RESEARCH METHODOLOGY INI781

RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Research Methodology
INI 781

Theme 1:
Research Philosophy

Theme 1: Research
Philosophy in Business and
Management Research
Research philosophy
Problem areas and subject structures
Research terms

Research Philosophy
Mankinds desire to understand and control its
environment has led to the quest for
knowledge.
How can true and reliable knowledge be
acquired?
Epistemology (The Theory of Knowledge)

Prof. Andr Buys

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Epistemology
(The Theory of Knowledge)
In the 5th century BC, the Greek Sophists argued
that reliable and objective knowledge doesnt exist.
Socrates (470 - 399 BC) taught that ultimate truths
do exist and that mankind can discover it through
conscious reflection.
Plato (428 - 347 BC) argued that reality is the
imperfect realization of pure forms (theoretical
concepts).
Aristotle (384-322 BC) maintained that knowledge
is derived from experience and gained in
accordance with the rules of logic.

Epistemology
After the Hellenistic period, the interest in rational and scientific
knowledge declined for many centuries.
St Thomas Aquinas (1225 -1274) reinstated
perception as the starting point and logic as the
intellectual procedure for arriving at reliable
knowledge of nature.
Ren Descartes (1596 -1650), the rationalist,
claimed that deductive reasoning based on selfevident principles, or axioms, was the main source
and final test for acquiring knowledge.
Francis Bacon (1561 -1626), the empiricist,
claimed that sense perception was the main source
and final test for acquiring knowledge .

Epistemology
Immanuel Kant (1724 -1804) combined
elements of rationalism with elements of
empiricism. He distinguished between
different kinds of knowledge: Informative
knowledge gained directly through experience
(empirical knowledge), and knowledge gained
by reflecting on the nature of rational
experience as such, e.g. cause-and-effect
knowledge (theoretical knowledge).
Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889 -1951) was the
founder of logical empiricism, or logical
positivism, that insists that any meaningful
knowledge claim must be verifiable in
experience.

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Images from Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2000.

Images from Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2000.

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Images from Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia 2000.

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RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Research Philosophy
Sources of knowledge:
Experiential knowledge
Based on individual subjective experience, e.g.
faith in God.

Commonsense knowledge (also from experience)
You will get wet if you stand in the rain.

Expert knowledge
Authority figures
Scholasticism

The scientific approach
Research findings
Empiricism

Research Philosophy
The scientific approach

Research Philosophy
The scientific approach

There are three principal concepts in science:

1. Order: There is order to the universe, with
fundamental patterns underpinning all
events.
2. Determinism: There is a cause-effect
relationship for any event or phenomenon.
3. Discoverability: The contributing events,
conditions, and laws (cause-effect) can be
identified and measured.

Scientific research provides us with theories

A theory is a model of reality that is
designed to explain and predict a situation
or behaviour.


A good theory accurately explains past
observations and makes definite predictions
about the results of future observations.

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Research Philosophy
The scientific method
To be judged as scientific research, the work
must be:

Empirical based on objective observation.

Public open to scrutiny and criticism.

Repeatable the same steps will yield the
same results.

Generalisable must be valid in other
similar situations.

Research Philosophy
The scientific method
In practise, it is seldom possible to meet all
these requirements fully.
The degree to which these are achieved is
referred to as the rigour of the research.

Degree of
rigour

Hard sciences
Physical sciences
Applied sciences
Social sciences
Philosophical sciences
Soft sciences

Limitations of the
Scientific Method
The Scientific Method can only investigate
phenomena in the material world (e.g. physics,
biology, technology & natural systems.).
In areas where there are strong intimations of
transcendence (realities beyond the material world),
the Scientific Method cannot be applied:
Aesthetics (Beauty & order)
Kenosis (Sacrificial love &
joy)
Creativity (Inspiration &
humour)

Ethics (Right and wrong,

justice & forgiveness)
Spirituality (Wonder, faith
& hope)

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RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Research paradigms
Assumptions

Research paradigms
Assumptions

Research paradigms
Paradigm: Universally recognised scientific
achievements that for a time provide model
problems and solutions to a community of
practitioners (Kuhn, 1962).
Research paradigm is a framework
comprising an accepted set of theories,
methods and ways of defining data
Two main paradigms:

Positivistic

Phenomenological
Oerlemans, L.

Positivistic

Phenomenological

 Reality is objective and apart

 Reality is subjective and

from researcher
 Researcher is independent

multiple

isolated before study

 Researcher interacts with

from that being researched

Positivistic
 Static design: categories

that being researched

 Value-free and unbiased

 Value-laden and biased

 Formal

 Informal

 Base: definitions

 Base: evolving decisions

 Impersonal voice

 Personal voice

 Deductive process

 Inductive process

 Cause and effect

 Mutual shaping of factors

Phenomenological
 Emerging design: categories

identified during study

 Context-free

 Context-bound

 Generalisations leading to

 Patterns, theories developed

prediction, explanation and

understanding
 Accurate and reliable
through validity and reliability

for understanding
 Accurate and reliable

through verification

Oerlemans, L.

Oerlemans, L.

