal and ecclesiastical costumes and furnishings. In the 8th cent. the Moors
began to carry the arts of silk culture and weaving across the northern coast of Africa and
to Spain and Sicily, and in the 12th cent. Spain and Sicily were weaving silks of exquisite
texture and design.

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Other areas of Europe subsequently became great weaving centers. Lucca, in N Italy, had
established looms by the 13th cent., and in the 14th cent. the city became famous for its
materials and designs. Florence and Venice followed and wove sumptuous fabrics and
velvets enriched with gold thread. Genoa's velvets became well known. France
established looms, and under Louis XIV's minister Jean Baptiste Colbert it set the fashion
with its beautiful silks. Lyons in S France became an important weaving center. Early
attempts were made in England under Henry VI to establish the silk industry, but it was
not until the revocation of the Edict of Nantes, when many French refugee weavers fled
to England, that the industry received a real impetus. The French settled in Canterbury,
Norwich, and other places; but it was in Spitalfields, London, that the industry became
important.
Many attempts were made to establish sericulture in the American colonies: inducements
such as land grants and bounties were offered, and many mulberry trees were planted. In
1759 Georgia sold more than 10,000 lb (4,535 kg) of cocoons in London. Pennsylvania
had a silk industry, fostered by Benjamin Franklin, until the Revolution. The high cost of
labor seems to have been the main deterrent to the success of sericulture in America.

j. Reeling process
In silk manufacture, the first operation is reeling. The cocoons, having been sorted for
color and texture, are steamed or placed in warm water to soften the natural gum. They
are then unwound; each cocoon may give from 2,000 to 3,000 ft (610915 m) of
filament, from 4 to 18 strands of which are reeled or twisted together to make an even
thread strong enough to handle. This is called raw silk. Formerly a hand process, this
work is now done in Europe and in some parts of the Orient in factories on simple
machines called filatures.
The next step, called throwing, is preparing the raw silk for the loom by twisting and
doubling it to the required strength and thickness. This process also is now mostly done
in large mills with specialized machinery. Silk, after throwing, has three formssingles,
which are untwisted, used for the warp of very delicate fabrics; tram, two or more singles,
twisted and doubled, used for the weft of various fabrics; and organzine, made of singles
twisted one way, then doubled and twisted in the opposite direction, used for the warp of
heavy fabrics. For sewing and embroidery thread, more doubles and smoother twists are
made. In modern factories spinning frames complete the preparation for the loom.
The silk is boiled off in soapsuds to remove gum and prepare it for dyeing. For white and
pale tints it must be bleached. Scouring or boiling causes loss of weight, sometimes made
up by loading with metallic salts, as tin, which has an affinity for silk and can be
absorbed to excess, causing weakening of the fiber. Dyeing may be done in the yarn or in
the piece. Finishing processes are varying and important, as in making moires. Weaving
is done as with other textiles, but on more delicate and specialized looms.
Silk, fine, horny, translucent, yellowish fiber produced by the silkworm in making its
cocoon and covered with sericin, a protein. Many varieties of silk-spinning worms and
insects are known, but the silkworm of commerce is the larva of the Bombyx mori, or
mulberry silkworm, and other closely related moths. Wild silk. is the product of the
tussah worm of India and China, which feeds on oaks. It is now semicultivated, as groves
of dwarf trees are provided for its feeding. It spins a coarser, flatter, yellower filament

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than the Bombyx mori, and the color does not boil out with the gum. Tussah silk is a
rough, durable, washable fabric known as shantung or pongee.

Chapter 11

Marketing of Cocoon and Silk

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The art of silk production is called sericulture that comprises cultivation of mulberry,
silkworm rearing and post cocoon activities leading to production of silk yarn. Sericulture
provides gainful employment, economic development and improvement in the quality of
life to the people in rural area and therefore it plays an important role in anti poverty
programme and prevents migration of rural people to urban area in search of
employment. Hence several developing nations like China, India, Brazil, Thailand,
Vietnam, Indonesia, Egypt, Iran, Sri Lanka, Philippines, Bangladesh, Nepal, Myanmar,
Turkey, Papua New Guinea, Mexico, Uzbekistan and some of the African and Latin
American countries have taken up sericulture to provide employment to the people in
rural area.
Apart from silk, there are several other bye-products from sericulture. The mulberry fruits
are rich in minerals and vitamins and from the roots, barks and mulberry leaves several
ayurvedic and herbal medicines are prepared. Some of the woody mulberry trees provide
timber which are resistant to termites and the timber is used for making sports items, toys
etc. The mulberry branches after silkworm feeding are generally dried and used as fuel
particularly in the villages. The foliage of mulberry is used as a fodder for cattle. The
mulberry trees are also planted in the embarkment area for protection of the soil to
prevent soil erosion, and mulberry trees are planted as avenue trees. The silkworm pupae
are rich in oil content and pupal oil is used in cosmetic industry and the remaining pupal
cake is a rich source of protein suitable for poultry and fisheries. In some tribal
population, the people eat eri pupa as a source of protein and nourishment. The silkworm
litter is used for bio-gas production and used as a fuel for cooking in the rural area. Thus
sericulture not only provides silk for fashionable clothings, it also provides several very
useful bye products to the human society. Therefore, sericulture development provides
opportunities to improve the living standards of people in the rural area in developing
countries.

a. Marketing set-up in different States

In the development of sericulture industry, the role of State Governments has customarily
been the expansion of sericulture activity and provision of farmer level extension as well
as other support services, including credit facilitation.
India being blessed with prevalence of favourable climatic conditions, mulberry is
cultivated in almost all states. But, traditionally sericulture is practiced in Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and Jammu & Kashmir, which accounts for
major share in production of mulberry raw silk in the country. Muga is twined with the
culture of Assam and has the monopoly. In the recent years, muga rearing is extended to
other states like Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Uttarakhand, Andhra Pradesh,
and West Bengal. Now, as a result of growing realization, sericulture is gaining ground in
non-traditional areas too.
For the development of sericulture, State Governments have been implementing various
developmental schemes like supply of chawki silk worms to the farmers at subsidized
rate; development of mulberry gardens and distribution of high yielding mulberry
saplings to the farmers; supply of quality disinfectant material; capacity building of the
farmers; assistance for the construction of rearing sheds; supply of tool and equipments;
incentives for setting up of reeling units and marketing support,etc.

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Accordingly, separate 'Sericulture Departments' have been set up by the State

Governments, some of which include the following.
Handlooms, Handicrafts, Textiles & Khadi Department, Government of Tamil Nadu
The Handlooms , Handicrafts , Textiles & Khadi Department was formed in 1985. This
Department is evolving policies and schemes aimed at developing the harmonious growth
of Handlooms, Power looms and Textile Sector. It is also concerned with the
development of Sericulture , Khadi , Village Industries , Handicrafts and Palm Products
Industry in the State. Various schemes are evolved for the welfare of weavers / artisans
involved in the above industries.
Directorate Sericulture and Weaving, Government of Meghalaya: Sericulture and
Weaving in Meghalaya are the two most important cottage based, eco-friendly industries
in the rural areas. These twin industries portray the cultural ethos and rich heritage of the
people of the State. The thrust area under sericulture sector is to boost up cocoon and silk
production by development of systematic and economic plantation at sericultural farmers
level so as to enhance the productivity per unit area through implementation of needbased schemes such as Integrated Eri, Mulberry and Muga Development Program
Training facilities are provided to the farmers, reelers and spinners on improved methods.
In-service training of technical personnel and training for the educated unemployed youth
for self employment are also provided.
Department of Sericulture, Government of Andhra Pradesh: Andhra Pradesh produces all
the four popular varieties of Silk worm cocoons namely Mulberry, Tasar, Eri and Muga.
A separate sericulture department has been set up with the following objectives:
Production of International Graded Bivoltine Silk and to meet the gap between supply
and demand of silk
Production of seed through an organised 3 tier system of seed multiplication.
Transfer of technology to the farmers through Technical Service Centres.
Propagation of High Yielding Varieties .
Special attention on the improvement of the productivity and quality.
Economical water management system.
Promoting private Chawkie Rearing units for supply of Chawkie worms
Promoting construction of a separate rearing sheds
Providing marketing facilities to farmers through cocoon markets and broadcasting
of cocoon rates of different cocoon markets through different media.
Development of region specific & season specific races.
Development of non-farm sector and Integration of non farm activities i.e. Reeling and
Twisting with weaving.
To achieve a quantum jump in production of Tasar and Eri cocoons.
Some of the state departments are
Sericulture Department, Government of Karanataka
Department of Sericulture, Government of Tamil Nadu
Karnataka State Sericulture Research & Development Institute
Handloom Textiles & Sericulture Department - Government of Assam
TAMIL NADU SERICULTURE TRAINING INSTITUTE
Government of ANDHRA PRADESH, Dept. Of Sericulture
Department of Sericulture and Weaving, Government of Meghalaya

b. Market operation
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Future demand of Silk: The present global silk production is fluctuating around 70,000 to
90,000 M.T. and the demand for silk is annually increasing by 5%. With the increase in
population and also with the increased demand for fashionable clothing items due to fast
changing fashion designs in developed countries, the demand for silk is bound to increase
even more. For increasing the silk production we require highly productive mulberry
varieties and silkworm races and also silkworm races tolerant to adverse climatic
conditions and diseases which can come mainly from the sericultural germplasm
resources and also from the wild relatives of Bombyx available in the natural habitats.
Vanya silk marketing promotion cell (VSMPC): Marketing is a systematic approach of
understanding prospective customer and their requirement, getting the things ready,
exchanging or delivering the goods/ services to the satisfaction of the customer in a
profitable manner. It also includes development and maintenance of relationship with the
customer which continues even after the sale is over. The products are being developed or
produced keeping in view the requirement of market. Various methods are adopted by the
traders to market a commodity based on its availability and demand. However, some of
the commodities require special treatment so far as their marketing is concerned due to
their limited base and also their clientele. The Vanya silk products fall under this
category. Muga, Tassar and Eri silkworms are not fully domesticated and we call the silks
they produce as wild silks or Vanya Silk. They are basically rural produce and their
handling require special care as the problems involved in the marketing of rural produce
are entirely different that of urban specific and industrial products. The marketable Vanya
Silk products comprise silkworm seed, cocoons, raw silk, spun silk fabric and end
products like sarees, garments, made ups etc. Out of these, fabric and other end products
are the only consumer articles in strict sense. The process of marketing is intricate and
demands regular market research and intelligence to develop different sets of marketing
strategies that suits the different products when producers and consumers come from
different background as in case of Vanya silk products.
Chattisgarh and adjoining states like Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Orissa and West
Bengal states produce Tasar cocoons. Muga and Eri cocoons are largely produced in
Assam and adjoining states of north eastern region. U.P., Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand
and J.K. also contribute the production of Vanya silks which is not very significant.
Unlike existing marketing systems for mulberry there is no established marketing system
for Vanya silk products. In the existing system, cocoon growers sell their produce to
Mahajans and in turn Mahajan gets the cocoons converted into raw silk/silk yarn and then
fabric through weavers. Few states have federations or societies for more market
intervention of the cocoons for level playing to control the exploitation of the cocoon
growers through the Mahajans but its objectives are partially met. Various Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are also operating in the Vanya silk producing states
to provide alternate earning resource to the weaker section of the society.
Till now the slogan for development of the silk production activity was soil to silk
(yarn). Now, Central Silk Board has gone beyond silk reeling i.e. weaving, development
of Silk products, providing linkages for sale of silk products more particularly to the
Vanya Silk products by setting up a Vanya Silk Market Promotion Cell (VSMPC: 080 26282621,26282146 &
-vsmpc@csb.gov.in) under Catalytic Development
Programme (CDP) with its headquarter in Bangalore during the year 2006-07. The
activities of VSMPC are continued during the XI Plan.
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Objectives

To provide required input support to Vanya Silk (Non Mulberry) sector in the
areas of market promotion in domestic / overseas markets.

Design and Development of marketable products through research and

development and in association with fashion designers.

Evaluation of existing infrastructure in silk weaving clusters and need based up

gradation of looms, training of weavers in advanced production techniques.

Organizing exhibitions in major metros and non-metro cities and sponsoring

manufacturers to participate in domestic and overseas marketing events.
Strategy
1.
Gathering information on the producers of Vanya Silk - Organizational details,
production, production capacities, product range, raw material details, present marketing
arrangements etc.
2.
Gathering information on domestic and export markets for Vanya silk products
the cell will engage outside experts for this purpose if necessary.
3.
Collect samples of raw materials and finished products from producers in
traditional production areas, Museums, Collectors, Master weavers, marketing
organizations, cooperatives, NGOs, R & D Institutes etc.
4.
Evaluation of samples, categorization, preparation of swatches, brochures and
material for e-presentation to prospective domestic and overseas buyers.
5.
Help the Industry in packaging, labeling and presentation of products the cell
will engage experts in the field.
6.
Creation of e-marketing website for Vanya silks - the cell will engage experts for
the purpose.
7.
Facilitating participation of producers in major marketing events like fairs, expos,
exhibitions etc. in the country and abroad.
8.
Engage designers, merchandisers and other specialists on contract for specific
periods.
9.
Establishing and maintenance of Vanya Silk Shoppees in major cities.
ACTIVITIES OF VSMPC
1.
Vanya Silk Product Development and Marketing
2.
Generic and Brand Promotion Vanya Silks
3.
Vanya Silk Expos
4.
Vanya Silk Theme Pavilion Generic Promotion
5.
Vanya Silk Shoppees
6.
Product Launch
7.
Test Marketing of Vanya Silk Products
8.
Vanya Silk Directory
Vanya Silk Product Development and Marketing: Central Silk Board in an effort to
promote Vanya silks has established Product Design, Development and Diversification(P3D) and Vanya Silk Marketing and Promotion Cell - (VSMPC) exclusively for
product development and market assistance for Vanya silks. VSMPC under collaborative
project with National Institute of Fashion Technology (NIFT) Bangalore, Army Institute
of Fashion and Design, Bangalore and NIFT-TEA Knitwear Fashion Institute, Tiruppur
has developed varieties of designer Vanya silk apparels, home furnishings, life style
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products and eri knitwear. Different combinations, structure and textures of eri silk dress
materials, eri silk denims, eri fleece fabric, furnishings, tasar dress materials, tasar stretch
fabrics and muga satin fabrics have been developed under P3D activities.
VSMPC is providing all market support to Vanya silk manufacturers through cocoon
banks, raw material banks and by organising exhibitions, buyer seller meets, establishing
linkages with exporters, providing information on international trade, establishing Vanya
Silk Shoppees in major metros, brand promoting for Vanya silks and conducting market
survey in respect of market demand and changing fashion trends to facilitate the Vanya
silk manufacturers to adopt to latest trend in the market. Vanya silk shoppees have been
recently established in Bangalore and New Delhi to provide a market platform to Vanya
silk producers from rural areas.
Generic and Brand Promotion Vanya Silks
The logo for Vanya silks was designed and registered with the Trade Mark Authority,
Govt. of India for generic and brand promotion of Vanya silks.
Indias Vanya Silks: The Logo depicts a very unique concept of Indian-ness personified
by the calligraphic Devanagari letter V crafted with bold brushstrokes inside a cocoon.
These symbolize multiple strands of silk. The term Vanya is of sanskrit origin, meaning
untamed, wild, or forest-based. Muga, Tasar, and Eri silkworms are not fully tamed and
the world lovingly calls the silks they produce as wild silks. The Trade Mark Authority,
Govt. of India has registered the Vanya Silk Logo under the following category.
1.
Class-16 - in respect of Paper and paper articles, Card board and cardboard
articles, printed matter, News papers and periodicals, Books, Book binding material,
Photographs, Pamphlets, Bill books, Visiting cards, Menu cards, Brochure,
Advertisement, Newspaper magazines, Stationery, Envelops, Business cards, Conference
manuals and Brochures and Calendars.
2.
Class-24 - Silk sarees, Tissues, Piece goods, Bed and table covers, Textile articles.
3.
Class-25 in respect of readymade garments and Hosiery.
4.
Class35 - in respect of Advertising, Business management, Business
administration, Office functions.
5.
Class40 - in respect of Treatment of materials.
Vanya Silk Expos: Central Silk Board under VSMPC is organizing Vanya silk Expos for
market promotion of vanya silk goods in association with SMOI. These expos are helping
the primary producers of the vanya silk products by providing direct access to consumers
to sell their products and get the feed back from the consumers on the trend and the
fashion. This will help them in improving the designs, changing the product mix etc. The
primary producers are coming in direct contact with exporters, traders, designers,
retailers, boutiques through these expos and helping them in expanding their market by
bulk orders.
Vanya Silk Theme Pavilion Generic Promotion: VSMPC is organizing exclusive Vanya
Silk Theme Pavilion in the Silk Mark Expos organized by Silk Mark Organization of
India (SMOI) and various other exhibitions organized by CSB, ISEPC, State
Governments and Trade organizations. The production processes of Vanya silks from soil
to silk products along with the live silk worms, cocoons, yarns and end products
developed under P3D activities, collaborative projects and by other research
organizations of CSB are being displayed in the theme pavilion. The information on care
and maintenance of silk is provided to the consumers. The theme pavilion is providing
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knowledge about Vanya silks and their production process to the consumers and
generating lot of interest in the students and youngsters.
Vanya Silk Shoppees: For popularizing Vanya Silks, the Central Silk Board, has
established Vanya Silk Shoppees in major cities like New Delhi and Bangalore under
Vanya Silk Market Promotion Cell (VSMPC). The main objectives of this effort is to
show case all Indian varieties of Vanya Silks and provide a platform for small
manufacturers, handloom weavers, tribal artisans NGOs, retail traders of Vanya Silk to
exhibit and sell their products. The shoppees are being allotted to the selected groups on
rotation basis to cover more and more agencies from the traditional Vanya Silk producing
clusters of North East and Central India. The above shoppees will provide better
marketing network. The Shoppees will also be utilized for generic and brand promotion
of vanya silks and popularizing the Silk Mark a quality label for pure silk products
being promoted by the Central Silk Board.
The Vanya Silk Shoppee will provide a platform for the primary producers to market the
Vanya Silk products directly to the consumers. So far 3 Vanya Silk Shoppees have been
established two at Delhi and one at Bangalore. Vanya Silk Products are not easily
available in Metro cities like Bangalore and Delhi as all the Vanya clusters are situated in
states like Assam, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Maharastra, Uttaranchal, West Bengal,
and Orissa etc. Thus the Vanya Silk Shoppee will provide a direct linkage for marketing
the Vanya Silk products produced by the tribal and weaker section of the society in cities
like Bangalore and Delhi.
Product Launch: The new and diversified Vanya silk products developed by VSMPC
under collaborative projects with other Institutes and in association with P3D - Cell are
introduced to the market for commercialization through Product launch programme. This
will help the manufacturers, exporters and retailers to venture in to the new product range
and expand their market. The Eri silk knitwear products are launched in Tiruppur and
Ludhiana and the Kancheepuram Muga sarees launched in Chennai.
Test Marketing of Vanya Silk Products: As a part of Vanya silk product development
effort, Central Silk Board has developed various diversified Vanya Silk products viz, Eri
knitwear, Eri Denims, Eri dress material, Eri blankets, Eri sarees, Womens wear, kids
wear, Mulberry / Muga sarees, shawls, scarves/stoles etc. taking into consideration the
requirements and taste of younger generation in domestic markets as also the export
needs. These diversified products were put on display in various exhibitions. The
products received good response from the consumers, designers, dignitaries,
manufacturers, exporters and importers. CSB is receiving the enquiries from
manufacturers, traders, retailers and exporters seeking information on these products.
In continuation to the above effort and response received from the consumers, traders,
manufacturers and the feed back received from various sources during exhibitions and
interactions, Central Silk Board has developed few of the Eri silk knitwear and Eri / Tasar
woven garments for Test Marketing.
Accordingly action was taken to develop Eri silk knitwear products is collaboration with
NIFT-TEA Tirupur and woven garments in collaboration with CSTRI and reputed
designer.
Eri silk Knitwear : Eri silk knitwear products in 5 shades including Mens wear (T-shirt,
Hooded Sweater, Innerwear), Womens wear ( Tops in different styles, Innerwear) and

