Adaptive Food and Nutritional security in the Context of Climate Change: Tribal and

Small Farmers in Rainfed Uplands Show the way?1

Pranab Ranjan Choudhury2

1. Vulnerability of Tribal and Small Farmers in the context of Food and Nutritional
Security

1.1Growing Marginalization of Small Farmers

The Indian subcontinent boasts nearly half the world's hungry people. Half of all children
under five years of age in South Asia are malnourished, which is more than even sub-Saharan
Africa3. The rural economy in S Asia is predominantly land based, absorbing nearly 70% of
the total population. However, tough growing conditions for crops, continuous fragmentation
of holdings in these areas make them extremely vulnerable to climatic fluctuations and low
yield. In the so-called “poverty square” of South Asia, more than half of the farmland consists
of marginal and small farms less than one hectare in size. Moreover, because of rapid
population growth, the average farm size in this region has decreased by half every 15 years

since 19604. In India approximately 92 million households or 490 million people are
dependent on marginal or small farm holdings as per the 2001 census. This translates into 60
per cent of rural population or 42 per cent of total population. The effects of climate change in
the form of increased frequency and intensity of drought and flood in the region threatens to
affect most these poor farmers, according to the United Nation's report 'The State of World
Population, 2009'5.

1.2 Tribal face of vulnerability

Majority of the tribal population in India resides in rainfed uplands and undulated terrains in
North East India and the vast forested upland tracts of Central India. The central Indian tribal
homeland, located between 18 and 25 degrees north of the equator across the Indian
subcontinent, operationally cover nearly 100 districts in eight states of the country stretching
from Banswara (Rajasthan) in the west to Purulia (West Bengal) in the east. These districts

1
Paper prepared for circulation/presentation at Eastern Region Climate Change & Sustainable
Agriculture Consultation on January 22 & 23, 2010 at Gram Vikas, Mohuda, Orissa
2
Development Consultant & Researcher, Bhubaneswar (oridev@gmail.com )
3
http://library.thinkquest.org/C002291/high/present/stats.htm
4
http://www.globalwaterpolicy.org/pubs/WI_drip.pdf
5
http://www.zeenews.com/news580419.html
together account for about 55 million tribal people (roughly 70 per cent of India’s tribal

population) spread over 68 million hectares of geographic area (Phansalkar & Verma, 2004)6
Tribal communities form about 7% of Indian population, however their share is very high
among the vulnerable groups like poor, hungry and small and marginal farmers. An FAO
study7 indicates a declining role of agriculture in household food security which lasts for 2 to
6 months of the year for the majority of tribal farming households. As per the study an
average household in upland systems is only able to meet 20 to 40% of their food
requirements; those in the middle system 30 to 40% and those in lowland systems between 50
to 70% of their needs. In the past, most tribals were able to cover most of the shortfall with
foods gathered from the forests. Forest degradation and curtailed forest access has reduced the
availability of natural foods on which they depended compelling these communities,
especially those in the upland and mixed systems, to depend more and more on purchased
foods to meet their minimum survival needs. Sharp rise in international cereal prices of late
(2007-08) had also a profound impact on the food security and increased vulnerabilities of the
poor in S Asian countries8. For example, 99% of tribal households in Rajasthan and
Jharkhand in India face chronic hunger. One survey among 500 Adivasi households in
Rajasthan, said that none had access to two square meals through the year. Children are the
most vulnerable of all. 50% children are malnourished or undernourished, according to the

National Family Health Survey9. Impoverished villagers now choose between migrating for
wage work and/or resorting to unsustainable harvesting of firewood for survival income. In
India, the numbers of small and marginal farmers are now going down, while those of migrant
labourers are increasing, because of this trend. Most of these farmers are also getting caught
in a debt trap because of the precariousness of their food security situation. In extreme cases,
these traps are also leading to farmer suicides.

1.3Vulnerability Trends
The vulnerability of tribal and small and marginal farmers with respect to local food and
nutritional security is also the cause/result of other problems like erosion of traditional
knowledge and agro-biodiversity; growing dependence on external food and seeds;
increasing threats to their cultural identity; non-recognition of local food basket in meeting
nutritional security; land alienation; growing migration and farmer-suicides and above all the
lack of research into adaptation and mitigation potential of traditional small and marginal

6
Phansalkar, S J and Verma S (2004). Improving Water Control as a Strategy for Enhancing Tribal
Livelihoods. Economic and Political Weekly. July 31, 2004
7
http://www.fao.org/docrep/007/ae393e/ae393e00.htm
8
http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/06/090625113857.htm
9
http://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-8104.html
farmers farming practices. Constricted access to agriculture extension and public food

distribution networks10 due to physical and political remoteness has also affected the choices,
production in local agriculture and hence influenced the vulnerabilities.