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Research paradigms
Features
Positivistic

Phenomenological

Positivistic

Types of research

Phenomenological

 Quantitative data

 Qualitative data

 Cross-sectional studies

 Action research

 Large samples

 Small samples

 Experimental studies

 Case studies

 Hypothesis testing

 Generating theories

 Longitudinal studies

 Ethnography

 Data: specific and precise

 Data: rich and subjective

 Surveys

 Grounded theory

 Location is artificial

 Location is natural

 Reliability is high

 Reliability is low

 Validity is low

 Validity is high

 Generalises from samples to

 Generalises from one setting

population

Research Philosophy

Research paradigms
Research designs

 Participative enquiry

to another
Oerlemans, L.

Experimental research

Conducted in a controlled
environment where influences
(causes) are manipulated
carefully, while holding other
influences constant, in order
to observe and measure the
outcomes (effects).

Oerlemans, L.

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RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Research Philosophy
Types of research
Non-experimental research

Research Philosophy

Example: Does wealth make people happier?

Seeks to find relationships

between uncontrolled variables
acting simultaneously.
It seeks to find association and
correlation between variables
rather than direct cause-effect
relationships.
This is useful to guide causal
studies.

.
.
.
.

.
..

Iceland

Types of research
USA

Germany
France
Japan

Ireland
Brazil
South Africa
Korea

Quasi-experimental research

India

Uses the scientific approach and

assumptions.
Does not fulfil all the requirements of
experimental research, e.g., independent
variables cannot be fully controlled
(manipulated) by the researcher.
Example: Experimental group vs. Control
group research (e.g., new drugs).

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Research Philosophy
Types of research
Quantitative approach

Uses quantitative information that can be

manipulated numerically.
This is the traditional scientific approach to
research in the physical sciences.
Theoretical models can be expressed as
mathematical formulas.

E = mc2

Research Philosophy

DATA
21.876
45.871
76.982
105.980

Types of research
Qualitative approach

Cause 1
Cause 2

Research Philosophy
Condition
Effect

Cause 3

Uses subjective information (words, feelings)

that cannot be manipulated numerically.
This is the traditional scientific approach to
research in the social (human) sciences.
Theoretical models are descriptions of
perceptions, concepts, and relationships.
Models can often be shown diagrammatically,
e.g., influence diagrams.

Research strategies
Pure (basic, fundamental) research

Purpose is to add to our knowledge, and

build theories or models.
Not aimed at a specific application.

Applied research

Has a specific application in mind.

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RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Research Philosophy
Research strategies

Research strategies

Action research

Applied research aimed at determining the

impact and effectiveness of a process or
intervention.
Action
Observation
Planning

Evaluation

Comparative study

Describes a phenomenon or event

(information gathering).
Not high-quality research (incomplete).

Exploratory study

Research Philosophy
Research strategies

Descriptive study

Applied research aimed at taking action as

a result of the findings.

Evaluation research

Research Philosophy

Hypothesis-testing study

Aimed at finding new ideas, patterns, or

themes.
First step in a research program.

Research that compares two or more

processes, groups, theories or outcomes.

Uses statistical techniques to test whether

research findings support hypotheses.
A hypothesis is a testable speculative
statement (prediction) based on a theory.

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Research Philosophy
Engineering and Technology Management
links the engineering, science, and
management disciplines.

Science,
Technology
and
Engineering

Engineering
and
Technology
Management

Management
Science

The difference between a

Management Investigation and a
Management Research Project
Management
Investigation

Management
Research

Problem solving by
application of acquired
knowledge.
Management
subjectivity.
Requires insight
and judgment.
Company
confidential.

Generation of new
knowledge.
Scientific
objectivity.
Requires empirical
proof.
Published in
scientific journals.

Research Philosophy
Kolbs Problem Solving Cycle
Concrete experience
Managers

Artists

Observation &
measurement

Practical
application
Active

Reflective

experimentation

observation

Theory building
(Conceptualisation)

Model and method

building (Design)
Engineers

Abstract notion

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Scientists

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RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Problem Solving Schemes

Mathematical
Problem Solving

Engineering
Problem Solving

Creative
Problem Solving

Define the
problem

Define the
problem

Define the
problem

Classify the
problem

Classify the
problem

Idea
generation

Select the
right method

Define the
system

Idea
evaluation

Apply the
method

Model the
system

Decision
making

Check the

Check the
results

Implementation

Problem Solving Schemes

Research goals

The Scientific Method

Define the
problem

Building of new or improved theories,

models and methods.
Testing of existing theories, models and
methods.
Application of existing theories, models
and methods to new problems.

Deduction of propositions
and hypotheses
Data gathering
and analysis
Hypothesis
testing
Induction of new theory

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Research Philosophy
Research Philosophy
Building temples!
New practical techniques,
models & tools
Empirical support
Theoretical foundations

The balanced approach

Theory
Appealing to
academics
Basic research philosophical and
theoretical
New theoretical
knowledge and
theories

Practice
Appealing to practising
managers
Applied research observations and
investigations of actual
practice (empirical)
New practical
techniques, models &
tools

Synthesis: Theory-based empirical research

Theoretical emphasis
Theory application
research
Theory testing research
Theory
building research
Masters by
coursework
Research Report

Masters by
Dissertation

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PhD
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RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Research Philosophy
Preferred Research Designs
Natural Sciences

Human Sciences

(including Engineering)

(including Management Science)

Laboratory and field

experiments

Theory-based
empirical research.