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Kidswear ( Boys Top & Bottom set, Body suit, Strappy Vest, Gathered top ) are
developed in association with NIFT TEA Knitwear Fashion Institute, Tirupur.
Woven Products: The woven products including Mens wear (shirts. kurtas, over-shirts),
Womens wear (blouse, tops, dress, skirt, trouser, stole) are developed from Eri silk
denim, Eri / Mulberry silk satin Tasar / Eri, Tasar fabrics.
The products are launched in Silk Mark Expo in Chennai and Bangalore. These products
are being sold to by SMOI through Silk Mark Expos under the brand EXOTICA. These
products are available for sale at CSB Complex, BTM Layout, Bangalore.
Vanya Silk Directory: The Central Silk Board as a part of Vanya silk market promotion
efforts has published the Vanya Silk Directory, which provides information on the
profile of Vanya silk industry in India. The Directory contains:

Basic information on Vanya Silks, about Vanya silk industry in India, about Vanya
Silk Market Promotion Cell (VSMPC) its objectives and activities.

455 addresses of Vanya Silk primary manufacturers, master weavers, traders,

retailers and exporters covering all the Vanya silk producing states.

Addresses of CSB and State Govt. offices of Vanya Silk producing states.

Addresses of Vanya Silk Shoppees, Raw material Banks, Eri Spun Silk Mills,
SMOI Chapters, Collaborative project partners of VSMPC

Information on Vanya Silk Cocoons, Measurement of Vanya Silk Cocoons,

Varieties of Vanya Silk yarns & fabrics.

Tips on silk Care.

The Directory would be of immense use to all the producers, manufacturers, Traders,
Exporters, Retailers, Designers and Boutiques of Vanya silks in domestic and export
markets. The directory will provide information for better marketing network. This
directory will also help the new entrepreneurs to take up Vanya silk production and
trading as a new business enterprise.
The Vanya Silk Directory is reasonably priced at Rs.100 /- ( 20 USD for overseas buyers)
per copy and is available for sale at Central Silk Board offices in New Delhi, Varanasi,
Lucknow, Patna, Ranchi, Guwahati, Ladoigarh,Kolkota, Bhubaneshwar, Cuttack,
Bilaspur, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Bhandara (Maharastra), Chennai and Bangalore. The
copies of the Directory may be obtained from Central Silk Board, BTM Layout,
Madivala, Bangalore 560 068. ( - 080 26282621,26282146 & - vsmpc@csb.gov.in)
by post on payment of Rs. 50/- extra in addition to the cost of the Directory towards
packing and postage. The demand draft may be drawn in favor of Member Secretary,
Central Silk Board payable at Bangalore.
VANYA SILK YARNS
1.
Reeled Tasar / Tasar Raw Silk: It is reeled from Tasar cocoons using different
appliance. Reeled Tasar is finer in nature.
2.
Tasar Gicha: Yarn drawn by hand out of Tasar cocoons without any twist.
3.
Tasar Katia: Yarn spun out of Tasar waste after opening and cleaning.
4.
Tasar Jhuri: Yarn spun out of uncleaned Tasar waste without subjecting it to
opening and cleaning process.
5.
Balkal yarn: Yarn spun out of tasar cocoon peduncles, after boiling in alkaline
solution and opened up.
6.
Tasar Spun Silk: Yarn spun in the mill out of tasar silk waste.
7.
Muga Raw Silk: Yarn reeled from Muga cocoons.
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8.
9.
10.

Muga Gicha: Yarn drawn by hand out of muga cocoons without any twist.
Hand Spun Endi/ Eri Silk: Yarn spun by hand appliances from Eri cocoons.
Mill Spun Eri Yarn: Yarn spun in the mill from Eri cocoons.

VANYA SILK FABRICS

1.
Tasar Fabric: Tasar fabric is normally referred to when reeled Tasar is used in both
warp and weft. This Tasar fabric is a popular material for printed / embroidery sarees,
gents Kurthas and other dress materials.
2.
T.G.N. (Tasar-Gicha-Noil) Fabric: A combination called Tasar/ Gicha/ Noil is a
popular export item. Using reeled Tasar in warp and Gicha and Noil in weft, fabric is
woven on handloom in different weight ranges.
3.
T.G.(Tasar Gicha): Tasar- Gicha is another popular item in Tasar Silk range and
the fabric produced mostly in Bhagalpur and Champa. Reeled Tasar is warp and Gicha in
weft is used in this quality.
4.
T.G.C.(Tasar-Gicha-Cotton): Reeled Tasar X Gicha+ Cotton is a popular silk
blend produced by Bhagalpur weavers for export market. Using cotton in place of Noil
the fabric woven is similar to TGN on a lesser cost.
5.
C.G.N./ M.G.N .(Cotton Gicha- Noil): Cotton X Gicha + Noil is similar to TGN
using mercerised cotton in place of Tasar Silk in warp, there by reducing the cost
structure. The fabric is quite strong and is mostly used for suiting and furnishings.
6.
C.G./ M.G.(Mercirised Cotton-Gicha): Cotton x Gicha is another variety of silk
blend made in Bhagalpur. Fabric is durable and suitable for dress material and
furnishings.
7.
C.G.C (Cotton-Gicha-Cotton): Cotton x Gicha + Cotton is also produced for
export orders. In order to bring down the price considerably, cotton has been used in warp
as well as weft with Tasar Gicha.
8.
Katia x Katia: Katia yarn used in both warp and weft, fabric is produced mainly
for export market. Fabric is quit strong and durable.
9.
Jhuri x Jhuri: Jhuri yarn in both warp and weft, a heavy fabric is produced. Jhuri
fabric in different shades is used for upholstery and also for floor covering.
10.
Muga Fabric: Muga fabric is normally referred to when reeled Muga is used in
both warp and weft. This Muga fabric is a popular material for sarees, gents Kurthas,
Ties and other dress materials.
11.
Muga Sarees: Muga sarees are the made with reeled muga in both warp and weft
along with viscose yarn as extra weft for ornamentation. These sarees are the traditional
varieties of North-East mainly produced in Sualkuchi weaving cluster of Assam.
12.
Muga Mekhla Chaddar: Muga mekhla chaddars are made with reeled muga in
both warp and weft along with viscose yarn as extra weft for ornamentation. These are
the traditional dress of North east mainly produced in Sualkuchi weaving cluster of
Assam.
13.
Eri chaddar /shawls: Made of Eri hand spun yarn. The Eri chaddars are thick,
warm and good for winter.
The fashion wears, life style products, garments, home furnishings, knitwear products are
also made from Vanya silks.

c. cocoon and silk

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A cocoon is a casing spun of silk by many moth caterpillars, and numerous other
holometabolous insect larvae as a protective covering for the pupa.
Cocoons may be tough or soft, opaque or translucent, solid or meshlike, of various colors,
or composed of multiple layers, depending on the type of insect larva producing it. Many
moth caterpillars shed the larval hairs (setae) and incorporate them into the cocoon; if
these areurticating hairs then the cocoon is also irritating to the touch. Some larvae attach
small twigs, fecal pellets or pieces of vegetation to the outside of their cocoon in an
attempt to disguise it from predators. Others spin their cocoon in a concealed location
on the underside of a leaf, in acrevice, down near the base of a tree trunk, suspended from
a twig or concealed in the leaf litter.
The silk in the cocoon of the silk moth can be unravelled to get silk fibre which makes
this moth the most economically important of all Lepidopterans. The moth is the only
completely domesticated Lepidopteran and does not exist in the wild.
Insects that pupate in a cocoon must escape from it, and they do this either by the pupa
cutting its way out, or by secreting fluids that soften the cocoon. Some cocoons are
constructed with built-in lines of weakness along which they will tear easily from inside,
or with exit holes that only allow a one-way passage out; such features facilitate the
escape of the adult insect after it emerges from the pupal skin.

i. cocoon grading
Cocoon Quality: A Series of natural circumstances will produce variations in cocoon
quality. Some of the most noteworthy include:

Differences in cocoon quality in the same batch

Differences in cocoons produced in the same location by different farmers who

have reared the same species

Seasonal influences. In Japan for example, cocoons produced in the spring and
late autumn are higher in quality than those in early autumn and summer

Environmental conditions affect cocoon reelability such as temperature and

humidity

Processing technique in reeling will impact reeling efficiency as well as raw silk
quality

Bivoltine cocoons are superior quality compared to multivoltine silkworm species

traditional farmed in tropical zones.
Recent silkworm cultivation now develops cross-breeds of multivoltine with bivoltine
silkworms as a strategy to improve overall cocoon quality.
Factors Influencing Cocoon Quality: This section presents the measures to be taken
during silkworm rearing and mounting to obtain a better quality of cocoons with higher
silk content, longer filament, better reelability and lower percentage of defective cocoons.
Temperature and Humidity During Mounting: Maintain temperatures at or near 25C and
relative humidity around 65 percent for silkworms to spin good quality cocoons with a
high reelability.
Mounting Device: Although different mount practices are employed among producer
countries, rotary mounting frames provide good ventilation. The result is improved
reelability of cocoons.
Harvesting and Handling of Fresh Cocoons: Cocoons should be harvested only following
complete pupation. In practice, the appropriate harvesting day would be the fifth day in
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tropical countries, and the seventh or eighth day in temperate countries, from the
mounting date. If premature harvesting takes place, the silkworm will still be in its larval
stage, weigh more, have fragile skin, and could likely be crushed, which would cause
stains to the cocoon during handling and transportation.
Transport of Fresh Cocoons: After proper harvesting and removal of diseased or damaged
cocoons, the fresh cocoons are taken to the market. For short distances, the farmer carries
the cocoons in bamboo baskets or jut bags on his head or by bicycle. If the distance is
longer, cocoons are transported in a van or a bus. Caution should be exercised when
loading fresh cocoons on to the van to ensure that containers are loosely packed in tiers to
avoid damage. Vibration and shock during long trips can spoil fresh cocoons. Cocoon
quality is affected by steam produced while being transferred in a bag or basket. If there
are defective cocoons fresh cocoon quality will be harmed.
While it is advisable to avoid carrying cocoons over long distances, there are steps, which
preserve silk reelability. First use of P.V.C. containers with 15 kgs capacity is
recommended. Shock absorbers, such as sponge can prevent damage over long distances.
To minimize the risk of heat deterioration, shipping should take place only during the
night or early morning. Ideally, the fresh cocoons should arrive at the stifling unit within
two to three days after harvest.

ii. Silk grading

Commercially four types of cocoons are produced by four different types of silk worms.
These are Mulberry, Tasar, Muga and Eri.
India produces all four varieties of natural silks viz., Mulberry silk, Tasar silk, Muga silk
and Eri silk. The Tasar, Eri and Muga silk are non mulberry silks which are wild silks and
also known as Vanya Silks.
Vanya silks arouse the creative passion in designers for innovation, ingenuity and
exclusively naturally and spontaneously. Vanya silks portray the rich crafts, culture and
folklore of the North Eastern and tribal zones of Central, eastern India and sub
Himalayan region. They are distinguish in looks and feel as they are procured from the
wild silkworms that feed on leaves of castor, kesseru, payam, som, sualu, oak, arjun,
asan, sal etc in the open jungles, imbibing the unevenness of nature, and reflecting it
in the silks they produce.
In unparallel textures, with natural sheen, easy affinity for natural dyes, light in weight
and high in moisture absorbency, and with baffling thermal propertieswarm in winter
and cool in summer, products of rich, salubrious climate and nourishing vegetation, each
of the Vanya silks has its own unique beauty and ethnic culture. They are distinguished in
four different forms: muga, tropical tasar, oak tasar and eri. They are the magnificent gifts
of nature to genius of global designers, to explore and create various designs for
garments, life style products and home furnishings for sophisticated homes, haute couture
as far as artistic imagination can stretch.
Irresistible Eri Silk: Also known as endi or errandi, this silk is produced by the eri
silkworm (Philosamia ricini).These worms feed mainly on Castor and Kesseru. As eri
cocoons are open ended, the yarn is spun. Interestingly, in many parts of the North-East,
eri cocoons are produced for their edible pupae and silk is the by-product. Elegantly
designed eri shawls and chaddars are quite popular because of their thermal properties.
They can be blended with cotton, wool, jute or even mulberry silk to create exotic fabrics
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for use in jackets, or suiting material, or for producing a variety of furnishings, making it
an interior decorators delight.
Tantalizing Tasar: Tasar silk is produced by tasar silkworms (Antheraea mylitta and
Antheraea proylei) that feed mainly on the leaves of Asan, Arjun and Oak. India is the
second largest producer of tasar silk and the exclusive producer of Indian tasar (also
known as tropical tasar),which is largely tended by tribals in the Gondwana belt. Oak
tasar (also known as temperate tasar) is mainly used for furnishing, dress materials and
sarees. Bomkai, Paithani, Ikkat (tie & dye) and Katki are some popular fabrics produced
using tasar silks. Bafta is a popular blend of tasar and cotton. Shawls and mufflers are
also produced using a blend of oak tasar and other natural fibers like wool, cotton, etc.
Tasar silk is ideal for making jackets for men and women or traditional costumes like the
salwar-kurta. This silk can be styled into beautiful dresses, stoles and scarves. Tasar
fabric can also be printed, hand-painted, or, even embroidered into traditional sarees and
beautiful dress-materials. In fact, in India, it is said that a brides trousseau is never
complete without a saree made of Tasar Silk!
Magnificent Muga Silk: The pride of India, muga silk is known for its natural
shimmering golden colour. Its production is confined to Assam, border areas of
neighboring Northeastern states and Cooch Bihar in West Bengal. It is produced by the
muga silkworms (Antheraea assamensis), which feed on Som and Sualu. The most
expensive of silks, muga is intrinsically woven into the cultural traditions of the people of
Assam. The vibrant Sualkuchi sarees and mekhla-chaddars are the traditional items made
from muga silk. In recent times, fashion designers have found exciting prospects in using
muga silk for developing new products and designs. Use of muga yarn as a substitute for
zari in sarees is finding favour with reputed weavers.

d. Silk Conditioning and Testing

QUALITY IS THE ISSUE: Silk must be a quality item, it is a natural fiber and appeals to
a lot of people for its smoothness, shine, softness and insulating properties. Silk,
however, is being widely attacked by chemical fibers that sometimes are called in
misleading ways to remind, yet in a wrong way to the customer of silk. Most of the time
products are not silk-made, the customer is either deceived or does not really care and the
silk market is endangered. On the whole if we look at the market, the movement in depth
is that silk is still used by fashion and trend designers in leading fashion countries; but the
offer in shops that follows is not always to the same level owing to slashed price-policy
and silk like garments and accessories. In Paris, Milan, London, New York, Tokyo,
Shanghai and Delhi, present silk in the collections and the themes of comfort, legendary
aspects, glamorous looks, which make thriving forever.
HIGH VALUE IS THE SECRET OF SUCCESS: Creativity is besides quality an
important factor. Above all, in order to be seen, silk must be in the right trends for
colours. This gives value to the base fabric that otherwise will be used as a fabric among
others. Designers do not like polyester or acetate or polyamide better. They like the added
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value, the image content value that is based on communication for the products. If silk is
struggling to find a market or if you continue to see appalling apparel with poor fashion
oriented designs or if you give it the granny award for creativity with losing colours and
trims, and last but not least if you dump the prices in a fierce blind competition; then, no
doubt silk will be killed. On the other hand, show it on computer presentation, train your
public to admire the qualities of silk, explain, educate, teach, play, make silk a real show
business with real qualities behind that you can trust, talk of the strength of silk as to back
the speech with relevant information and then the audience will feel the magic of a luxury
mix. With the amount of research that is put into the development of new technologies for
hybrids production, trans-genetics and breeding in labs, and sericulture farms around the
world, silk has got a very bright and shining future just as smooth as silk.