1.3.1 Changes in Food Production System

The food production in tribal and small farms has undergone tremendous changes over last
years with respect to crops, varieties, cropping patterns and crop management. However, most
of these changes seem to be responsible for their increased vulnerability and food insecurity.
Most of these changes have occurred without taking into cognizance the potentials of
traditional farming systems, which had evolved over years of interaction with local resources
limitations, in terms of their adaptation and cultural linkages. The new technologies which
have crept into these rainfed small farms have also not been designed primarily for small
holder situations and are ill prepared to withstand increasing intensities of disaster. As a
result, while the production and productivity is going down along with constantly eroding
traditional knowledge base, the vulnerability of the tribal and small farmers are increasing
with increased dependence on external inputs and foods, whose cost are going up spirally.
1.3.2 Dependence on Purchase

Nutritional intake is also reducing with decreasing purchasing ability, changing cropping
pattern and decreasing production and nutrition in crops. The prices of staple foods have
seen increases ranging from 30 per cent to 150 per cent in 2007 and 2008 in India.
Studies have shown that high food prices and natural disasters have significantly increased the

incidence of poverty since 200711. With Green Revolution Technology, the costs of
cultivation and risks of crop failure are so high that often the small farmers cannot recover
even the money spent. Between 1990-91 and 1995-96 in India, chemical fertilizer costs
increased by 113%, and pesticides by 90%, whereas the wholesale price of wheat went up

only by 58%12.

1.3.3 Dominant Food and Seed Distribution System

Food security in these remote and vulnerable regions with dominant indigenous communities
is more about assured local access, compatible cultural preferences and balanced nutrition.
Food security is also about long term environmental sustainability, wider biodiversity and
establishing healthy and enriching food options. With traditional systems of food and seed
storage, handling and distribution also getting replaced with externally imposed system, small

10
Public Distribution System (PDS) in India and Public Food Distribution System (PFSD) in Nepal & Bangladesh
11
http://www.lcgbangladesh.org/Agriculture/presentations/FAO_Project%20Proposal%20to%20EC_22%20Jan
%2009.pdf
12
http://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-8104.html
farmers’ access to local food, which are usually better suited to local conditions, are nutritious
and culturally relevant, is also heavily compromised. The nature and spread of regional public
distribution system, quite often has not been able to meet these conditions. This has also
affected social capital of agriculture, which was built on collective cooperation, sharing and
strength. Food security is also critically dependent of seed security. In this aspect, traditional
practices and institutions around food and seed storage and distribution offer lot of promise.
There are reported informal or traditional seed handling practices like on-farm variety
development, participatory plant breeding/pure lining, seed processing and storage, quality

control, seed marketing and distribution which are critical in ensuring food security13.

1.3.4 Cultural marginalization

One of the reasons for continuing food insecurity situation is over emphasis on production
(availability) as compared to access and consumption aspects of food security. State policies
on food production are usually focussed only on one or two main food commodities – such as
rice, in the case of Asia14. In terms of accessibility apart from physical, economic and social
accessibility, cultural accessibility is very important and factors like food preferences, food
habits, beliefs and religions often determine the nature and extent of food security. Culture is
also considered as fourth pillar of sustainable development, additional to the social, economic
and environmental pillars. Traditional cultural practices and food systems are positively
related and mutually supportive and both are fundamental for food security and well being.
However, development interventions, as well as global trends of expansion of industrialized
agriculture, monocultures, and the market economy have negative and, in some cases,
devastating impacts on the traditional food systems, subsistence-based economies and agro-
ecological systems upon which Indigenous People depend for survival15. The rainfed uplands
with dominant indigenous/traditional communities have embedded cultural preferences and
practices related to food consumption, production and distribution. The agricultural research
and extension systems of the region have not been able to appreciate and accommodate these
cultural elements. This has lead to local cultural practices and preferences getting either
marginalized or threatened. In both the cases, the local food and nutritional security and
climate change adaptation have been substantially compromised and cultural existence of
traditional/indigenous communities threatened.