Research concepts

Research concepts

Concepts
Mental systems for organising things
into groups that share similar
characteristics, e.g., cats.
Constructs
Structural frameworks linking concepts
into an abstract phenomenon, e.g.,
intelligence.

Theories
Constructs that explains the relations
between elements, e.g., relativity.
Models
Representations or descriptions of
theories.

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Theories, Models and Methods

THEORY
A statement of scientifically
acceptable principle(s) offered
to explain observed phenomena.
MODEL
A graphical, mathematical or schematic
representation of a system of postulates
(theory), data, and inferences.

Theories, Models and Methods

Example: Theory of Technological Progress
THEORY
The rate of technological progress is directly
proportional to the current level of technology.
MODEL
dT/dt = AT
At
T
T(t) = Toe

Problem areas and

subject structure

METHOD
(for prediction of progress)
Measure T and dT/dt
Calculate value of A
Extrapolate for future times

METHOD
A way, technique, or process
of or for doing something
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RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY

Subject Areas in Engineering and

Technology Management
Technology Management
Innovation Management
Project Management
Development
Management
Maintenance
Management
Systems Engineering
Safety, Health &
Environment
Engineering Logistic
Decision Analysis
Quality Management

Production/Operations
Management
New Ventures &
Entrepreneurship
Information Management
Strategic Management
General Management
Marketing Management
Financial Management
Human Resource
Management
Risk Management
Procurement Management

Research Terminology

Research terms

Assumption
A fact or statement taken for granted (assuming it
to be true).
Axiom
A statement accepted as true or a self-evident truth.
Concept
Abstract or generic idea generalized from particular
instances.
Conceptual
Relating to, or consisting of concepts.

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Research Terminology
Conjecture
A proposition before it has been proved or
disproved.
Empirical
Originating in or based on observation or
experience.
Fiction
Fiction is either a deliberate or an unintentional
fantasy, which is not based on reality. Sometimes a
false assumption (fiction) can be introduced
deliberately for the purpose of clarifying a scientific
problem methodologically. (Gitt, 1997)

Research Terminology
Hypothesis
A hypothesis is a tentative assumption or conjecture
made in order to draw out and test its logical or
empirical consequences. If a hypothesis serves as a
methodological guide when a new research project
is undertaken, it is known as a working hypothesis.
When observational facts support a hypothesis, the
probability of its being true is increased, but if ONE
contradicting fact is uncovered, the hypothesis must
be rejected (falsification). A testable hypothesis is a
reasoned expectation, logically derived from a
proposition, theory or observation, that can be
tested empirically.

Research Terminology
Method
A way, technique, or process of or for doing
something.
Methodological
Relating to method.
Methodological study
Study aimed at developing a new method, process or
technique.

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Research Terminology
Model
A graphical, mathematical or schematic description
or analogy of a system of postulates, data, and
inferences. Models are representations of reality.
Only the most important properties are reflected, and
minor or unrecognised aspects are not covered.
Models
are
important
because
of
their
illustrativeness. A model is a deliberate but
simplified representation of reality and it describes
observed structures in a readily understandable
way. It is possible to have more than one model for a
given reality, and, because it is by nature provisional
and simple, any model can always be improved
upon. (Gitt, 1997)

Research Terminology
Model-building study
Study aimed at developing a new model and theory
to explain a particular phenomena.
Notion
Conception or impression of something known,
experienced, or imagined.
Paradigm
When a certain theory (or a system of hypotheses,
or a world-view) pervades an entire scientific era, it
is known as a paradigm. Such a view then dictates
the scope for specific researches and delineates
the presuppositions used for explaining individual
phenomena. (Gitt, 1997)

Research Terminology
Postulate
To claim as true, existent, or necessary.
Proposition
Something offered for consideration or acceptance
usually stated in sentence form near the outset.
Research
Investigation or experimentation aimed at the
discovery and interpretation of facts, revision of
accepted theories or laws in the light of new facts,
or practical application of such new or revised
theories or laws. (Merriam-Webster Collegiate
Dictionary)

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Research Terminology
Speculation
A statement based purely on discussion, fantasy,
imagination, or contemplation. Mere speculation
without proper experimentation and observation is
not science. (Gitt, 1997)
Supposition
Something that is supposed to be true.
Theory
A scientifically acceptable general principle or
body of principles based on empirical findings.
Since empirical results are seldom final, theories
are of a provisional nature. (Gitt, 1997)

Research Terminology
Theorem
An idea, proposition, or statement accepted or
proposed as a demonstrable truth often as a part of
a general theory.
Verification
Verification means that a statement is tested
experimentally. The result of such verification is not
generally valid, however. It holds strictly only for
cases that have actually been confirmed, because
the possibility that hitherto unknown counter
examples may exist cannot be excluded. If one
contradictory case is found, then the statement is
rejected (falsified). (Gitt, 1997)

END

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