Chapter 12
Employment Generation under Rain fed and Irrigated
Mulberry
Sericulture and Silk Industry is an age-old tradition in many parts of rural India . While
this industry is ideally suited for augmenting the economic returns to the seri-farmers, it
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is also regarded as one of the best cash crops in view of its short gestation period and the
regular returns the farmer gets.
In keeping with the National Programme for Rural Industrialization, the CSB has been
implementing various Cluster Development Projects for Sericulture in Kerala, Bihar ,
Himachal Pradesh, Mizoram , Assam , West Bengal etc. This is an integrated approach to
develop sericulture, deriving benefits from a set of ideally suited Catalytic Development
Schemes and dove-tailing them with the various Welfare Schemes of the State through
convergence with other Rural Development Programmes at the village / mandal / block /
district level.
Implementation of the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act
(MNREGA) in selected districts of various States in the country: Success of any
sustainable Poverty alleviation Programme is based on increasing productive
employment opportunities along with growth. The focus of Govt. of India relates to
providing employment guarantee of 100 days (of wage employment) to every rural
household, whose adult member(s) are willing to do unskilled manual work. Accordingly,
the Parliament has passed the historic Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment
Guarantee Act (MNREGA) that guarantees 100 days of wage employment in a year, to
every rural household. In this connection, Govt. of India had initially identified 200
districts in different States of the country for the said purpose.
Sericulture industry is ideally suited for augmenting the economic returns to the
seri-farmers, it is also regarded as one of the best cash crops in view of its short gestation
period and the regular returns the farmer gets. Sericulture and Silk Industry is an age-old
tradition in many parts of rural India . While this industry is ideally suited for augmenting
the economic returns to the seri-farmers, it is also regarded as one of the best cash crops
in view of its short gestation period and the regular returns the farmer gets. In keeping
with the National Programme for Rural Industrialization, the CSB has been implementing
various Cluster Development Projects for Sericulture in Kerala, Bihar , Himachal
Pradesh, Mizoram , Assam , West Bengal etc. This is an integrated approach to develop
sericulture, deriving benefits from a set of ideally suited Catalytic Development Schemes
and dove-tailing them with the various Welfare Schemes of the State through
convergence with other Rural Development Programmes at the village / mandal / block /
district level. In view of the above, the Central Silk Board which is represented by Govt.
of India, Members of Parliament and other stakeholders at its Meeting, held on 25-052006, has suggested to include various sericultural activities with the NREGA
programme of the Ministry of Rural Development, Govt. of India (with the
coordination of States) in the identified districts. In respect of all 27 states, 200
districts have been taken up initially under NREGA.

a. Direct
iii. Up to Raw silk
Silk, known as "Paat" in Eastern India, Pattu in southern parts of India and Resham in
Hindi/Urdu, has a long history in India. Recent archaeological discoveries in Harappa and
Chanhu-daro suggest that sericulture, employing wild silk threads from native silkworm
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species, existed in South Asia during the time of the Indus Valley Civilization, roughly
contemporaneous with the earliest known silk use in China. According to an article in
Nature by Philip Ball, while there is fast evidence for silk production in China back to
around 2570 BC, newly discovered silk objects from the Indus valley in eastern Pakistan
are believed to date from between 2450 BC and 2000 BC, "making them similarly
ancient". Shelagh Vainker, a silk expert at the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, sees
evidence for silk production in China "significantly earlier" than 25002000 BC,
however suggests "people of the Indus civilization either harvested silkworm cocoons or
traded with people who did, and that they knew a considerable amount about silk." Silk is
widely produced today. India is the second largest producer of silk after China. A
majority of the silk in India is produced in Karnataka State, particularly in Mysore and
the North Bangalore regions of Muddenahalli, Kanivenarayanapura, and Doddaballapur.
India is also the largest consumer of silk in the world. The tradition of wearing silk sarees
in marriages by the brides is followed in southern parts of India. Silk is worn by people as
a symbol of royalty while attending functions and during festivals. Historically silk was
used by the upper classes, while cotton was used by the poorer classes. Today silk is
mainly produced in Bhoodhan Pochampally (also known as Silk City), Kanchipuram,
Dharmavaram, Mysore, etc. in South India and Banaras in the North for manufacturing
garments and sarees. "Murshidabad silk", famous from historical times, is mainly
produced in Malda and Murshidabad district of West Bengal and woven with hand looms
in Birbhum and Murshidabad district. Another place famous for production of silk is
Bhagalpur. The silk from Pochampally[disambiguation needed] is particularly wellknown for its classic designs and enduring quality. The silk is traditionally hand-woven
and hand-dyed and usually also has silver threads woven into the cloth. Most of this silk
is used to make sarees. The sarees usually are very expensive and vibrant in color.
Garments made from silk form an integral part of Indian weddings and other celebrations.
In the northeastern state of Assam, three different types of silk are produced, collectively
called Assam silk: Muga, Eri and Pat silk. Muga, the golden silk, and Eri are produced by
silkworms that are native only to Assam. The heritage of silk rearing and weaving is very
old and continues today especially with the production of Muga and Pat riha and mekhela
chador, the three-piece silk sarees woven with traditional motifs. Mysore Silk Sarees,
which are known for their soft texture, last many years if carefully maintained.

iv. Up to Fabric production

Broadly speaking there are varieties of silk fabric. Silk fabric manufacturing involves
mechanical processes that require a large work force. Silk brocades texturally, are divided
mainly into two groups: Kinkhwab, Pot-thans.
Kinkhwab (Brocade) Kinkhwab was originally an elegant, heavy silk fabric with a floral
or figured pattern known most for its butis and jals woven with silk as the warp and tilla
as the weft, produced in China and Japan. Tilla in the earlier times was known as kasab. It
was a combination of silver and tamba (copper) which was coated with a veneer of gold
and silver. Kinkhwabs have also been known as Kimkhabs, Kamkhwabs, Kincobs,
Zar-baft (Gold Woven), zartari, zarkashi, mushaiar.
Kam means little or scarcely. Khwab means a dream and its said that even with such a
name Its beauty, splendor and elegance can be hardly dreamt of. Kinkhwabs are heavy
fabrics or several layers of warp threads with an elaborate all-over pattern of extra weft,
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which may be of silk, gold and / or silver threads or combinations. There may be three to
seven layers of warp threads. (Tipara means three layers and Chaupara means four layers
to Satpara meaning seven layers). Kin means golden in Chinese. Its specialty is in
profusely using the gold and silver thread in a manner that sometimes leaves the silk
background hardly visible.
When the figure work is in silver threads with a background of gold threads it is called
Tashi Kinkhwab. This is a variety of Kinkhwab which has a ground worked with an
extra warp of gold [badla (flat wire) zari] and the pattern created with an extra weft of
silver badla zari or vice versa. A satin weave is very often used, resulting in a smooth
ground for the fabric. The heavy fabric appears to be in layers, as the warp ends are
crammed drawing three, four and up to seven ends per dent for the Tipara, Chaupara up
to Satpara respectively.
Zari is generally of two types Badla and Kala batto. Badla Zari was made of flattened
gold or silver wire with the ancient method of making zari from pure metal without any
core thread. This accounted for its peculiar stiffness. Sometimes cracks would develop in
the metal during the process of weaving which resulted in the loss of its natural luster and
smoothness. Therefore weaving with Badla Zari was difficult and required great skill.
Often a touch of Badla was given to floral motives to enhance the beauty. This type of
zari has mostly gone out of favor amongst the contemporary weavers and they mostly
depend on polyester or pure silk as a substitute.
Silk brocade of Banaras, Ahmedabad and Surat were well known in the seventeenth
century. While Banaras continues to be a center of production of Silk Brocades,
Ahmedabad and Surat have practically nothing to show today. On the other hand, Silk
Brocade weaving has gained ground in the South of India.
Pot-thans
These are called Katan (a thread prepared by twisting a different number of silk
filaments) brocades. Pot-thans are lighter in textures (lower thread count) than
Kinkhwabs but closely woven in silk and all or certain portions of the pattern are in gold
or silver zaris. These fabrics are mostly used for making expensive garments and saris.
Very often the satin ground weave is particularly used for garments fabrics. These fabrics
are characterized by their jals which are normally made out of silk and tilla.
Mashru
The cloth was distinguished by its butis woven in circular shapes that gave an impression
of ashrafis (gold coins). The ashrafis were usually woven in gold zari.
This is a mixed fabric with a woven stripe or zigzag pattern. The warp and weft used
were of two different materials (silk and cotton, cotton and linen, silk and wool or wool
and cotton) in different colors. It was used mostly for lower garments such as trousers,
the lining of the heavy brocade garments or as furnishing.
Gul Badan (the literal meaning of which is flower like body) was a known variety of
mushru (cotton and silk) popular in the late 19th century. Sangi, Ganta, Ilaycha were
types of mushru too. These were popular since ancient times and were known to be
woven at all leading silk centers. One reason for their popularity was Islam. Since Islam
does not allow men to wear pure silk, mashru (literally meaning permitted) became very
popular amongst Muslims.
Himru or Amru

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A type of Indian brocade is the Himru, a specialty of Hyderabad and Aurangabad, which
is woven from silk and zari on silk to produce variegated designs, woven on the principle
of extra weft. Himru can be very pretty with a pseudo-rich effect in general. It continued
to be in popular demand on the account of its low price as compared to the pure silk
brocades. Another point in its favor is that it can be woven very fine so as to give it a soft
feel, thus making it more suitable as a fabric for personal wear than the true brocade.
The cloth is distinguished by its intricate char-khana (four squares) jal. These are woven
like kinkhwabs, but without the use of kala battu (zari) instead badla zari is used.
Kinkhwabs
Kinkhwabs fabrics of India have earned a great reputation for their craftsmanship and
grandeur. By and large, still continue to do so, even in the face of fierce competition from
other types of woven and printed fabrics.
Kinkhwabs today are typically ornate, jacquard-woven fabrics. The pattern is usually
emphasized by contrasting surfaces and colours and appears on the face of the fabric,
which is distinguished easily from the back. Uses include apparel, draperies, upholstery
and other decorative purposes.
Gyasar
Gyasar is a silk fabric of a Kinkhwab structure with ground, in which the gold thread is
profusely used with Tibetan designs. The fabric is especially popular with Tibetans and
used extensively in their dresses as well as in decorative hangings, prayer mats, etc.
Gyanta
Gyanta is a silk fabric of Kinkhwab structure of a satin body with or without the use of
gold thread. These sometimes have a tantric design (which is also known as Tchingo) of
human heads with three eyes woven in gold and silver threads on a black satin ground.
Jamawar
Jama means robe and war is yard. The base of the jamawar is mostly resham, with
perhaps an addition of a little polyester. The brocaded parts are woven in similar threads
of silk and polyester. Most of the designs seen today are floral, with the kairy (i.e. the
paisley) as the predominant motif.
Today, the best jamavar is woven in Pakistan. This fabric is widely used in that country
for bridal and special occasion outfits. The texture and weave of patterns is such that the
fabric often gets caught when rubbed against rough surfaces (metallic embroidery,
jewellery etc.) it must therefore be handled delicately when worn.
Origin
Traders introduced this Chinese silk cloth to India, mainly from Samarkand and Bukhara
and it gained immense popularity among the royalty and the aristocracy. King and nobles
bought the woven fabric by the yard, wearing it as a gown or using it as a wrap or shawl.
Jamawar weaving centres in India developed in the holy cities and the trade centres. The
most well known jamawar weaving centres were in Assam, Gujrat, Malwa and South
India.
Due to its rich and fine raw materials, the rich and powerful merchants used jamawar and
noblemen of the time, who could not only afford it but could even commission the
weavers to make the fabric for them, as in the case of the Mughals. Emperor Akbar was
one of its greatest patrons. He brought many weavers from East Turkestan to Kashmir.

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One of the main reasons for the diversity in the designs of the jamawar cloth was the
migratory nature of its weavers. Ideas from almost all parts of the world influenced these
designs.
The Indian motifs were greatly influenced by nature like the sun, moon, stars, rivers,
trees, flowers, birds etc. The figural and geometrical motifs such as trees, lotus flower,
bulls, horses, lions, elephants, peacocks, swans, eagles, the sun, stars, diagonal or zigzag
lines, squares, round shapes, etc. can be traced through the entire history of jamawar and
are still being used but in a rather different form in terms of intricacy and compositions,
thus creating new patterns.
Indian weaver predominantly used a wide variety of classical motifs such as the swan
(hamsa), the Lotus (kamala), The Tree Of Life (kulpa, vriksha), the Vase of Plenty (purna,
kumbha), the Elephant (hathi), the Lion (simha), flowing floral creepers (lata patra),
Peacocks (mayur) and many more. Mythical creatures such as winged lions, centaurs,
griffins, decorative of ferocious animals, animals formally in profile or with turned heads,
animals with human figures in combat or represented in roundels were also commonly
used motifs. These motifs have remained in existence for more than two thousand years.
However, new patterns have consistently been introduced; sometimes some of these are
even an amalgamation of the existing patterns. Such attempts at evolving new designs
were particularly noticeable from the 10th century onwards, when patterns were altered
to meet the specific demands of the Muslim rulers.
The bull or the swan, arranged between vertical and diagonal stripes can still be found in
the silk jamawar saris of India. Patterns with small flowers and two-coloured squares
(chess board design) are seen, used both as a garment and as furnishing material bed
spreads with same kind of pattern are still woven in some parts of Gujarat.
Jamawar dating back to the Mughal era however contained big, bold and realistic
patterns, which were rather simple with ample space between the motifs. The designs
stood out prominently against the background of the cloth.
Complex patterns were developed only when additional decorative elements were
included in the basic pattern. During later periods, the gap between the motives was also
filled with smaller motives or geometrical forms. The iris and narcissus flowers became
the most celebrated motifs of this era and were combined with tulips, poppies, primulas,
roses and lilies. A lot of figurative motives were also used in the Mughal era such as
deers, horses, butterflies, peacocks and insects. The Mughal kings played a vital role in
the enhancement of jamawar by putting their inspirations into the cloths designing and
visiting the weavers on a regular basis to supervise its making. Shining, decorative pallus
were jals were the main designs of this time. The borders were usually woven with silk
and zari.
After the Mughal period, the figurative motifs were discouraged by the Muslims and
more floral and paisleys were introduced. However, inspiration was taken from these
figurative motives and put into designs as in the case of using only the peacock feathers
instead of the complete figure.
Another big change was brought about in 1985, where the source of inspiration was the
Chinese Shanghai cloth. The patterns of the Chinese Shanghai were amended in
accordance to the weave construction of the jamawar cloth and introduced in the cloth.
This proved to be a very successful change and is still appreciated by many.

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In recent years, the Indian government has attempted a modest revival of this art by
setting up a shawl-weaving centre at Kanihama in Kashmir. Efforts to revive this art have
also been made by bringing in innovations like the creation of jamawar saris by craftsmen
in Varanasi. Each sari is a shimmering tapestry of intricate design, in colours that range
from the traditionally deep, rich shades to delicate pastels. A minimum of four months of
patient effort goes into the creation of each jamawar sari. Many of the jamawar saris now
have matching silk shawls attached to them, creating elegant ensembles fit for royalty.
Weaving of Jamawar in Pakistan: It is woven on the jacquard loom. Joseph-Marie
Jacquard, improving on the original punched-card design of Jacques De Vaucansons
loom of 1745 developed the Jacquard system in France in 1804-05. The pattas, which are
the punched cards, controlled the actions of the loom, allowing automatic production of
intricate woven patterns. The bigger the motif, the greater the number of cards required to
make them.
Pakistan makes its own yarn from the imported cocoons that come from China. The yarn
is cultivated in areas like Orangi town and Shershah which is then sold to the weavers.
The pure silk yarn, before it can be used, has to undergo treatment such as bleaching or
washing (in soap) and then dyeing. In its raw state, the silk is hard due to the sericlan;
therefore it has to be removed. A single filament of the silk yarn is not strong enough to
be woven on its own; therefore, it needs to be twisted in order to give it strength and hold.
A specific person who is called a naqsha-bandh first draws the patterns or designs on
paper which are then transferred on a graph paper on a comparatively much bigger scale.
Every square in the graph signifies a specific number of threads on the loom. The
unfinished, rough ideas and sketches are provided to these naqsha-bandhs by the
wholesalers and are thus plotted on the graph. The use of various threads in the pattern
such as zari, resham, polyester, etc. are separated on the graph with the help of colours
indicated on a key chart. The wholesalers later decide the main colours and this
information are forwarded to the weavers. The naqsha-bandhs do not have say in the
designing of the motifs and patterns. They do what they are told to do.
In this way, the pattern or motif is drawn on the graph paper to provide the weaver with
the exact picture of each thread making up the design in the process of weaving. The
designs and patterns are then transferred from the graph paper on a wooden frame and are
referred to as the naqsha. The naqsha that is made with cotton threads is a smaller sample
of the actual design, which is to be woven on the loom. The warp is then taken for the
weaving process, which is carried out, on various looms such as the pit loom, jacquard
loom and power loom. There is a vast difference between the outputs of the three types of
looms. The power looms cannot match the intricacy that can be achieved using the pit or
jacquard loom. This is the reason for the far superior workmanship that can be found in
the earlier designs dating back to the Mughal era.
Nowadays brocade is being produced on the power looms for its wide-scale production
for the market. Several kannis or little wooden shuttles of different colors are used for a
single weft line of the fabric. Up to 50 colours could be worked into one shawl made of
the jamawar cloth. The most popular colours being zard, sufed, mushki, ferozi, ingari,
uda gulnar and kirmiz.
This thread can also be twisted with gold threads in order to make zari. The zari fibre is
doubled with the yarn to prepare it for the process of weaving. Another reason for
twisting the zari fibre is to reduce its excessive shine. The zari fibre is wrapped on reels
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and is doubled with the yarn with the help of a machine, on cones. These fibres are then
wrapped on reels with the help of a doubling machine. The threads are then steamed and
wrapped on the final spools. The required threads (silk, zari, etc.) are then taken to the
charkha, which is a machine used to make the warp for the weaving process.