13
Seed policy and programmes for Asia and the Pacific: proceedings of the Regional Technical Meeting
on Seed Policy and Programmes for Asia and the Pacific ; Bangkok, Thailand, 2-6 May 1999, Issue 160
14
http://www.worldfoodscience.org/cms/?pid=1004751
15
http://www.fao.org/sard/en/init/964/2687/2453/index.html
1.3.5 Food miles
In US, most of the food items now travel an average of 1,500 "food miles" to reach dinner

tables16. Food miles contribute to climate change and consumption of locally produced food
and are critical steps towards climate change mitigation. Food security is enhanced when
local food preferences are taken as starting point for agricultural intervention. Before they can
do much, development specialists need to understand how, why, and what local farmers
produce. Crop varieties and food preferences often vary from community to community, even
within a small area17. Increasing food security at the household and village level is very
important as with greater degree of food security at the household and village level, fewer
food aids needs to be responded to at the national and international levels.

1.3.6 Climate Change Context

The South Asian region is highly sensitive to the consequences of climate change18 and is
known to be the most disaster prone region in the world. Purdue University’s Climate Change
Research Centre has shown that global warming could delay the start of the summer monsoon
by five to 15 days within the next century and significantly reduce rainfall in much of South

Asia. The fourth assessment report19 of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change lists
the consequences of climate change for the South Asian region. Crop yields could decrease by
up to 30% in South Asia by the mid-21st century. As three-fifth of the cropped area is rain
fed, the economy of South Asia hinges critically on the annual success of the monsoons. In
the event of a failure, the worst affected are the landless and the poor whose sole source of
income is from agriculture and allied activities. The HDR, 2006, has pointed out that in South
Asia alone 2.5 billion people will be affected by water stress and scarcity by the year 2050. A
rise in temperature will negatively impact rice and wheat yields in the tropical parts of South
Asia where these crops are already being grown close to their temperature tolerance
threshold. While the direct consequences of climate change are associated with rise in
temperatures, the indirect impact will be felt in terms of water availability, changing status of
soil moisture, and pest and disease incidence. The worst hit by these changes are likely to be
the rainfed small and marginal farmers’ especially tribal farmers whose financial and

16
http://www.farmandfood.org/about.html
17
http://www.ksagland.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=2354:food-security-is-
ultimately-defined-at-the-household-level&catid=44:daryll-ray&Itemid=55
18
http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2007-2008/papers/kelkar_ulka%20and
%20bhadwal_suruchi.pdf
19
http://www.ipcc.ch
technical capacity to adapt to climate variability and change is low. In the region’s hilly parts,
holdings are also fragmented, preventing farmers from reaping economies of scale.

2. Negligence by mainstream research, extension and food (distribution) systems

Lack of facilitative policy, research and extension support has accelerated marginalization of
tribal and small and marginal farmers in rainfed uplands and has made them more vulnerable
to climatic variability and economic pressures.

2.1 Research Marginalization

One of the major reasons behind growing food insecurity and livelihoods vulnerabilities of
the tribal and small and marginal farmers in the region is the lack of initiatives by National
Agriculture Research Systems in patronizing and promoting of rainfed-small and marginal
farmers-sensitive agriculture. Focus of NARS to ensure faster national food security through
breeding and irrigation-based high input technologies around few selected food crops like
paddy, wheat and maize have resulted in increased and intensifying patronage of green-
revolution areas and farmers. This has also lead to lesser focus and negligence of rainfed
areas and small farmers. An analysis of establishments and outcomes of agriculture research
in the region reveals lack of public-research and extension support to these rainfed small
farms in the areas of their crops (viz. millets, tubers, vegetables etc.), agro biodiversity (viz.
indigenous varieties and landraces of paddy) and cropping practices, though there has been
some limited initiatives in the areas of natural resources management esp. soil and moisture
conservation, agroforestry integrated pest management etc. The brown revolution (increasing
productivity of dryland areas in India) has mostly been limited to area-based watershed
technologies and dry land agriculture technologies like crop-diversification/intensification,
and integrated natural resources management (viz. IWRM, INM, IPM etc.). Small and
marginal farmers owning rainfed uplands with scattered plots of smaller sizes with low
fertility, poor soil depth and undulating gradients have not been benefitted much from either.
Absence of targeted approach can be realized from the fact that only one out of 97 Institutes

of Indian Council of Agriculture Research (ICAR) addresses millets20, major food crops of
rainfed small and marginal farmers. PDS (Public Distribution System) in India distributes
only cereals like rice and wheat and are less sensitive to local foods (viz. millets, tubers etc.)
which not only are more nutritious, but also are better adapted to harsh growing conditions.