b. Indirect
v. Marketing
The Directors of Sericulture of all the states have been requested to draw up a suitable
plan of action in coordination with the concerned Department of the State, to include
various sericulture activities under the NREGA, so as to ensure guarantee of generation
of rural employment as envisaged under the programme, and also enhance production
and productivity of different varieties of silk in the country. Central Silk Board organise
Structured Courses ranging from 3-24 months duration and capsule programmes from 245 days through its Research & Training Institutes and nested Regional Sericultural
Research Stations etc., located at different parts of the country. Capsule courses are
usually organised covering specific activity / technology of Mulberry & Non-Mulberry
sericulture sectors covering both pre and post cocoon activities. Ad hoc courses are also
organised as per the requirement of the sponsoring organization on cost basis.
Entrepreneurship and other related training programmes: In the country like India, with
huge unemployment and under employment problems, sericulture has been considered as
an excellent medium for generating employment and poverty alleviation. One of the
important areas for the development of silk industry as well as generating employment is
the promotion of prospective entrepreneurs to take up sericulture-based activities.
Keeping these objectives in view, the Corporate and Enterprise Development (C & ED)
Cell, an ISO 9001:2000 quality certified training wing of CSB, conducts
Entrepreneurship Development and other skill & competence enhancement training
programmes with focused seri - related themes in both traditional and non-traditional
states. Some of the popular training programmes areEntrepreneurship Development Programme (EDP)- Package training for venturing into
Seri-Business. The training inputs include technical inputs with practical exposure,
Motivational & psychological inputs, simple financial management, Business Plan
preparation & project evaluation techniques, market survey techniques & market
intelligence Eligibility: Any Existing & potential entrepreneurs.
Resource Development Programme/Trainers Training Programme (RDP/TTP)- Aims to
develop a group of resource persons with all the desired competencies and sericulture
skills for imparting second level training (farmers/beneficiaries) and successfully
implementing seri-developmental project. Eligibility: Project implementing officials from
States, NGOs & CSB
Technology Up-gradation Programme (TUP)- Demonstration of modern technology
pertaining to different activities of silk production chain Eligibility: All
farmers/stakeholders associated with sericulture & silk industry,
Bankers Training/ Sensitization Programme (BTP)- Bankers sensitization and updating
their Seri-knowledge/information by providing inputs on latest cocoon and raw silk
production technologies and introduction to various bankable Seri-Business options
Eligibility: Bankers & bank Managers
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Technology-based Training Progs/Beneficiary Training Programme (BTPs) - Specialized

exposure and skill development/enhancement focused training programmes for
farmers/rearers, artisans, entrepreneurs & supervisors both through peripatetic and
conventional modes
Management
Development
(MDP)

Meant
basically
for
enhancing
technical/general/motivational levels of the participants and also for introducing new
developments in the field of Science & technology and other functional areas. Eligibility:
In-house & State Govt. Officials & others
Competence Enhancement Training Programmes (CETP) - Refresher course for updating
technical knowledge and office management tools for increasing work efficiency
Eligibility: CSBs in-house participants,
During the XI Plan a new component - Beneficiaries Empowerment Programme has
been added to the HRD scheme with an objective of empowering farmers / artisans &
other stakeholders. It envisages empowering farmers, training them for honing their
skill sets & knowledge levels, building their confidence & belief by exposure & field
visit etc.
C&ED also conducts specific need-based & tailor made training programme on request
from external agencies for the overall benefit & development of silk sector.

vi. Materials and Machinery Manufacturing

Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The bestknown type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of thelarvae of the mulberry silkworm
Bombyx mori reared in captivity (sericulture). The shimmering appearance of silk is due
to the triangular prism-like structure of the silk fiber, which allows silk cloth to refract
incoming light at different angles, thus producing different colors.
Silks are produced by several other insects, but only the silk of moth caterpillars has been
used for textile manufacturing. There has been some research into other silks, which
differ at the molecular level.[1] Silks are mainly produced by the larvae of insects
undergoing complete metamorphosis, but also by some adult insects such as webspinners.
Silk production is especially common in the Hymenoptera (bees,wasps, and ants), and is
sometimes used in nest construction. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably
various arachnids such asspiders (see spider silk).
Insects or worms produce or secrete silk for their own purposes. In the natural world silk
is produced for more important purposes like for safe keeping of the nascent or
developing generations. But man has found this protecting material of worms as a way to
fulfil his material needs. In this process i.e. in the process of extracting silk from the
worms world and making it suitable for fulfilling the human needs, man has developed
advanced methods. These advanced methods include the use of state of the art
machineries. Because again work force is required for manufacturing of these
machineries and its various parts, sericulture again provides a huge prospect of
employment although indirectly.

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Chapter 13

Seed Organization
A very recent compilation of silkworm genetic stocks indicate that there are around 3000
genotypes of Bombyx mori at the global level, which includes mutants, parthenoclones,
polyploids and geographical races (Nagaraju et. al 2001). In fact much of the genetic
diversity of Bombyx mori is derived from the inbred lines of land races and elite stocks
evolved by the silkworm breeders and also from hybridisation of different geographical
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races; mainly the Japanese, Chinese, European and tropical races, which are distinct for
several economic characters. The geographical races also possess several heritable
characters for a variety of morphological, biochemical and quantitative characters.
Among the four geographical races, the bivoltine and univoltine races of temperate origin
and multivoltine races of tropical origin differ widely and exhibit contrasting characters.
The bivoltine and univoltine races produce high quantity of good quality silk, whereas the
multivoltine races are hardy, tolerant to pathogen load and thereby resistant to diseases
compared to the bivoltines but produce low amount of poor quality silk. Thus, these
geographical races are very valuable genetic stocks for further improvement of silkworm
races and evolution of superior breeds of B. mori.
Apart from a rich biodiversity of geographical races, there are also a large number of
mutants. The silkworm genetic stocks include more than 500 mutants for a variety of
characters viz., serosal colours; larval and adult integument colours; skin markings and
body shapes; cocoon colours and shapes; physiological traits such as diapause, number of
larval moults and timing of larval maturity; food habits and biochemical features such as
digestive amylase, blood and egg esterases, larval integument esterase, alkaline and acid
phosphatases; haemolymph proteins; silk production and fibroin secretion;
homeoproteins and body plan determination etc. and the various mutants, gene locus and
phenotype were documented recently (Nagaraju et. al, 2001).
Apart from the geographical races and mutants there is a large genetic stock of B.mori
evolved by the breeders mostly utilising the geographical races and mutants of larval,
pupal and cocoon colour variants of sex limited races, particularly in Peoples Republic of
China, Japan, India and erstwhile United Soviet Socialist Russia (USSR) and some of
these breeds are commercially exploited in these countries for silkworm rearing to
produce raw silk and the remaining breeds are maintained in the silkworm germplasm of
these countries as breeders genetic stocks and they are utilised as the genetic material in
the silkworm breeding programmes for evolution of more superior and elite races.
Thus, the geographical races, mutants and the elite breeders stock constitute the major
portion of the present day silkworm germplasm at the global level apart from the
parthenoclones, triploid, polyploids and wild relatives of Bombyx andBombycidae (Fig1).
1.5 Historical review of silkworm germplasm in India
The domesticated silkworm species, Bombyx mori L. evolved almost 4600 years ago
from the wild species, Bombyx mandarina Moore, which is a native of China and
Palaearctic region (Hampson, 1892; Hirobe, 1968). The eggs of silkworm,B. mori were
first introduced from China into Japan and Korea in the first century and subsequently
into Middle Eastern and European countries and later into the neighbouring countries
around China in the sixth century. The historical background of silkworm entry into India
is still a mystery; and the historical evidence indicates that a flourishing silk trade was
practising between India and Rome/Greece during Kaniska period (56 B C).
This is the authentic historical record of silk production and trade in India, which
indicates the early history of Indian sericulture. The rich tradition of silk and silk use are
evident from ancient sacred literature like the Rigveda, the Ramayana, and the
Mahabharatha, which are more than 2000 years old, but the information about indigenous
silkworm races and their stock maintenance are not well documented. Silkworm rearing
was prevalent in Kashmir and North Eastern states during sixteenth century, the Moghul
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period where the univoltine and multivoltine silkworms were respectively reared and the
Tippu Sultan introduced silkworm rearing in south India in 1875. During eighteenth
century, the British rule in India, quite a few univoltine and bivoltine races were imported
from Italy, France, Russia and China, and the races were bred and maintained by the
farmers (Krishna Rao, 1997); and there was no systematic maintenance of the silkworm
germplasm and hence only few races survived under Indian climatic condition.
At present only few old indigenous races are surviving viz. Barapolu, Chotapolu, Nistari,
Sarupat, and Moria, whereas the indigenous univoltine Kashmiri races are almost extinct.
Systematic silkworm stock maintenance and breeding started in the early nineteenth
century. Prior to 1922, only pure races were reared and hybrid silkworms were introduced
later, Pure Mysore C. Nichi was probably the first hybrid in Karnataka and exploitation
of hybrids in West Bengal and Kashmir came much later during 1956 and 1959
respectively (Thangavelu, 1997). Silkworm genetic stock maintenance started during
1940 in an organised way at Sericultural Research Station, Berhampore in West Bengal
and subsequently temperate silkworm germplasm stocks were established at Univoltine
Silkworm Seed Station, Pampore in Kashmir and multivoltine and bivoltine silkworm
stocks were established at Central Sericultural Research Institute, Mysore in Karnataka
and Coonoor in Tamil Nadu.
During the recent years, biodiversity conservation programmes have drawn the attention
of many countries including developing nations, because of the genetic erosion due to
indiscriminate use of bio resources and damage to the environment, destruction of forest,
human interference in eco-system, upsetting the equilibrium of the biosphere. The
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) organised by United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Jeneiro Earth Summit in 1992 made
an awakening call to draw the global attention for conservation of biodiversity. Since then
the biodiversity conservation and gene bank maintenance have gained greater momentum
since the germplasm resources are considered as "Common Heritage of Mankind" and
"Sovereign Right of Nations". The issues related to access the genetic resources and its
sustainable use, benefit sharing, farmers rights are being deliberated at various national
and international fora.
Realising the importance of biodiversity conservation for sustainable development of
agriculture, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
established the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) in 1974 at
Rome with a global network of genetic resources centres, mainly for conservation of
natural genetic resources including the wild species to promote crop improvement
programmes and increase the food production. The role of wild relatives and wild species
in agricultural crop improvement are well known (Rana, 1995). Similarly, there is an
urgent need for seribiodiversity conservation, particularly the wild relatives of Bombyx
and Bombycidae.
Improvement in silkworm race heavily depended on the geographical races of B. mori
and the wild relatives of Bombyx were not explored, unlike in agriculture. Whereas in
agricultural, horticultural and sericultural crop improvement programme the wild species
of several crop plants have contributed very valuable genes for resistance to diseases and
pests and tolerance to adverse agroclimatic conditions (Jackson and Ford-Lloyd, 1990)
and similar exploitation of genes from wild relatives ofB.mori have not been reported.

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The genus Bombyx Hubner (1818) has two species, Bombyx mori L. and Bombyx
mandarina Moore. Apart from the genusBombyx there are eleven other genera in the
family Bombycidae Hubner; 1) Genus - Theophila Moore (1867), 2) Genus -Ocinara
(Walker 1856), 3) Genus - Mustilia (Walker 1865), 4) Genus - Gunda (Walker 1862), 5)
Genus Penicillifera (Walker) 6) Genus - Ernolatia (Moore) 7) Genus - Norasuma Moore
8) Genus - Trilocha Dieri, 9) Genus - Prismosticta (Swinhoe), 10) Genus - Andraca
(Walker), and 11) Genus - Ectrocta (Hampson). Among these genera, Theophila and
Ocinara are very close to the genus Bombyx. The wild sericigenous species of Bombyx,
Theophila and Ocinara are naturally distributed in the Himalayan ranges of Indo-China
range and also in Andaman Islands in India, besides, Jawa, Sumatra, Borneo and Malaya
Peninsular (Barlow, 1982). The wild species of these genera have not been explored for
transferring the useful genes to confer resistance to diseases and tolerance to adverse
agro-climatic conditions into the domesticated species, B.mori. The useful genes from the
wild relatives of B. mori may be cloned and these cloned genes may be transferred into
the germ cells of the silkworm to develop transgeneic silkworm. Hence, there is an urgent
need to collect and conserve the wild species ofBombyx, Theophila and Ocinera and
study their genetics for possible use in the breeding programme of B.mori and widen the
genetic base as well.

a. Need for seed organization

This is self implied, implicit and universally applicable for every crop that good quality
seed improves productivity and quality standards of the crop. Same way this crop i.e.
sericulture is no exception to this rule. There is also an indispensable need to procure
good quality seed for better productivity in terms of both quality and quantity. Success of
sericulture depends on quality silkworm eggs. Therefore, management of seed
production, interalia transportation and incubation play important role on overall return.
To produce quality seed, it is very important to adopt scientific methods of egg
production right from seed crop rearing to egg incubation.
Indian gene centre is harbouring great faunal diversity and nearly 11.9% of the world
flora are present in India and hence recognised as one among the twelve mega
biodiversity rich centres of the world. Floristically India is very rich, harbouring three
mega centres of endemnism i.e. Western and Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. It is
a treasure house of several diverse sericigenous flora and fauna. Wild species of Bombyx
and other genera of Bombycidae do exist in the great Himalayan ranges and Andaman
islands, under natural habitat and therefore the Indian gene centre possesses a rich serigenetic resources.
Eggs and cocoons of a wild silkworm belonging to Bombycidae were collected from wild
mulberry tree Morus serrata near Kedarnath (30.47 N, 79.02 E) at an altitude of 800
meter above MSL (Tikader 2001). The eggs were incubated and rearing was conducted
on the mulberry plants at Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre (CSGRC),
Hosur and the produced cocoons and eggs are very similar to B. mori (Fig-2). It is a
potential and interesting genetic material with several unique characters, utilising such
wild relatives of Bombyx, it is quite possible to create additional seribiodiversity and
widen the genetic base of B. mori.

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Biodiversity is the result of evolution that is a continuous phenomenon induced by

natural selection pressure and the population of organisms evolve through adaptation to
the biotic and abiotic stress. Ever since B.mori was domesticated, the species does not
survive in the wild state in natural condition and also does not survive without human
care and hence natural selection induced genetic diversity in B.mori is rather very limited
to voltinism. Hence, it is very essential to conserve and utilise the wild relatives of
Bombyx mori to broaden its genetic diversity, apart from the geographical races, mutants,
sex-limited races, evolved breeds and breeders genetic stocks. The wild relatives of
Bombyx are very vulnerable and the vulnerability at different spatial and temporal scales
are not known. The design of biodiversity network in sericulture involving the
complementarity of wild relatives and domesticated B. mori is also not well established.
Therefore, conservation of wild as well as domesticated seribiodiversity resources is very
essential for sustainable development of sericulture (Fig-3) since loss of genetic resources
of domesticated and wild relatives of Bombyx species along with their unique genes may
disadvantage future generation.

b. Seed cocoon production at different levels- Silkworm egg

production. i) Pure ii) Hybrid
Success of sericulture depends on quality silkworm eggs. Therefore, management of seed
production, interalia transportation and incubation play important role on overall return.
To produce quality seed, it is very important to adopt scientific methods of egg
production right from seed crop rearing to egg incubation.
Disinfection of grainage and implements
The grainage rooms along with its appliances should be thoroughly disinfected prior to
commencement of operation and kept ready to receive seed cocoons. A day before
disinfection, the rooms and appliances are to be washed with 5% bleaching powder
solution and the appliances are to be sun dried for 3-4 hours. A day after, the rooms and
appliances should be properly disinfected with a mixture of 2 % formalin, 0.5 to 1 % lime
and 0.05% detergent solutions. Room to be disinfected at the rate of 1 litter per square
meter floor area.
Transportation of Seed Cocoons
The seed cocoons are to be always loosely packed either in perforated plastic crates or
bamboo baskets and transported to respective destinations during cooler hours of day.
Pupal examination
Before selection of seed cocoons, it is very important to know the disease freeness of a
lot, melt, filmsy and good cocoons are also to be separated. The gut portion is taken out
and subjected to microscopic examination. In case there is incidence of pebrine, the lot
has to be rejected. Before the arrival of new lots, it is very important and essential to
disinfect the contaminated rooms.
Preservation and protection of seed cocoons
Immediately after the receipt of seed cocoons, they are to be spread on trays in a single
layer to facilitate good aeration. Sorting of seed cocoons like melt, uziinfested, filmsy and
those which are not conforming to the characteristics of parent races are to be taken out
and rejected. The healthy seed cocoons alone should be preserved in trays for further
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processing. There should be cross ventilation in the preservation room, 25 +- 1o C

temperature, 75 +- 5 % relative humidity, 12 hour light and 12 hour dark conditions to be
maintained in the cocoon preservation rooms. Complete darkness to be maintained on the
previous day of emergence , to avoid irregular emergence of moths.
Early eclosion / artificial eclosion / forced eclosion of moths
This helps in determining the disease freeness of a batch and helps in minimizing the loss
to grainage.
Early moth eclosion box
A simple box made up of wood and plywood sheet with a glass door having dimension 90
x 75 x 60 cm is used. The bottom is fitted with asbestos sheet. A heating element is
connected to the electric main through a thermostat (0 60 o C ). On the top of the box at
the centre, a 15-cm diameter ventilator covered with wire mesh is provided. It is fitted
with sliding top to regulate ventilation. At the bottom of the box and on the lower portion
of sidewalls, small holes are drilled to facilitate aeration. For reading the temperature, a
thermometer is fixed from inside of glass door. Within the box, a portion has been made
to place 4-5 plastic trays in two tiers for keeping seed cocoon inside.
For early emergence of moths, 50-60 seed cocoons are taken from individual lots and
placed into an artificial eclosion box. The temperature in the box is adjusted to 32-33 o C
with the help of thermostat. This accelerates the development of pupae and moth emerges
early. The early-emerged female moths of respective lots are taken and subjected for
microscopic examination to know the disease freeness of lots.
Synchronization of emergence of moths, pairing, depairing and oviposition
Before the expected day of emergence of moths, the cocoon preservation rooms should
be kept dark. In case of variation in development of male or female pupae, the
development of male pupae can be arrested by preserving them at 5-7 oC and 75 +- 5 %
relative humidity for 3-4 days. Only healthy and active moths are taken for pairing. After
1-2 hours of emergence, the male and female moths of respective combinations are
allowed for 3.5 to 4 hours of pairing. At the time of depairing, the male and female moths
are to be moved side ways so that the moths are separated easily without causing injury to
reproductive organs. The matted female moth are taken in a separate container and
induced for urination. Moths are placed on egg sheet and covered with cellules and kept
in dark condition for oviposition. Under proper preservation (5-7 o C) male moths can be
used for second pairing by giving 1-2 hours rest. Throughout the process of pairing,
depairing and oviposition, optimum temperature of 25 +- 1o C and relative humidity of
75 +- 5 % should be maintained.
Surface sterilization of silkworm eggs
After ascertaining the disease freeness of layings, egg sheets are dipped in 2 % formalin
for 10-15 minutes. This helps in removal of pathogens adhering to the eggshell and
further prevents secondary contamination. Washing of eggs in formalin solution helps in
firm adherence of eggs to the sheet.
Incubation of silkworm eggs
Incubation facilities uniform development of embryo. In addition, it greatly influences
the voltinism of the eggs in succeeding generation, larval growth and success of cocoon
crop. Therefore, the eggs are subjected to ideal conditions of incubation.
Optimum temperature of 25 +- 1o C and relative humidity of 75 +- 5 %, 16 hours of light
and 8 hours of darkness are ideal. During the pinhead stage or before two days of
164

hatching, the eggs are black boxed to aim at uniform development of embryo and
hatching of larvae at a time on a single day.
Loose egg preparation
Loose eggs are getting popular for obvious advantages such as (a) standard / uniform egg
number (irrespective of the race, season, zone) (b) increased egg recovery and (c) easy
and better management.
Advantage of loose eggs
Superior quality
Uniform and known quantity irrespective of race / season / zone / grainage etc.,
Enables scientific evaluation
Increased egg recovery
Increased hatchability
Economical seed production
Efficient surface sterilization
Easy acid treatment of bivoltine eggs.
Unfertilized eggs can be eliminated (in bivoltine only)
Seed production
Basic and Commercial Silkworm Seed Support:

The National Silkworm Seed Organisation (NSSO), Bangalore (Karnataka) has a

network of 2 Zonal Silkworm Seed Organisation (ZSSOs) at Malda (WB) and Dehradun
(Uttaranchal), 20 Silkworm Seed Production Centres, 20 Basic Seed Farms, 3 Seed
Cocoon Procurement Centres & 32 Sericulture Service Centres located at various places
in the country.

The Basic Seed Farms (BSFs) supply parent seed to the Departments of
Sericulture in various States on their request. The commercial silkworm seed produced by
NSSO supplements the production by States.

The Basic Tasar Silkworm Seed Organization (BTSSO), Bilaspur support basic
Seed multiplication, and production of these races through 21 BSMTCs located at various
locations in the country and also one Central Tasar Silkworm Seed Station (CTSSS) at
Kargi Kota, Chattisgarh and 1 Field Unit at Pallahara (Orissa)

The Muga Silkworm Seed Organization (MSSO), Guwahati support basic Seed
multiplication, and production of these races through 8 P4/P3 units and one Muga SSPC
at Kaliabari, Boko.

The Eri Silkworm Seed Organisation (ESSO) at Guwahati demonstrates organized

production methods through 5 Eri Silkworm Seed Production Centers (SSPCs) located at
Azara(Assam), Dehradun(Uttarakhand), Hosur(TN), Shadnagar & Peddapuram (AP).
CSB offers National & International Consultancy Services in the Specialized Areas of :

Formulation, Appraisal and Implementation Documentation for Development

Projects, hand holding till sericultural activity is self sustainable.

Management and Administration of Sericulture.

Assessment of Training Needs and Organization of On-location Structured

Training Programmes for Human Resource Development in Sericulture.

Silkworm Seed Organization, and Post-Cocoon Technology and Management.

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Chapter 14
Twisting and Weaving
Silk is a natural protein fiber, some forms of which can be woven into textiles. The bestknown type of silk is obtained from the cocoons of thelarvae of the mulberry silkworm
Bombyx mori reared in captivity (sericulture). The shimmering appearance of silk is due
to the triangular prism-like structure of the silk fiber, which allows silk cloth to refract
incoming light at different angles, thus producing different colors.
Silks are produced by several other insects, but only the silk of moth caterpillars has been
used for textile manufacturing. There has been some research into other silks, which
166

differ at the molecular level. Silks are mainly produced by the larvae of insects
undergoing complete metamorphosis, but also by some adult insects such as webspinners.
Silk production is especially common in the Hymenoptera (bees,wasps, and ants), and is
sometimes used in nest construction. Other types of arthropod produce silk, most notably
various arachnids such asspiders.
Weaving is done by intersecting the longitudinal threads, thewarp, i.e. "that which is
thrown across", with the transverse threads, the weft, i.e. "that which is woven".
The major components of the loom are the warp beam,heddles, harnesses, shuttle, reed
and takeup roll. In the loom, yarn processing includes shedding, picking, battening and
taking-up operations.
Shedding. Shedding is the raising of the warp yarns to form ashed through which
the filling yarn, carried by the shuttle, can be inserted. The shed is the vertical space
between the raised and unraised warp yarns. On the modern loom, simple and intricate
shedding operations are performed automatically by the heddle or heald frame, also
known as a harness. This is a rectangular frame to which a series of wires, called heddles
or healds, are attached. The yarns are passed through the eye holes of the heddles, which
hang vertically from the harnesses. The weave pattern determines which harness controls
which warp yarns, and the number of harnesses used depends on the complexity of the
weave. Two common methods of controlling the heddles are dobbies and a Jacquard
Head.
Picking. As the harnesses raise the heddles or healds, which raise the warp yarns,
the shed is created. The filling yarn in inserted through the shed by a small carrier device
called a shuttle. The shuttle is normally pointed at each end to allow passage through the
shed. In a traditional shuttle loom, the filling yarn is wound onto a quill, which in turn is
mounted in the shuttle. The filling yarn emerges through a hole in the shuttle as it moves
across the loom. A single crossing of the shuttle from one side of the loom to the other is
known as a pick. As the shuttle moves back and forth across the shed, it weaves an edge,
or selvage, on each side of the fabric to prevent the fabric from raveling.
Battening. As the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the fill yarn, it also
passes through openings in another frame called a reed(which resembles a comb). With
each picking operation, the reed presses or battens each filling yarn against the portion of
the fabric that has already been formed. The point where the fabric is formed is called the
fell. Conventional shuttle looms can operate at speeds of about 150 to 160 picks per
minute.
With each weaving operation, the newly constructed fabric must be wound on a cloth
beam. This process is called taking up. At the same time, the warp yarns must be let off or
released from the warp beams. To become fully automatic, a loom needs a filling stop
motion which will brake the loom, if the weft thread breaks. An automatic loom requires
0.125 hp to 0.5 hp to operate.

a. Twisting machinery and processing

Silk twisting devices: Twisting devices and their importance for quality twisting. Before
the raw silk is woven into fabric, it go through a series of operations which conditions for
the loom. The series of preliminary preparatory processes involved for which the
following machineries are required.

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a) WINDING: The main functions of winding are to put the yarn in a long continuous
length to suit later processes and also to eliminate imperfections such as slubs, seak
places, dirt and so on.
b) DOUBLING: The object of doubling is to double the individual threads. Doubling
avoids unevenness and the strength of doubled yarn is correspondingly better than the
single thread.
c) TWISTING: Silk Twisting machine is of up twister principle. There is a vertical
spindle on which doubling bobbin is mounted and yarn from this is wound on to a
perforated bobbin mounted horizontally and driven by surface contact. Twist is imparted
on account of difference between the speed of the spindle and winding drum.
d) RE-WINDING: Re-winding machine is practically like winding machine. Its
production capacity is more, since normally double yarn is wound on this. If two ply yarn
is re-wound, production rate would be more than two times as compared to winding
machine.
e) WARPING: In silk weaving, normally sectional warping is followed because of the
fine denier of silk thread and consequently higher number of ends required. Warping
machine mainly consists of two parts (I) Warping creel (ii) warping drum.
f) PIRN WINDING: Pirn winding is necessary to prepare weft yarn. Pirn widing machine
is used generally for powerloom weaving. This machine may be automatic or
nonautomatic.
Manufacturing of Twisted Yarn: Twisting of silk yarn may be done in single thread or
double thread depending upon the type of yarn required for weaving. Certain yarns like
crepes and georgettes require high rate of twisting. Normally, high twist causes shrinkage
in the yarn and that is the reason why high twisted thread after weaving shrinks. Minute
snarls occur creating wave effect on the fabric especially for crepes and georgettes. The
direction of twist also has impact on cover of the fabric. The production is affected by
twist rate. Higher the twist rate, lower is the production. Normally, production per spindle
per is 25 to 30 grams (two ply) for 20/22 denier.

b. Handloom Weaving ( Different types )

A loom is a device used to weave cloth. The basic purpose of any loom is to hold the
warp threads under tension to facilitate the interweaving of the weft threads. The precise
shape of the loom and its mechanics may vary, but the basic function is the same.
The handloom was devised about 2,000 years ago and was brought to England by the
Romans. The process consisted of interlacing one set of threads of yarn (the warp) with
another (the weft). The warp threads are stretched lengthwise in the weaving loom. The
weft, the cross-threads, are woven into the warp to make the cloth.
In his book, History of Cotton Manufacture (1823), Richard Guest pointed out: "The
warp was placed between two beams about five feet apart; half way between the beams
the warp passed through a frame work of looped threads, called healds, each alternative
thread of the warp going through one heald, and the other threads through the other heald.
The healds were worked by two treadles, which upon one being put down by the foot,
raised one half of the healds and every second thread of the warp; the shuttle which
contained the weft was then thrown by the right hand between the threads which were at
rest, and the second or alternative threads raised by the treadle and the healds; the shuttle

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was caught on the other side by the left hand, and the weft thus transversely shot between
the threads of the warp."
Weaving remained unchanged for hundreds of years until John Kay devised the flying
shuttle, which enabled a weaver to knock the shuttle across the loom and back again
using one hand only. The speed of weaving was doubled; and a single weaver could make
cloths of any width, whereas previously two men had sat together at a loom to make
broad cloth. By 1800 it was estimated that there were 250,000 handlooms in Britain.
Back strap loom
A simple loom which has its roots in ancient civilizations comprising two sticks or bars
between which the warps are stretched. One bar is attached to a fixed object and the other
to the weaver usually by means of a strap around the back. On traditional looms, the two
main sheds are operated by means of a shed roll over which one set of warps pass, and
continuous string heddles which encase each of the warps in the other set. The weaver
leans back and uses her body weight to tension the loom. To open the shed controlled by
the string heddles, the weaver relaxes tension on the warps and raises the heddles. The
other shed is usually opened by simply drawing the shed roll toward the weaver. Both
simple and complex textiles can be woven on this loom. Width is limited to how far the
weaver can reach from side to side to pass the shuttle. Warp faced textiles, often
decorated with intricate pick-up patterns woven in complementary and supplementary
warp techniques are woven by indigenous peoples today around the world. They produce
such things as belts, ponchos bags, hatbands and carrying cloths. Supplementary weft
patterning and brocading is practiced in many regions. Balanced weaves are also possible
on the backstrap loom. Today, commercially produced backstrap loom kits often include a
rigid heddle.
Warp weighted loom
The warp-weighted loom is a vertical loom that may have originated in the Neolithic
period. The earliest evidence of warp-weighted looms comes from sites belonging to the
Starevo culture in modern Hungary and from late Neolithic sites in Switzerland. This
loom was used inAncient Greece, and spread north and west throughout Europe
thereafter. Its defining characteristic is hanging weights (loom weights) which keep
bundles of the warp threads taut. Frequently, extra warp thread is wound around the
weights. When a weaver has reached the bottom of the available warp, the completed
section can be rolled around the top beam, and additional lengths of warp threads can be
unwound from the weights to continue. This frees the weaver from vertical size
constraints.
Drawloom
A drawloom is a hand-loom for weaving figured cloth. In a drawloom, a "figure harness"
is used to control each warp thread separately. A drawloom requires two operators, the
weaver and an assistant called a "drawboy" to manage the figure harness.
Handloom
A handloom is a simple machine used for weaving in which no power is used. In a
wooden vertical-shaft looms the heddles were fixed in place in the shaft. The warp
threads pass alternately through a heddle and through a space between the heddles
(theshed), so that raising the shaft raises half the threads (those passing through the
heddles), and lowering the shaft lowers the same threadsthe threads passing through
the spaces between the heddles remain in place.
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Flying Shuttle
Hand weavers could only weave a cloth as wide as their armspan. If cloth needed to be
wider, two people would do the task (often this would be an adult with a child). John
Kay(17041???) patented the Flying Shuttle in 1733. The weaver held a picking stick that
was attached by cords to a device at both ends of the shed. With a flick of the wrist, one
cord was pulled and the shuttle was propelled through the shed to the other end with
considerable force, speed and efficiency. A flick in the opposite direction and the shuttle
was propelled back. A single weaver had control of this motion but the flying shuttle
could weave much wider fabric than an arms length at much greater speeds than had been
achieved with the hand thrown shuttle. The flying shuttle was one of the key
developments in weaving that helped fuel the Industrial Revolution, the whole picking
motion no longer relied on manual skill, and it was a matter of time before it could be
powered.

c. Power loom weaving ( Different types )

Haute-lisse and basse-lisse looms
Looms used for weaving traditional tapestry are classified as haute-lisse looms, where the
warp is suspended vertically between two rolls, and the basse-lisse looms, where the
warp extends horizontally between the rolls.
Power looms
Edmund Cartwright built and patented a power loom in 1785, and it was this that was
adopted by the nascent cotton industry in England. A silk loom was made by Jacques
Vaucanson in 1745, which used the same ideas but it wasn't developed further. The
invention of the flying shuttle by John Kay had been critical to the development of a
commercially successful power loom. Cartwright's loom was impractical but the ideas
were developed by numerous inventors in the Manchester area in England, where by
1818 there were 32 factories containing 5732 looms.
Horrocks loom was viable but it was the Roberts Loom in 1830 that marked the turning
point. Before this time hand looms had outnumbered power looms. Incremental changes
to the three motions continued to be made. The problems of sizing, stop-motions,
consistent take-up and a temple to maintain the width remained. In 1841, Kenworthy and
Bullough produced the Lancashire Loom which was self-acting or semi-automatic. This
enables a 15-year-old spinner to run six looms at the same time. Incrementally, the
Dickinson Loom, and then the Keighley born inventor Northrop working for the Draper
Corporation in Hopedale produced the fully automatic Northrop Loom which recharged
the shuttle when the pirn was empty. The Draper E and X model became the leading
products from 1909 until they were challenged by the different characteristics of
synthetic fibres such as rayon.
Air-Jet Looms and Water-Jet Looms
From 1942 the faster and more efficient shuttleless Sulzer looms and the rapier looms
were introduced. Modern industrial looms can weave at 2000 weft insertions per minute.
Today, advances in technology have produced a variety of looms designed to maximize
production for specific types of material. The most common of these are air-jet looms and
water-jet looms.