20
Directorate of Sorghum Research, Hyderabad; there is no institute on finger, pearl or minor millets
2.2 Limited Targeting through Schemes/Programs

Centrally sponsored programs like NFSM, NREGA etc. and NABARD’s WADI21 to some
extent help these farmers in addressing their food and livelihoods security and in adapting to
climate change situations. Different CSO like MSSRF, Millet Network, DDS, ADS & MAB
in India are promoting approaches like Participatory Plant Breeding, agro-biodiversity
conservation; Low External Input Sustainable Agriculture (LEISA), permaculture etc. with
these farmers in this direction. However, most of these approaches promote specific practices
or components of small farming systems, and usually consist of externally designed
interventions with often specific objectives. There has been lack of targeted efforts to support
small and marginal farmer specific/sensitive food production and distribution system in the
context of climate change.

2.3 Limited influences of Tribal and Small farmers

Limited voice and gradual marginalization of small farms have also not been able to influence
the decision makers, researchers and extension agents about the need of carrying out small
farm sensitive research and developing relevant agriculture technologies, which have largely,
remain the domain of alternate agriculture discourse. There is urgent need for a planned and
vigorous promotion of low-cost, low-risk, high nutrition, holistic and collectivized sustainable
farming systems to reinvigorate small farm agriculture, and to stem the rising tide of farmers’
indebtedness, distress and suicides.

3. Adaptive elements in Tribal and Small Farmers’ Food Production System (FPS)

Farmers in the rainfed tracts and in tougher agro-ecosystems (viz. mountainous, upland, semi-
arid etc) have evolved their choice of crops and varieties as well as spatial and temporal crop-
mix in response to vagaries of monsoonal rain and other physical limitations. In response to
climatic and physical risks, they had also oriented their dietary intake and diversity along with
a collectivized system of food and seed storage and distribution to ensure food and nutritional
security.

There are documented and reported evidences of adaptive elements to climate change like
diversification, low external input/energy use, weather forecasting/adjusting, traditional
natural resources management (moisture, nutrition and pest management), cropping practices
(mixed/inter/relay cropping, crop rotation etc.) collective food and seed storage and

21
Homestead Agroforestry models promoted by BAIF (Bharatiya Agro Industries Federation), an NGO and National Bank for
Agriculture & Rural Development (NABARD); NREGA (National Rural Employment Guarantee Act) provides support for land
development and plantation on SHF land ; National Food Security Mission (NFSM) focuses to enhance yields of rice and wheat.
distribution etc. are inherent to tribal and small and marginal farmers FPS. The practices of
such adaptation are more pronounced in marginal and remote ecosystems and there are
research evidences which demonstrate their potential in augmenting local food and nutritional
security. Moreover, the traditional systems are also vastly important from another context of
climate change, they being often carbon absorbing (and thus creating carbon handprints) in
contrast to high-energy and heavy input agricultural systems having high carbon foot prints.
Sustainable small scale farming through local FPDSC is labour intensive, requires little fuel;
rebuilds the soil by putting organic matter back to it and cuts lengthier food trades as it
involves local production and consumption. It can contribute to cooling down of earth.

There have been some inspiring demonstrations of technological, socio-economic and cultural
resilience/adaptation by small and marginal farmers communities in augmenting food and
livelihoods security. They have been employing area specific sustainable agriculture and
community managed food and seed distribution systems as a possible long-term solution to
local food insecurity. Some of such successful experiments in India which are highlighted in
different forums include alternative self-sustaining Public Distribution System (PDS) model
by Dalit women in Andhra Pradesh, traditional agriculture and bio-diversity conservation in
the western ghat region in southern Karnataka, dry land farming by farmers of Bundlekhand
in Uttar Pradesh, wet rice cultivation in the northeast, vegetable cultivation by a farmer’s
organization in Alappuzha district of Kerala, participatory plant breeding and community
seed banks in Koraput in Orissa.

There are informal seed supplies and distributions systems, which comprised of farmer
managed seed production and management systems based on indigenous knowledge and local
diffusion mechanisms. These systems include methods such as retaining seeds on-farm from
previous harvest to plant the following season and farmer to farmer seed exchange networks.
There has been little or no emphasis on informal seed supply sector in Asia and little is
known about the operations in the region. As a result there is dearth of documentation related

to informal seed sector22.