d. Printing- Dyeing, Calendaring and Finishing

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Printing is a process for reproducing text and image, typically with ink on paper using a
printing press. It is often carried out as a large-scale industrial process, and is an essential
part of publishing and transaction printing.
The development of printing was preceded by the use of cylinder seals in Mesopotamia
developed in 3500 BC, and other related stamp seals. The earliest form of printing was
woodblock printing, with existing examples from China dating to before 220 AD and
Egypt to the 4th century. Later developments in printing include the movable type, first
developed by Bi Sheng in China, and the printing press, a more efficient printing process
developed by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century.
Modern printing technology
Across the world, over 45 trillion pages (2005 figure) are printed annually.[12] In 2006
there were approximately 30,700 printing companies in the United States, accounting for
$112 billion, according to the 2006 U.S. Industry & Market Outlook by Barnes Reports.
Print jobs that move through the Internet made up 12.5% of the total U.S. printing market
last year, according to research firm InfoTrend/CAP Ventures.
Offset press
Offset printing is a widely used printing technique where the inked image is transferred
(or "offset") from a plate to a rubber blanket, then to the printing surface. When used in
combination with the lithographic process, which is based on the repulsion of oil and
water, the offset technique employs a flat (planographic) image carrier on which the
image to be printed obtains ink from ink rollers, while the non-printing area attracts a
film of water, keeping the non-printing areas ink-free.
Currently, most books and newspapers are printed using the technique of offset
lithography. Other common techniques include: flexography used for packaging, labels,
and newspapers. Hot wax dye transfer: inkjet used typically to print a small number of
books or packaging, and also to print a variety of materials from high quality papers
simulate offset printing, to floor tiles; Inkjet is also used to apply mailing addresses to
direct mail pieces. Laser printing is mainly used in offices and for transactional printing
(bills, bank documents). Laser printing is commonly used by direct mail companies to
create variable data letters or coupons, for example. Pad printing popular for its unique
ability to print on complex 3-dimensional surfaces. Relief print, (mainly used for
catalogues). Rotogravure is mainly used for magazines and packaging. Screen-printing is
done from T-shirts to floor tiles.
Gravure
Gravure printing is an intaglio printing technique, where the image to be printed is made
up of small depressions in the surface of the printing plate. The cells are filled with ink
and the excess is scraped off the surface with a doctor blade, then a rubber-covered roller
presses paper onto the surface of the plate and into contact with the ink in the cells. The
printing plates are usually made from copper and may be produced by digital engraving
or laser etching.
Gravure printing is used for long, high-quality print runs such as magazines, mail-order
catalogues, packaging, and printing onto fabric and wallpaper. It is also used for printing
postage stamps and decorative plastic laminates, such as kitchen worktops.
Digital printing
Digital printing accounts for approximately 9% of the 45 trillion pages printed annually
(2005 figure) around the world. Printing at home or in an office or engineering
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environment is subdivided into: small format (up to ledger size paper sheets), as used in
business offices and libraries wide format (up to 3' or 914mm wide rolls of paper), as
used in drafting and design establishments. Some of the more common printing
technologies are:
Blueprintand related chemical technologies.
Daisy wheel-where pre-formed characters are applied individually.
Dot-matrixwhich produces arbitrary patterns of dots with an array of printing studs.
Line printingwhere pre-formed characters are applied to the paper by lines.
Heat transferlike early fax machines or modern receipt printers that apply heat to
special paper, which turns black to form the printed image.
Inkjetincluding bubble-jetwhere ink is sprayed onto the paper to create the desired
image.
Electro photographywhere toner is attracted to a charged image and then developed.
Lasera type of xerography where the charged image is written pixel by pixel by a laser.
Solid ink printerwhere cubes of ink are melted to make ink or liquid toner.
Vendors typically stress the total cost to operate the equipment, involving complex
calculations that include all cost factors involved in the operation as well as the capital
equipment costs, amortization, etc. For the most part, toner systems beat inkjet in the long
run, whereas inkjets are less expensive in the initial purchase price.
Professional digital printing (using toner) primarily uses an electrical charge to transfer
toner or liquid ink to the substrate it is printed on. Digital print quality has steadily
improved from early color and black & white copiers to sophisticated colour digital
presses like the Xerox iGen3, the Kodak Nexpress, the HP Indigo Digital Press series and
the InfoPrint 5000. The iGen3 and Nexpress use toner particles and the Indigo uses liquid
ink. The InfoPrint 5000 is a full-color, continuous forms inkjet drop-on-demand printing
system. All handle variable data and rival offset in quality. Digital offset presses are also
called direct imaging presses, although these presses can receive computer files and
automatically turn them into print-ready plates, they cannot insert variable data.
Small press and fanzines generally use digital printing. Prior to the introduction of cheap
photocopying the use of machines such as the spirit duplicator, hectograph, and
mimeograph was common.
Dyeing is the process of adding color to textile products like fibers, yarns, and fabrics.
Dyeing is normally done in a special solution containing dyes and particular chemical
material. After dyeing, dye molecules have uncut Chemical bond with fiber molecules.
The temperature and time controlling are two key factors in dyeing. There are mainly two
classes of dye, natural and man-made.
For most of the thousands of years in which dyeing has been used by humans to decorate
clothing, or fabrics for other uses, the primary source of dye has been nature, with the
dyes being extracted from animals or plants. In the last 150 years, humans have produced
artificial dyes to achieve a broader range of colors, and to render the dyes more stable to
resist washing and general use. Different classes of dyes are used for different types of
fiber and at different stages of the textile production process, from loose fibers through
yarn and cloth to completed garments.
Acrylic fibers are dyed with basic dyes, Nylon and protein fibers such as wool and silk
are dyed with acid dyes, polyester yarn is dyed with disperse dyes. Cotton is dyed with a
range of dye types, including vat dyes, and modern synthetic reactive and direct dyes.
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Calendering is a finishing process used on cloth where fabric is folded in half and passed
under rollers at high temperatures and pressures. Calendering is used on fabrics such as
moire to produce its watered effect and also on cambric and some types of sateens.
In preparation for calendering, the fabric is folded lengthwise with the front side, or face,
inside, and stitched together along the edges. The fabric can be folded together at full
width, however this is not done as often as it is more difficult. The fabric is then run
through rollers that polish the surface and make the fabric smoother and more lustrous.
High temperatures and pressure are used as well. Fabrics that go through the calendering
process feel thin, glossy and papery.
The calendering finish is easily destroyed, and does not last well. Washing in water
destroys it, as does wear with time.
Variations
Several different finishes can be achieved through the calendering process by varying
different parts. The main different types of finishes are beetling, watered, embossing and
Scheiner.
Beetled
Beetling is a finish given to cotton and linen cloth, and makes it look like satin. In the
beetling process the fabric goes over wooden rollers and is beaten with wooden hammers.
Watered
The watered finish, also known as moire, is produced by using ribbed rollers. These
rollers compress the cloth and the ribs produce the characteristic watermark effect by
moving aside threads as well as compressing them. This leaves some of the threads round
while others get compressed and become flat.
Embossed
In the embossing process the rollers have engraved patterns on them, and the patterns
become stamped onto the fabric. The end result is a raised pattern. This works best with
soft fabrics.
Scheiner
Similar to the watered process, in the Scheiner process the rollers are ribbed, only in the
Scheiner process the ribs are very fine, with as many as six hundred ribs per inch under
extremely high pressure. The threads are pressed flat with little lines in them, which
causes the fabric to reflect the light better than a flat surface would. Cloth finished with
the Scheiner method has a very high luster, which is made more lasting by heating the
rollers.

Chapter 15

Utilization of By-products and Seri Wastes

Silk waste includes all kinds of raw silk which may be unwindable, and therefore
unsuited to the throwing process. Before the introduction of machinery applicable to the
spinning of silk waste, the refuse from cocoon reeling, and also from silk winding, which
is now used in producing spun silk fabrics, was nearly all destroyed as being useless, with
the exception of that which could be hand-combed and spun by means of the distaff and
spinning wheel, a method which is still practised by some of the peasantry in India and
other countries in Asia.
The supply of waste silk is drawn from the following sources:
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The silkworm, when commencing to spin, emits a dull, lustreless and uneven
thread with which it suspends itself to the twigs and leaves of the tree upon which it has
been feeding, or to the straws provided for it by attendants in the worm-rearing
establishments: this first thread is unreelable, and, moreover, is often mixed with straw,
leaves and twigs.

The outside layers of the true cocoon are too coarse and uneven for reeling; and as
the worm completes its task of spinning, the thread becomes finer and weaker, so both the
extreme outside and inside layers are put aside as waste.

Pierced cocoons, that is, those from which the moth of the silkworm has emergedand damaged cocoons.

During the process of reeling from the cocoon the silk often breaks; and both in
finding a true and reelable thread, and in joining the ends, there is unavoidable waste.

Raw silk skeins are often re-reeled; and in this process part has to be discarded:
this being known to the trade as gum-waste. The same term gum-waste is applied
to " waste " made in the various processes of silk throwing; but manufacturers using
threads known technically as organzines and trams call the surplus "manufacturer's
waste."
A silk "throwster" receives the silk in skein form, the thread of which consists of a
number of silk fibres wound together to make a certain diameter or size, the separate fibre
having actually been spun by the worm. The silk-waste spinner receives the silk in quite a
different form: merely the raw material, packed in bales of various sizes and weights, the
contents being a much-tangled mass of all lengths of fibre mixed with much foreign
matter, such as ends of straws, twigs, leaves, worms and chrysalis. It is the spinner's
business to straighten out these fibres, with the aid of machinery, and then to so join them
that they become a thread, which is known as spun silk.
There are two distinct kinds of spun silk: one called schappe and the other spun silk or
discharged spun silk. All silk produced by the worm is composed of two substances:
fibroin, the true thread, and sericin, which is a hard, gummy coating of the fibroin. Before
the silk can be manipulated by machinery to any advantage, the gum coating must be
removed, really dissolved and washed away - and according to the method used in
achieving this operation the result is either a schappe or a discharged yarn. The former,
schapping, is the French, Italian and Swiss method, from which the silk when finished is
neither so bright nor so good in colour as the discharged silk; but it is very clean and
level, and for some purposes essential, as, for instance, in velvet manufacture.
THE term "silk waste" covers all classes of the raw silk which are unwindable and
altogether unsuited for the throwing process. The term waste," understood in the general
sense as conveying the idea of something worthless or of no use, is quite a misnomer.
But, before the introduction of silk waste spinning, the refuse from the reeling and
winding mills was indeed waste, there being at that time no use for it whatever, except for
what could be combed and spun by distaff and spinning wheel, as still practised by
peasantry in India and other Eastern countries. Considering that of all the silk spun by the
silkworm more than half is useless for the throwster, it will readily be understood that
there must have been a large accumulation of this material, and therefore a great future
before an industry which could use up this so-called rubbish. Although there are a great
many different grades and different classes of waste silk, there are really few distinct

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ways in which they are all produced, most, if not all, varieties being the waste from one
or more of the following seven processes :
METHODS OF WASTE PRODUCTION. 1. The silkworm commences to spin its cocoon
by first fastening itself to the twig of a tree or between two leaves. Where the worm is
reared by the peasants in their cottages, the peasants use straws, to which the worms
attach themselves. All this silk is unwindable, coarse, and uneven, and consequently of no
use to the throwster. Naturally this first waste is very much mixed with straw and leaves,
and is of a dull, lustreless nature.
2. The cocoons are made up of layers of silk, and the outside ones, or the first spun by the
worm, are too coarse and uneven for reeling, so the outer coating is stripped off and cast
aside as waste.
3. As the silkworm nears the completion of its cocoon, the thread becomes finer and finer,
insomuch that several of the last layers are made up of silk too fine to be strong enough to
unwind, so that after the better or middle layers are reeled from the cocoon, the remaining
part is discarded as useless for further reeling.
4. Among the cocoons there are some which are altogether unsuitable for reeling,
included among which are the pierced cocoons. Although of no use for reeling, they are
very acceptable to the silk waste spinner.
5. During the process of reeling from the cocoon into hanks or skeins, the silk sometimes
breaks, and in consequence there is waste made by the attendant in finding the true and
sound thread.
6. Waste is produced in reeling tsatlees into re-reels.
7. All the wastes produced in the throwster's mill, as described fully under the heading
"Throwing". Practically speaking, the various wastes are divided into two general classes:
gum wastes and ordinary wastes. Gum wastes, whether Home, European, or Eastern, are
really all throwsters' wastes, and are specially adapted for the making of yarns for lace,
sewings, and weft purposes.
QUALITIES OF WASTES The best-known wastes are as follows: Steam waste. The best
known and most widely used silk waste in England is Canton filature waste, better known
as steam waste. It is not a gum waste. There are two varieties, and several grades of each.
The one which has generally found most favour with spinners is the "opened" waste, but,
owing to its lending itself so easily to adulteration, spinners are now paying more
attention to the "unopened" quality. Opened steam waste is the unopened waste pulled out
by the natives, wTho work among it with their fingers and teeth, opening out the hard
knubs which have been formed when the wet waste has been thrown down by the reeler,
and allowed to dry and mat together, on account of the natural gum having hardened,
which had previously been softened by the hot water in the basin attached to the reeling
machine. Owing to the labour difficulty in China it is becoming more and more important
that spinners accustom themselves to the use of unopened steam waste.
There are really three grades of steam waste, which some years ago were known as
"Selected," No. 1, and No. 2. But year by year the Chinaman seems to have got the better
of the European silk inspector, and has let down the quality. In the "selected" he would
leave a certain amount of No. 1, and in No. 1 he would put the No. 2, until at length the
admixture of 1's and 2's was so much that No. 2 as a separate grade disappeared, all being
mixed up with the No. 1, and passed as all No. 1. Naturally, the so-called "selected" got a
greater percentage of No. 1, so that in time the European shippers decided to work up a
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better grade and call it "Extra selected." This latter came forward very nicely for a time;
but gradually the Chinaman's cunning got the better of the inspector, with the result that
he again lowered the quality of the so-called "extra selected," and therefore the
"selected." This process was again repeated, and there came a grade known as "Extra
extra selected" steam waste; but this was likewise doomed to the fate of the former
changes, and to-day there is known what is called the "Extra extra extra selected" steam
waste, which in point of fact is to-day not so good as the old well known "selected," and
the "extra extra selected" is a mixture of the old 1's and 2's. The deterioration goes on
year after year, each succeeding year being worse than the preceding one, and each
season showing a gradual falling away from the standard established at the
commencement of the season. It is a lamentable state of affairs, but so far the Chinaman
seems to have always managed to get the better of all the European inspectors ; and so
long as the present system of buying and passing of the waste is in vogue at Canton, so
long will the Chinaman be able to hoodwink the inspectors. Prisons are cocoons with
varying quantities of silk upon them which has been slightly pulled loose. Some qualities
are full of wormy matter, but all are well liked by continental spinners for schapping.
Waddiny, or blaze, which is also used almost exclusively on the Continent, is the first silk
spun by the worm that is, the silk which is wrapped around the twigs or straws and
leaves, and is in consequence full of such vegetable matters when sold to the spinner. It is
very heavily charged with gum, and consequently loses much when boiled off, and even
then it is very inferior stuff. Wadding is a term also applied to silk which has been used as
a packing inside the Chinaman's coat as a lining, and it may be of long fibre or otherwise.
Frisons and cocoons are types which may come from all silk-producing countries. Tussah
waste, exported from Shanghai, is of a dark brown colour, and is usually known as
Newchwang Tussah waste and filature Tussah waste. They are marketed in two grades,
viz. No. 1 and No. 2, which are packed in separate bales. Parcels of Newchwang are
generally offered as 60 per cent, of No. 1 and 40 per cent, of No. 2, and the filature as 50
per cent, of each, written respectively 60/40 and 50/50. There is also what is known as
tussah throwster's waste, which, as the name implies, is the waste made during the
process of throwing tussah raws. Besides the two qualities named above, there are other
qualities of tussah waste shipped from China, but these two represent by far the bulk.
Nankin Buttons is a gum waste from the interior of China, of exceptionally good white
colour and lustre. The bulk of it is long in staple, but it is always mixed with so-called
buttons, which are really small portions of silk slightly matted together, and, a worse fault
still, sometimes cut into half-an-inch to one-and-a-half-inch lengths. This waste is
exported from Shanghai. China wastes are from various sources, chiefly from English,
French, and Italian throwsters. They are all long in staple. China soaped waste is from
English and Scotch throwing mills. It feels soft, and its lustre has been hidden in the
washing. French China is always bright, and not being weighted with soap often fetches a
little more per pound than English silk. Italian and Swiss wastes are of the same nature.
Shanghai waste is all gum waste, not quite as white as European silk, and harsher in feel.
It is classed as fine white, fine yellow, coarse white, and coarse yellow. In the fine white
are three well known grades: Chintzah, which is the whitest and longest in staple;
Hangchow, which is really a second picking or sorting over of the Chintzah grade, rather
inferior in colour, not so long in staple, and more subject to twist waste and foreign
matter; and the ordinary fine white, which is variable in colour, but good sound waste.
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The yellow varieties are produced in much smaller quantities, of similar qualities, but
usually more mixed together, which really makes an inferior sort of article. Every sort is
sold on its own merits; some spinners use only coarse varieties and others only fine.
Shanghai szechuen (or seychuen or sechuen) is a yellow waste, and the prefix Shanghai is
to distinguish it from Canton waste of similar nature, sold as Canton szechuen. All
Shanghai wastes were formerly offered as 1's, 2's, and 3's. Some shippers now continue
this, but the No. 3 being very small in quantity and low in quality, parcels are often
offered now as 1's and 2's. As the No. 3 is, however, still produced in the East, spinners
are suspicious that in many cases it is judiciously mixed with the No. 2 portion by the
expert Chinese packers. However that may be, proportions are generally 75% 257. . 707.
30% . 607. 307. 107. .,, ,No.T SO"' NoTl' NoT2 ' or NSTT No? N5T3' grades are always
packed separately.
Indian waste: Of all the wastes used by spinners, the Indian wastes (all gum wastes) are
the most mixed and unreliable. The colour varies from grey to yellow, but there is by far
the larger proportion of yellow. The fibre of some is as fine and clean as the best China
and Japan silks, whilst others are coarser than the punjum waste. It is always subject to an
admixture of bits of cotton, twist, black hairs, string, paper, etc.
Canton gum waste is very similar in appearance to the re-reel waste, but is not so reliable,
and is very often more mixed with black hairs, cotton, hemp, etc. No. 2 gum is now a
very scarce article in this country, spinners finding it too much mixed with rubbish, and
hence too costly in picking, etc. Re-reel waste is a Canton gum waste produced in the
mills where the Canton raws are re-reeled, just in the same manner as Shanghai gum in
the more northern districts; but the former is of a softer nature, and has more lustre in
fact, Cantons are the most lustrous of all silks, but are of a creamy shade. The silk of
Canton gum and steam waste is spun by the same genus of worm. Canton szechuen waste
is a yellow gum waste with a good, bright colour, but apt to be greasy. The production is
very limited, and it comes forward in little lots of 5, 10, or 15 bales. Steam punjums are
allied to both,punjum waste and to steam waste. They are said to possess the virtues of
both i.e. they yield well and have the colour of steam, and they combine the lustre of
punjum. Punjum has peculiar characteristics of its own, and is supposed by many people
to be the most lustrous of all silks. It is a stringy waste in appearance, and loses very
heavily in boiling off something like 50 per cent. It is reeled from cocoons, a number of
ends together, and put into book form very similar to the tsatlees, as described under the
heading "Tsatlee Keel" in "Raw Silk"; but owing to the admixture of rice water, in reeling
process, or some such substance, the threads mat together, and are consequently
unwindable.
In this form the waste is known as punjum books, which are divided into grades 1's, 2's,
3's, and 4's 3's and 4's being the general run for English spinners, generally half-and-half.
Punjum waste is produced in exactly the same manner, except that no attempt is made to
run it into a moss; but, as an end breaks or runs off during reeling, the waste is thrown
aside in a rough, tangled state. China curlies are a well-known waste shipped from
Shanghai, and the quality and appearance are more allied to steam waste than to any other
variety shipped from Canton. It is a greyish-white waste, somewhat harsh to the feel. The
name "curly" is given to this waste on account of its being so full of little patches of
material matted together, which have a certain resemblance to a curl of hair. The waste is
much in favour both in this country and on the Continent, and, as the crop is somewhat
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limited, many times the whole of the output is contracted for at the opening of the season.
It is a commodity many speculators like to gamble with, the result being that many times,
when the whole crop has been cornered, the price is many pence per pound over and
above its value as compared with other classes of waste. Like most Shanghai wastes,
curlies are to be had in three grades, but the No. 3 is so very inferior that few English
spinners can afford to buy it, on acc6unt of the extra expense necessary in picking out the
sticks, string, and refuse, to say nothing of the trouble caused in after processes by some
of these objects having escaped the pickers in the first instance. Generally speaking,
English spinners buy only the No. 1's, finding even the No. 2's too much trouble in
working ; but there are shippers who import the proportions 60 per cent. No. 1, 30 per
cent. No. 2, and 10 per cent. No. 3, written 60/30/10. Curlies are generally shipped under
a chop mark, the favourite being the "Yellow Pony" (or Peony), whilst such chops as the
"Double Fighting Cock" and the "Gold Lion" are fairly well known. It must not be taken
that all curlies are shipped under a chop mark, nor even that the best curlies have a
particular name or trade mark. Some arrivals with no chop mark whatever are quite equal
to any of the "Yellow Pony" chop ; but, as a general rule, spinners buying "to arrive" wish
to have the chop stipulated at the time of purchase, as a kind of semi-guarantee of quality,
as the various wastes from the different filatures have a certain reputation, Shanghai long
wastes are the most expensive wastes shipped from that port. They are to be had from
various inland districts, and are known under the different names of such places, though
there is a great similarity in appearance and not much difference in their qualities and
yields. They have very much the appearance of knubs, but are tapey and very long. They
yield exceedingly well, and are of a good light colour. The annual production is
comparatively small, and very few spinners can use them to advantage, on account of
their high price. For particular special yarns where strength and evenness of thread are
absolutely essential, Shanghai long waste is used to advantage.
Japan wastes. The best-known waste shipped from Yokohama is the Kikai Kibizzo, or
Japan curlies. In appearance there is not much difference between this waste and China
curlies, except that the former is generally of a better colour, and contains curls of larger
size, longer staple, and consequently yields better. Japan wastes are more in request for
continental spinners than for England, being well suited for the schapping in vogue there.
Just like the China curlies, Kikai Kibizzo is shipped in three grades, but the principal
buying for this country is for No. 1's alone, although at times parcels 60/30/10 are freely
offered.
Iwashiro Noshi is another waste which is fairly well known here by the spinners who use
the very best class of wastes. What the Shanghai long waste is to Shanghai, so is Iwashiro
Noshi to Japan. They are very similar, except that the latter is a better colour, and just as
Kikai Kibizzo will fetch a better price than China curlies, so is Iwashiro Noshi more
valuable than Shanghai long waste. The production is very limited.
Noshito Joshiu or Tamas is practically the lowest class of Japan waste which is shipped
for consumption in England for the ordinary spinner, but there are many lower varieties
from Japan which are well suited for continental schappe spinners. Tamas are a stringy
waste, not very good colour, and are subject to a certain amount of refuse. They are
generally shipped in proportion 60/30/10. Before passing on to European wastes, some
details of the buying, inspecting, shipping, and landing of wastes from the East will not
be without interest.
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Buying. As in most textile trades, so in the silk spinning industry, spinners must
anticipate their requirements to a certain extent, and buy "to arrive," or "futures". This
latter term is, however, seldom made use of in the silk trade. Comparatively speaking,
very little waste is sent over here on account of the shippers, most of them preferring to
buy against orders from brokers and merchants. The buying "to arrive" is done by the
spinners through merchant brokers, who transmit the offers to Shanghai, Canton, or
Yokohama, according to the kind of waste required; and the matter of quality is either
fixed on certain standards which the merchant shows, or the spinner stipulates that it be
equal to a certain shipment already had. In the absence of standards, the merchant
undertakes to deliver the "season's average" or, in other words, he contracts that his waste
will be as good as the season affords, all due care being taken at the embarkation port that
inferior waste is not shipped.
Inspecting. The systems in vogue for inspecting at Canton, Shanghai, and Yokohama are
very different, and much could be done in this respect to ensure better qualities and more
uniformity in shipment, particularly so from Canton. In this latter place the shipper buys,
say, a parcel of 50 bales of waste from a native dealer, who comes forward and tenders 50
bales already made up. The European inspector then picks out of the lot, wherever he
may think fit, 3, 4, or 5 bales, and has them opened, and after examining them passes or
rejects the parcel. If the lot is rejected, the Chinaman brings a further 50, which are
subject to the same process, and so on until he has satisfied the inspector. It will be at
once seen by one in the trade that this is a very lax method, for John Chinaman has these
bales to sell, and sell them he will. If they are rejected by one inspector, he will tender
them to another, in the hope that he may be lucky or unlucky enough to cause good bales
out of the run to be opened, and so pass the lot. Very often the bales are made up in such a
way that the outer coating of the layers of which the bales are made up are composed of
really good silk, whilst the inside is cunningly made up of inferior waste. This is a
common fault of Canton wastes of all descriptions. The only remedy seems to be that the
waste be delivered in bulk to the shippers' go-downs, to be inspected by them in bulk, and
packed by them just as is done in Shanghai and Yokohama, from which ports the waste is
far more uniform and more reliable. The majority of the shippers at Canton say that it is
impossible to do this in the case of Canton wastes, because they have not room in the
European quarters to make godowns in which to inspect the wastes.
Packing and shipping. At Canton the wastes are all packed in small bales of one picul
each (a picul is 133lb.), without presspacking, but they are well bound with cane, and the
wrapping is matting. Shanghai wastes, which are packed under European supervision and
in the shippers' own go-downs, are made up in three-picul bales, and are press-packed.
The Japan bales are very cumbersome, being packed similar to the Canton bales, except
that instead of onepicul bales they come over in three-picul bales. Some Japan bales are,
however, press-packed like the Shanghai bales. The shipping is, of course, undertaken by
the European shippers out in the East, and, generally speaking, the documents covering
the shipments are passed through the Eastern banks with a bill at four, five, or six months'
sight, to be accepted here by the merchant and returned to the bank, which holds the
waste until the bill is retired, when the merchant gets the necessary release order.
Landiny. On arrival in London, the waste is at once taken in hand by the Dock Company
or wharfingers, and, immediately it is lauded, the gross weights of each bale are carefully
taken, and a certain number of each parcel tared, and the average tare of those taken is
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reckoned on the wrhole parcel. No. \ or J Ib. are reckoned : supposing the average tare is
8J, 8J, or 8| Ib., the tare allowed is 9 Ib. per bale, and any bale weighing, say, 129J Ib.
gross, even though the average tare were 8J Ib., would only be chargeable 120 Ib. net.
When the bales have been landed, lotted, and examined for damage, dock samples are
drawn from every fifth or tenth bale according to request, and sent down to the buyer, and
on receipt of these he must decide whether the quality is up to the standard on which he
bought. Once having passed these impartial dock samples, he is held to have passed the
waste, and has no claim for inferiority should he be disappointed with the waste when the
bulk is delivered at his mill, unless he can prove some very flagrant case of false packing,
and even then he must trust to the merchant from whom he bought. European wastes.
Little need be said about the various qualities of these wastes, as all have very similar
characteristics, and are practically, with the exception of the French and Italian knubs, the
products of the silk-throwing mills, as described under the heading "Throwing". Knubs,
however, are the long wastes produced in the filatures where the raw silk is wound from
the cocoon, and have the same appearance and characteristics as the Shanghai long waste
and Iwashiro Noshi, except that they are finer and of a more "classical" nature. These
knubs are particularly in request by the continental spinners.
Of the many varieties of European wastes, the following are the best known: French
China, Swiss China, Italian China, French mixed, Piedmont, and Spanish waste. French
China, as its name implies, is the waste produced in the French throwing mills working
China raw silk. Swiss China is the same produced in Switzerland; Italian China the same
produced in Italy. French mixed is grey and yellow waste from the throwing mills, and is
composed of Bengal, Canton, and Japan, as well as Italian and French wastes. It is
somewhat subject to cotton, but is quite a favourite gum waste. Piedmont waste, as the
name implies, is the fine Italian yellow waste made in the throwing mills producing
organzines and trams from Piedmont raw silk. It is one of the most expensive yellow
wastes, yielding very well, and producing a strong, lustrous yarn of a very elastic nature.
Given these brief notes on a few of the many varieties of silk waste, from which it will
have been noted that the colour, the diameter of thread, and the packing are so varied as
delivered to the spinner, and being also a much tangled mass of all lengths of fibre some
bales hard press-packed and other qualities loosely packed it will be understood that
preparatory to boiling or schapping i.e. degumming a certain amount of opening, sorting,
and mixing will be absolutely necessary.

Chapter 16

Role of Women in Sericulture

-Women participation in Mulberry garden and Rearing management silk
reeling Weaving and Finishing.
In India, sericulture related activities ensure the livelihood security of over six million
families spread over in some 59,000 villages across the country. The silk sector is also a
valuable foreign exchange earner for the country. The export earnings stood at Rs. 3,338
crores during 2006-07. In addition, there is an opportunity to double the export earnings
with the free trade atmosphere in Europe and USA. It is estimated that India needs 25,000
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MT of raw silk per year to meet its domestic requirement. The growing demand of silk in
the domestic market can make the industry a valuable enterprise which in turn can
provide employment for the rural masses ensuring assured economic returns at the
individual family level.
Women contribute to a little less than 50 % of the countrys population and most of them
are largely rural based, deriving their livelihood through agriculture and other land based
activities, either as family members or wage earners. As a cottage industry, sericulture
provides ample wok for women in the rural areas particularly in silkworm rearing and
reeling, while men, largely work in the field and in weaving. The involvement of women
in different activities of sericulture is about 53 % and their contribution in the on-farm
activities understandably is lower than that in post-cocoon activities. Sericulture is an
ideal avocation for women.
Employment opportunities for women are also high in sericulture industry. Various
operations in the production of silk beneficially engage women. Sericulture because of its
unique nature of work, proves to be an ideal activity for women who can work in addition
to their regular tasks of taking care of the family. Its operation does not require hard
labour. Almost all the sericulture activities, except such tasks digging, ploughing and
carrying heavy loads, which are strenuous can be carried out by women independently.
Silk worms being delicate have to be handled with proper care. Thus the entire process of
rearing needs expertise, high skill and patience. Women possess these qualities to an
eminent degree and therefore are more suitable than men. It is worked out that about
2,575 women work days comprising about 60 per cent are generated per annum out of a
total of about 4,225 work days all the activities in sericulture per hectare of irrigated
mulberry. Thus sericulture provides scope for the direct involvement of women in the
process of production and decision making for improving their economic conditions and
for giving them greater recognition and status in the family and the society. Under the
National Sericulture Project, the action plan on women envisages group formation,
special training programmes for women, allotment of land in the names of the women,
special credit schemes for women etc. all these programmes are under implementation for
raising the active participation of women in sericulture.
During the year 1998-99 an amount of Rs.500 lakhs has been sanctioned towards the
scheme one time assistance to women group for 5 women groups and training
programme to 833 women.
Women contribute 60% work force in sericulture. Like nurturing family, their
involvement in sericulture is also highly significant and needs a special mention. National
sericulture Project recognized their achievements and the year 1994 was declared as
Year of Women in Sericulture. Central Silk Board, State Sericulture Departments and
various non-governmental agencies made a concerned effort to improve access to
resources, to enhance managerial and entrepreneurial autonomy and to acquire better
technology and skills during the last eight years. Time bound action plans were checked
out and task forces at Central and State level monitored the achievements year to year
which were oriented towards:
-Emphasizing productive role of women in sericulture through creation of better training
facilities, extension mechanisms, women friendly infrastructural facilities and improving
womens acces to credit.

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-Stimulating formation of women with financial support for taking up sericulture related
income generating activities.
Sericulture is one of the rural based agro industries with global reach. While providing
sustainable income and employment opportunities to the rural poor who are the main
practitioners, silk production activity fetches an annual export earnings of more than
US$600 million. Some unique features of the silk sector are its rural nature, agro based,
ecologically and economically sustainable activity for the poor, small and marginal
farmers, agriculture labour and women in particular. Many studies indicated that 60% of
the activities in the pre-cocoon and post-cocoon sectors are carried out by women.
Sericulture is a labour intensive industry in all its phases. It can generate employment
upto 11 persons for every kg of raw silk produced. Out of which more than 6 persons are
women. More than 60.00 lakh persons are employed as full time workers in the
production chain out of which 35-40 lakh persons are women. Ever increasing demand to
meet the domestic handloom industry requirements and equally increasing potential for
exports provide tremendous opportunities for the women to avail sustainable income
generating activities. Though India produces all four varieties of silk, mulberry
sericulture dominates with 89% in total production and 95% in exports. 98% of mulberry
silk production takes place in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamilnadu, West
Bengal and Jammu & Kashmir.
Central Silk Board and the State departments had adequate experience of implementing
the women oriented programmes. The need for a new approach for empowering the
women though their active participation in the various disciplines of the industry is the
need of the hour. In response to the external funding of the United nations agencies, more
and more departments attempt to focus the attention towards women and planning to
place them in the center stage of development. However the gap between the planning
implementation and its impacts continue to exist.
Womens participation is taken as add-on to existing programmes and schemes and also
little attempt was made to provide some more subsidies in favour of women under
various schemes. Many studies revealed that though the schemes are sanctioned in favour
of women, in actual practice, men were in charge of the assets created and benefits
accrued. It is time that we must have a campaign approach for the participation of women
in sericulture industry. In the early 90s and in the new millennium, NGOs and Govt.
departments led various campaigns on womens literacy, health and other social issues.
Such campaigns have led to the formation of a large no. of self help groups /
neighbourhood groups / thrift and credit groups and these groups are available almost in
all the rural villages. Recurring droughts / industrialization / Globalization / liberalization
and bountiful opportunities in the urban towns and cities perhaps attracting men to
migrate in search of better opportunities in the growing service sector. Women are
compelled to stay back in the villages to care of the elderly people and children. Work
burden due to migration of husbands and male member of the families and increased
drudgery due to depletion of natural resources like ground water and biomass have an
adverse effect on womens health.
Sericulture activities provide a perfect choice for the women because of the very nature
of the activities that can take place close to the habitations. However the contribution of
women in the sector is invisible due to various constraints and they can be summarized as
follows.
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Lack of women oriented approaches in research, planning, implementation and

evaluation of schemes
Lack of congenial marketing services in the farm and non-farm sectors
Inadequacy of women extension workers
Methodologies, time duration, location of training programmes put constraints on
womens participation.
Lack of consistency in the projects implementation
Lack of access to infrastructure like land, water, electricity, machinery, credit for working
capital,
Attitude of people working in the financial institutions pose limitations
In order to overcome the limitations for womens participation, CSB constituted a study
to empower women in sericulture. Initially an amount of Rs.10.00 crores for set a part for
exclusive womens projects. The subcommittee studied the role of women in various
activities of the sector and identified several implementation gaps. The committee has
also recommended a 3- pronged strategy for improving the situation.
I. General guidelines
1. Include creation of women development cells in CSB and DOS offices.
2. Increased subsidies in the XI plan schemes
3. Research focus of women friendly technologies
4. GIS and MIS formats to assess the impact and concurrently evaluate the schemes.
5. Convergence approach with Forest / Rural development / Women and child welfare /
Industries / Tribal welfare /Marketing / Finance / Insurance sectors / Energy departments
to bring in coordinated approach and action plans to maximize the benefits in favour of
women.
II. Exclusive women oriented programmes / Schemes
Establishment of kisan nurseries in Government assigned lands by SHGS
Establish women TSCs and Sericulture technology parks and CRCs.
Solar power supply to women managed reeling units.
Health insurance to workers Promotion of bio-fertilizers and bio-pesticides and nonchlorine disinfectants.
Training cum study visits to women and facilities for husbands to participates
Design market infrastructure to favour womens participation.
Create Women development fund and provide interest subsidies on credit.
2008-09 to be declared as the year of Women in sericulture
III. Integrated approaches for taking up exclusive projects for women
Plan for long term projects that are consistent
Externally aided projects integrating water Shed development / Agriculture department
(ATMA) / Joint forest management / Waste land development / Tribal development / Biotechnology / Science & technology / Vanya silks projects etc.,
Public private participation in the post-cocoon sector and contract farming with NGOs
and corporates participation.
Promote direct linkages between rearer / reeler / twister / weaver by modifying the
stringent regulations and
Liberalization of labour laws.
Silk is considered as a luxury item along with gems and jewellery. It would therefore
enjoy this support and patronage from the upper strata and growing middle class of the
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India society. Silk sari is an important bridal wear and hand woven silk are extremely
popular in the west and there is no threat of quota like other fabrics. The light weight silk
is gaining popularity amongst urban working women in India and in the fashion
conscious western society. India holds monopoly in the production of yarn dyed silk
fabrics. Campaign approach for promotion of Indian silk amongst Indians and
International communities with slogan that Sericulture and Silk for the women by the
women is the need of the hour. Micro credit campaign for the women self groups is
equally gaining popularity and India has an advantage of having a large platform of well
organized women self help groups / networks / associations who are always ready to
receive new ideas and work with commitment to help themselves and thereby helping the
society for the larger development of the nation. The CSB and DOS should utilize the
women SHGs as a launch pad for promoting womens participation in the sericulture
sector.

Chapter 17

Findings and Conclusion

At the very first look it appears quite embarrassing for a nature lover to adopt the silk
because it is obtained through killing of so many silk worms. To remedy the same,
nowadays has come a new concept of obtaining the silk from the silk worm after it
completes its hatching. So no killing of worms involved making it easily acceptable to
the nature lovers. This silk obtained by this new method is often termed as ahimsa silk.
Ahimsa silk is made without cruelty and has had a positive effect on both the
environment and the livelihood of many families in rural India. Over the past 3 years
10,000 sustainable livelihoods have been created, over twenty thousand acres of natural
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forests have been rejuvenated and maintained and over three thousand acres of plantation
have been raised due to the production of Ahimsa Silk.
We have to kill 15 silk worms for obtaining 1 g of silk. To get 1 kg of silk we need to kill
15,000 silk worms. About 50,000 silk worms must be killed to make a silk sari. Ahimsa
silk is extracted after the silkworm has completed metamorphosis and emerged from the
cocoon. Only then does the manufacture of peace silk begin.
ADVANGATES OF AHIMSA SILK
Ahimsa silk has the popular properties of regular silk.
Even though it is slightly less lustrous, it is even softer to the touch.
Ahimsa silk does not wrinkle and is more comfortable to wear than the conventional
one as it has more air permeability.
However, as people become more environmentally aware and compassionate to animals,
ahimsa will be demanded more frequently.
Ahimsa Silk: Silk Saree without killing a single silkworm: We have seen many protests
worldwide against the use of leather products. However, surprisingly, there hasnt been
much resistance against the use of silk garments, especially considering the fact that
thousands of silkworms are killed in order to make a small piece of fabric. Kusuma
Rajaiah, of Hyderabad, has come up with an initiative to produce silk without the killing
of silk worms.
Making a Difference - Ahimsa Silk
In this article at Outlook India, Mythily Ramachandran writes about Kusuma, who started
this ahimsa way of producing silk when he was approached by Janaki Venkataraman,
wife of former President R. Venkatraman. Mrs. Venkatraman asked Kusuma if he had any
saree which had not resulted in the killing of any silkworms. This led Kusuma to
investigate whether silk could be produced without deliberate killing of the worms.
How did he achieve this?:
Silk comes from the cocoons of the silk worm (bombyx mori). In the silk industry,
cocoons are killed by steaming or dropping them into boiling water when they are ten
days old, before they metamorphose into a moth.
The silk is believed to be the finest at this stage. This is preferred because when the
cocoons open naturally at one end, to release the moth, the continuity of the fibre is lost.
But maybe not, thought Kusuma.
He purchases cocoons from mulberry farms in Chittoor district. The yellow coloured
cocoons are reared in large cane baskets at his residence in Hyderabad. The moths
emerge after 8-10 days, piercing the cocoon at one end. The adult moths have a short
life span of four days. During this time they mate and die naturally, Kusuma explains.
The pierced cocoons are spun into yarn. This is then woven into fabrics. Weavers of
Nalgonda and Ananthpur district of Andhra Pradesh produce dhotis while fabrics,
including saris, are woven by the weavers of Karimnagar district. All my products are
done on handlooms and benefits several weaver families, says Kusuma. Inspired by
Mahatma Gandhi, he calls this silk ahimsa. While ahimsa silk may lack the shine of
regular silk, it is comfortable to wear. Its also wrinkle-free and has a better fall.
Silkworms made to spin coloured silk by feeding them mixtures containing dyes,
researchers have helped silkworms spin fluorescent, coloured silk.