In 1992, the official report of the Rio Earth Summit concluded “there is deep concern over
continuing major declines in the mineral values in farm and range soils throughout the
world”. This statement is based on data showing that, over the last 100 years, average mineral

22
Seed policy and programmes for Asia and the Pacific: proceedings of the Regional Technical Meeting
on Seed Policy and Programmes for Asia and the Pacific ; Bangkok, Thailand, 2-6 May 1999, Issue 160;
http://books.google.co.in/books?q=+bibliogroup:%22Seed+Policy+and+Programmes+for+Asia+and+the+Pacific:
+Proceedings+of+the+Regional+Technical+Meeting+on+Seed+Policy+and+Programmes+for+Asia+and+the+Pacific+
%3B+Bangkok,+Thailand,+2-6+May+1999%22&source=gbs_metadata_r&cad=5
levels in agricultural soils had fallen worldwide, by 72 percent in Europe, 76 percent in Asia
and 85 percent in North America. Most of the blame lies with the massive use of the artificial
chemical fertlisers in stead of more natural methods of promoting soil fertility. This has also
lead to mineral deficiency in food. In 1927, researchers at the University of London’s King’s
College started to look into the nutrient content of food. Their analysis has been repeated at
regular intervals since, giving a unique picture of change in composition of food over last
century. A comparison of their figures between 1940-1991 presents an alarming picture, a
reduction of 20-60% of minerals in food. A new study published in 2006 shows that mineral
levels in animal products have suffered a similar decline23. On the other hand soil fertility
building through incorporation and management of organic matter, provides a viable option to
mitigate climate change, while augmenting production of mineral balanced food crops. If
farmers worldwide incorporate 1.5 tonnes of organic matter per year per ha, in a 10 year
period, they would help capturing 9% of total annual human made emissions24. Traditional
farming practices by tribal and small and marginal farmers are built around adding organic
matter to the soil through biomass recycling and most of the food crops produced by them are
by default natural or organic, usually with better mineral contents.

4. Resilient Food and Nutritional Security through Tribal and Small Farmer FPS

Food and nutritional security in the rainfed uplands can be better met through local
production of nutritious food to counter the problems of procuring food and fuel externally in
the wake of spirally rising food-prices and changing climatic, political and conflicts contexts.
There is need to squarely address this gradual marginalization of tribal and small farmers in
terms of their knowledge base, productivity, collective strength and their inherent elements
that make them better adapted in the context of climate change. The need is to make their
farms resilient to crop failures and produce adequate food, nutrition and income to help them
live with good health and dignity holding to their land and cultural roots.

Researchers and policy makers, under pressure to ensure national food security and
convictions in green revolution technologies have not been able to appreciate the concerns
and potential of tribal and small and marginal farmers-FPS. CSO, with strong belief in
alternate farming discourses and traditional knowledge system have limited success in
promoting integrated and scaled up approach. Multistakeholders’ perspective will help to

23
Marin Hum, “Soil mineral depletion”, in Optimum Nutrition, Vol 19, No 3, Autumn 2006 quoted in
GRAIN, ‘Earth matters: tackling climate crisis from the ground up’ in Seedling, October 2009
24
GRAIN, ‘Earth matters: tackling climate crisis from the ground up’ in Seedling, October 2009
blend concerns and balance the processes to meet local food and nutritional security in the
context of climate change

It is required to blend the potential innovations around traditional FPS with modern
agricultural technologies in a collaborative process to develop more sensitive and effective
food systems with enhanced production, nutrition, resilience and access.

The innovations in traditional food production systems around choices/practices related to

crops, varieties, cropping patterns and crop management (viz. moisture, nutrition and pest
management etc.) are required to be documented, analyzed and screened for their potential to
increase production, nutrition and adaptation etc. Identification of resilient and nutritious
crops and varieties in different agro-ecosystems, innovative practices related to crop
diversification, cropping pattern (mixed/inter/relay) and moisture/nutrition/pest management
and blending them with available modern technologies (e.g. micro-irrigation,
vermicomposting/biofertilizer, biopesticide etc.) in a participatory process involving tribal
and small farmers, researchers, extension agents and civil society players will help in
development of more effective options for food-production. There is also need to build robust
research database around mineral content in soil and food crops produced by the tribal and
small farmers through their traditional/refined practices through participation of mainstream
researchers for integration of such cross-cutting concerns into mainstream agriculture
research.