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SILK WORMS THAT PRODUCE vibrantly coloured and luminescent silks have been
created by scientists in Singapore. The resulting fibre offers a cheap way to circumvent
the dying process and may even have medical applications.
"The new, more environmentally friendly method allows us to integrate colours into the
very fabric of silk and does away with the need for manual dyeing," says Dr Natalia
Tansil, lead researcher behind the technology at the Institute of Materials Research and
Engineering (IMRE) in Singapore.
By feeding silkworms a mulberry mixture containing fluorescent dye, Natalia's team was
able to harvest brightly coloured silk that is structurally unaffected, but which also has
luminescent, or glowing, properties. The dye molecules are ingrained within the silk
filaments to create permanent colour.
Green alternative
The process "provides a green alternative method of dyeing silk for the silk industry by
reducing the vast amounts of water and dyes used in the labour-intensive conventional
dyeing process," says Eugene Low Ooi Meng, IMRE spokesperson.
Dye is added into the silkworm diet for the last four days of the larva stage creating a
coloured animal and coloured silk (Credit: IMRE).
The technology is simple and cheap enough to be translated to an industrial scale, he
says. "The only difference between the proposed process and the current [cultivating]
practice is the addition of the dye into the silkworm diet for the last four days of the larva
stage. The resulting coloured cocoon can then be harvested and processed using normal
processes."
They researchers are currently working with potential industry partners to scale up the
process and bring a product to market within a few years. "For commercialisation, we
aim to create a full range of colour and improve reproducibility and consistency of colour
intensity," Eugene told Australian Geographic.
The findings, detailed in the journal Material Views, show for the first time that the
uptake of both colour and luminescence is possible in live silk worms via food.
Simple and innovative
"This is a simple and innovative method to generate coloured silk," comments Dr Tara
Sutherland, an expert on biomaterials with the CSIRO in Canberra. "The result also has
implications that extend beyond introduction of colour into the silk it raises the
possibility of introduction of other compounds into the material through the diet [of
silkworms]," she says.
Natalia's research team envisage creating silk with antibacterial, anticoagulent and antiinflammatory properties that could be used in wound dressing or even as biomedical
frameworks for repairing damaged tissues. Silk wound dressings could also be created
that have compounds with monitoring or sensing capabilities.
"We were inspired by the beauty and utility of silk. It is soft and lustrous but incredibly
strong at the same time. Silk has also been used for sutures for thousands of years," says
Eugene. "The utility of silk is greatly enhanced by adding other substances such as dyes
onto the core silk filament. So we set out to find a simple yet effective way to incorporate
functional materials into silk, not only dyes but also drugs and antibiotics."
Present status of silkworm germplasm at global level
Though accurate data are not available on the silkworm germplasm in different countries
of the world, an approximate information indicate that there are 4310 silkworm
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germplasm accessions available in different countries (Table 1). There is every likelihood
that some of these silkworm accessions are duplicated; for instance the silkworm
germplasm from China, Japan, France, Russia and India might be represented in the
germplasm collection of other countries since these are the principal source of sericultural
germplasm and also several countries might have exchanged some silkworm germplasm
for silkworm breeding and hence a proper documentation on the availability of silkworm
germplasm in different countries is very much required.
A very recent compilation of silkworm genetic stocks indicate that there are around 3000
genotypes of Bombyx mori at the global level, which includes mutants, parthenoclones,
polyploids and geographical races (Nagaraju et. al 2001). In fact much of the genetic
diversity of Bombyx mori is derived from the inbred lines of land races and elite stocks
evolved by the silkworm breeders and also from hybridisation of different geographical
races; mainly the Japanese, Chinese, European and tropical races, which are distinct for
several economic characters. The geographical races also possess several heritable
characters for a variety of morphological, biochemical and quantitative characters.
Among the four geographical races, the bivoltine and univoltine races of temperate origin
and multivoltine races of tropical origin differ widely and exhibit contrasting characters.
The bivoltine and univoltine races produce high quantity of good quality silk, whereas the
multivoltine races are hardy, tolerant to pathogen load and thereby resistant to diseases
compared to the bivoltines but produce low amount of poor quality silk. Thus, these
geographical races are very valuable genetic stocks for further improvement of silkworm
races and evolution of superior breeds of B. mori.
Apart from a rich biodiversity of geographical races, there are also a large number of
mutants. The silkworm genetic stocks include more than 500 mutants for a variety of
characters viz., serosal colours; larval and adult integument colours; skin markings and
body shapes; cocoon colours and shapes; physiological traits such as diapause, number of
larval moults and timing of larval maturity; food habits and biochemical features such as
digestive amylase, blood and egg esterases, larval integument esterase, alkaline and acid
phosphatases; haemolymph proteins; silk production and fibroin secretion;
homeoproteins and body plan determination etc. and the various mutants, gene locus and
phenotype were documented recently (Nagaraju et. al, 2001).
Apart from the geographical races and mutants there is a large genetic stock of B.mori
evolved by the breeders mostly utilising the geographical races and mutants of larval,
pupal and cocoon colour variants of sex limited races, particularly in Peoples Republic of
China, Japan, India and erstwhile United Soviet Socialist Russia (USSR) and some of
these breeds are commercially exploited in these countries for silkworm rearing to
produce raw silk and the remaining breeds are maintained in the silkworm germplasm of
these countries as breeders genetic stocks and they are utilised as the genetic material in
the silkworm breeding programmes for evolution of more superior and elite races.
Thus, the geographical races, mutants and the elite breeders stock constitute the major
portion of the present day silkworm germplasm at the global level apart from the
parthenoclones, triploid, polyploids and wild relatives of Bombyx andBombycidae (Fig1).
Historical review of silkworm germplasm in India
The domesticated silkworm species, Bombyx mori L. evolved almost 4600 years ago
from the wild species, Bombyx mandarina Moore, which is a native of China and
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Palaearctic region (Hampson, 1892; Hirobe, 1968). The eggs of silkworm,B. mori were
first introduced from China into Japan and Korea in the first century and subsequently
into Middle Eastern and European countries and later into the neighbouring countries
around China in the sixth century. The historical background of silkworm entry into India
is still a mystery; and the historical evidence indicates that a flourishing silk trade was
practising between India and Rome/Greece during Kaniska period (56 B C).
This is the authentic historical record of silk production and trade in India, which
indicates the early history of Indian sericulture. The rich tradition of silk and silk use are
evident from ancient sacred literature like the Rigveda, the Ramayana, and the
Mahabharatha, which are more than 2000 years old, but the information about indigenous
silkworm races and their stock maintenance are not well documented. Silkworm rearing
was prevalent in Kashmir and North Eastern states during sixteenth century, the Moghul
period where the univoltine and multivoltine silkworms were respectively reared and the
Tippu Sultan introduced silkworm rearing in south India in 1875. During eighteenth
century, the British rule in India, quite a few univoltine and bivoltine races were imported
from Italy, France, Russia and China, and the races were bred and maintained by the
farmers (Krishna Rao, 1997); and there was no systematic maintenance of the silkworm
germplasm and hence only few races survived under Indian climatic condition.
At present only few old indigenous races are surviving viz. Barapolu, Chotapolu, Nistari,
Sarupat, and Moria, whereas the indigenous univoltine Kashmiri races are almost extinct.
Systematic silkworm stock maintenance and breeding started in the early nineteenth
century. Prior to 1922, only pure races were reared and hybrid silkworms were introduced
later, Pure Mysore C. Nichi was probably the first hybrid in Karnataka and exploitation
of hybrids in West Bengal and Kashmir came much later during 1956 and 1959
respectively (Thangavelu, 1997). Silkworm genetic stock maintenance started during
1940 in an organised way at Sericultural Research Station, Berhampore in West Bengal
and subsequently temperate silkworm germplasm stocks were established at Univoltine
Silkworm Seed Station, Pampore in Kashmir and multivoltine and bivoltine silkworm
stocks were established at Central Sericultural Research Institute, Mysore in Karnataka
and Coonoor in Tamil Nadu.
Importance of conservation of silkworm genetic resources
During the recent years, biodiversity conservation programmes have drawn the attention
of many countries including developing nations, because of the genetic erosion due to
indiscriminate use of bio resources and damage to the environment, destruction of forest,
human interference in eco-system, upsetting the equilibrium of the biosphere. The
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) organised by United Nations Conference on
Environment and Development (UNCED) at Rio de Jeneiro Earth Summit in 1992 made
an awakening call to draw the global attention for conservation of biodiversity. Since then
the biodiversity conservation and gene bank maintenance have gained greater momentum
since the germplasm resources are considered as "Common Heritage of Mankind" and
"Sovereign Right of Nations". The issues related to access the genetic resources and its
sustainable use, benefit sharing, farmers rights are being deliberated at various national
and international fora.
Realising the importance of biodiversity conservation for sustainable development of
agriculture, the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR)
established the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) in 1974 at
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Rome with a global network of genetic resources centres, mainly for conservation of
natural genetic resources including the wild species to promote crop improvement
programmes and increase the food production. The role of wild relatives and wild species
in agricultural crop improvement are well known (Rana, 1995). Similarly, there is an
urgent need for seribiodiversity conservation, particularly the wild relatives of Bombyx
and Bombycidae.
Improvement in silkworm race heavily depended on the geographical races of B. mori
and the wild relatives of Bombyx were not explored, unlike in agriculture. Whereas in
agricultural, horticultural and sericultural crop improvement programme the wild species
of several crop plants have contributed very valuable genes for resistance to diseases and
pests and tolerance to adverse agroclimatic conditions (Jackson and Ford-Lloyd, 1990)
and similar exploitation of genes from wild relatives ofB.mori have not been reported.
The genus Bombyx Hubner (1818) has two species, Bombyx mori L. and Bombyx
mandarina Moore. Apart from the genusBombyx there are eleven other genera in the
family Bombycidae Hubner; 1) Genus - Theophila Moore (1867), 2) Genus -Ocinara
(Walker 1856), 3) Genus - Mustilia (Walker 1865), 4) Genus - Gunda (Walker 1862), 5)
Genus Penicillifera (Walker) 6) Genus - Ernolatia (Moore) 7) Genus - Norasuma Moore
8) Genus - Trilocha Dieri, 9) Genus - Prismosticta (Swinhoe), 10) Genus - Andraca
(Walker), and 11) Genus - Ectrocta (Hampson). Among these genera, Theophila and
Ocinara are very close to the genus Bombyx. The wild sericigenous species of Bombyx,
Theophila and Ocinara are naturally distributed in the Himalayan ranges of Indo-China
range and also in Andaman Islands in India, besides, Jawa, Sumatra, Borneo and Malaya
Peninsular (Barlow, 1982). The wild species of these genera have not been explored for
transferring the useful genes to confer resistance to diseases and tolerance to adverse
agro-climatic conditions into the domesticated species, B.mori. The useful genes from the
wild relatives of B. mori may be cloned and these cloned genes may be transferred into
the germ cells of the silkworm to develop transgeneic silkworm. Hence, there is an urgent
need to collect and conserve the wild species ofBombyx, Theophila and Ocinera and
study their genetics for possible use in the breeding programme of B.mori and widen the
genetic base as well.
Indian gene centre is harbouring great faunal diversity and nearly 11.9% of the world
flora are present in India and hence recognised as one among the twelve mega
biodiversity rich centres of the world. Floristically India is very rich, harbouring three
mega centres of endemnism i.e. Western and Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats. It is
a treasure house of several diverse sericigenous flora and fauna. Wild species of Bombyx
and other genera of Bombycidae do exist in the great Himalayan ranges and Andaman
islands, under natural habitat and therefore the Indian gene centre possesses a rich serigenetic resources.
Eggs and cocoons of a wild silkworm belonging to Bombycidae were collected from wild
mulberry tree Morus serrata near Kedarnath (30.47 N, 79.02 E) at an altitude of 800
meter above MSL (Tikader 2001). The eggs were incubated and rearing was conducted
on the mulberry plants at Central Sericultural Germplasm Resources Centre (CSGRC),
Hosur and the produced cocoons and eggs are very similar to B. mori (Fig-2). It is a
potential and interesting genetic material with several unique characters, utilising such
wild relatives of Bombyx, it is quite possible to create additional seribiodiversity and
widen the genetic base of B. mori.
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Biodiversity is the result of evolution that is a continuous phenomenon induced by

natural selection pressure and the population of organisms evolve through adaptation to
the biotic and abiotic stress. Ever since B.mori was domesticated, the species does not
survive in the wild state in natural condition and also does not survive without human
care and hence natural selection induced genetic diversity in B.mori is rather very limited
to voltinism. Hence, it is very essential to conserve and utilise the wild relatives of
Bombyx mori to broaden its genetic diversity, apart from the geographical races, mutants,
sex-limited races, evolved breeds and breeders genetic stocks. The wild relatives of
Bombyx are very vulnerable and the vulnerability at different spatial and temporal scales
are not known. The design of biodiversity network in sericulture involving the
complementarity of wild relatives and domesticated B. mori is also not well established.
Therefore, conservation of wild as well as domesticated seribiodiversity resources is very
essential for sustainable development of sericulture (Fig-3) since loss of genetic resources
of domesticated and wild relatives of Bombyx species along with their unique genes may
disadvantage future generation.
Future Prospects
The Indian sericulture industry, is currently facing several problems which have restricted
full utilization of its potential. Some of the major problems are given below.
Produce good quality bivoltine silk: Indian silk yarn is of poor quality, which not only
affects our competitiveness in the world market, but has also resulted in a preference for
imported yarn in the domestic market. Though the Indian breeds have the potential to
produce the good quality of bivoltine silk, the problem arises due to lack of:
sufficient thrust on the adoption of improved technologies;
strict disease control measures;
quality leaf due to insufficient inputs to mulberry garden;
appropriate mountages;
grading system for cocoons;
quality-based pricing system as well as use of young age silkworms.
Seize Fall in production: It can be done by initiating area-specific research to improve
fertility of the soils. This will ultimately enhance soil productivity, increase mulberry and
non-mulberry host plant leaf and silkworm cocoon production as well as arrest decline in
area under silk food plants.
Enhance the production of bivoltine silk: Bivoltine yarn is sturdier and is used by the
power loom industry. But only 5% of the silk produced in India is bivoltine because its
production requires much more attention and resources. It also yields just two crops in a
year, as against the yield of four to six crops by multi-voltine silk. Even the farmers do
not have any incentive to switch to bivoltine silk yarn production because the difference
between the selling price of bivoltine and multivoltine silk is not much.
The other factors responsible for it are:
insufficient adoption and proliferation of technology packages developed through R&D
efforts;
no effort to increase the area under mulberry;
fragmented and ad hoc approach;
non-involvement of private partners in a big way in seed production; farming and reeling;
non-penetration of the schemes;
improper forward and backward linkages; and
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dumping of cheap Chinese raw silk and fabric .

It is necessary to encourage farmers to move from production of multivoltine silk to
bivoltine silk through proper incentives. At the same time it must be ensured that
adequate amount of multivoltine is available for the handloom sector to continue
production.
Balance the aspirations of farmers and weavers: The sericulturists want imports of raw
silk to be restricted and the anti-dumping duty on yarn to remain in place. Exporters and
weavers, on the other hand, want the anti- dumping duty to be withdrawn so that they get
an assured supply of yarn and are able to export more silk products at competitive rates.
Also, there has been a decline in the cultivated area and the raw silk production during
200204 due to drought and dumping of Chinese silk at cheap prices.
Increase Non-mulberry silk production: Its production in the country continues to be
unsteady and fluctuates from year to year. With its uniqueness, non-mulberry silk
production in India has a great potential for value added exports.
Need for quality based pricing: Reeling sector is an input-dependent activity and its
operations are influenced heavily by three factors, namely, cocoon quality, cocoon price,
and cocoon supply. But due to absence of quality-based price fixation, there has been
very little quality control.
Given the fact that, the scope for enhancing the production of silk in the country by
expanding the cultivable area is limited. Hence, vertical expansion through productivity
increase by using advanced technology and skilled man-power is the only option. In fact,
emergence of new sericulture technology has not only reduced the production risks
(drudgery) but has also increased the potential cocoon yield/unit area, relative to the
traditional technology.
Multipurpose use of sericulture
Apart from silk, there are several other bye-products from sericulture. The mulberry fruits
are rich in minerals and vitamins and from the roots, barks and mulberry leaves several
ayurvedic and herbal medicines are prepared. Some of the woody mulberry trees provide
timber which are resistant to termites and the timber is used for making sports items, toys
etc. The mulberry branches after silkworm feeding are generally dried and used as fuel
particularly in the villages. The foliage of mulberry is used as a fodder for cattle. The
mulberry trees are also planted in the embarkment area for protection of the soil to
prevent soil erosion, and mulberry trees are planted as avenue trees. The silkworm pupae
are rich in oil content and pupal oil is used in cosmetic industry and the remaining pupal
cake is a rich source of protein suitable for poultry and fisheries. In some tribal
population, the people eat eri pupa as a source of protein and nourishment. The silkworm
litter is used for bio-gas production and used as a fuel for cooking in the rural area. Thus
sericulture not only provides silk for fashionable clothings, it also provides several very
useful bye products to the human society. Therefore, sericulture development provides
opportunities to improve the living standards of people in the rural area in developing
countries.

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