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Chapter 1: Introduction
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This text discusses how active-source, reflection seismic surveying is used to study the Earths
interior. The focus is on the geologic interpretation of seismic data, although topics related to wave
propagation, data acquisition and processing, and quantitative rock property prediction are also
discussed. Most seismic datasets are collected by the petroleum industry in its quest to explore
for and develop hydrocarbon reserves, and so this text will explore many topics of relevance to the
petroleum industry. However, seismic data have long been used in other branches of Earth Science
and are seeing increasing use in other fields. Accordingly, this text is intended to also benefit a nonpetroleum readership. In a general way, it should be of interest to:
Engineers or others who use seismic data, or might be exposed to the results of a
seismic interpretation, but have little/no background in either geology or geophysics.
Seismology is a branch of earth science that focuses on the study of seismic waves, elastic
disturbances that propagate through the Earth (based on Sheriff, 2002) after earthquakes (passivesource seismology) or in response to man-made perturbations (known either as active- or controlledsource seismology). Applications of seismology include using seismic waves to probe the deepest
parts of the Earths interior (e.g., the core-mantle boundary; e.g., van der Hilst et al., 2007) or the
upper few meters of a sediment column (e.g., Baker et al., 1999). Lay (2009) described some of the
topics currently being addressed by the seismology community.
For simplicity, the term seismic data is used in this text to describe seismic reflection data collected
using sources and receivers at the Earths surface (sometimes referred to as surface seismic data).
Borehole seismic methods involve putting receivers, sources, or both down boreholes. Selected
topics in borehole seismology are discussed in CHAPTER 5. Seismic refraction surveys, that
analyze a type of seismic wave known as a head wave, are also used to the study the Earths interior
(e.g., refraction methods are generally considered to be more useful than reflection methods to study
the upper few meters of the subsurface; Burger et al., 2006), but will not be discussed here.
Page 1
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B) Seismic imaging
in the early
part of the 21st
Century. Threedimensional
visualization of
a Pleistocene
submarine
channel
system. From
Labourdette
and Bez (2010).
A) Seismic
interpretation in
the 1940s. Key
reflection events
are identified in
two unprocessed
paper copies
of shot records
collected
several to many
kilometers/
miles apart.
Reproduced with
permission from
Stommel (1950).
C) Three-dimensional seismic
visualization of mounded structures
in Pliocene deposits of the eastern
Mediterranean sea. Reflections
marked flat spot represent probable
hydrocarbon-water contacts. From
Frey-Martinez et al. (2007).
FIGURE 1.1:
Comparison of different
vintages of seismic imaging
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ANIMATION 1
Volume-rendering of a
3-D seismic cube showing
igneous intrusions.
Courtesy CGG-Veritas.
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Figure 1.2: Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) slice through the authors knee
FIGURE 1.2:
Magnetic resonance imaging
(MRI) slice through the
authors knee.
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properties. Furthermore, those images generally contain artifacts related to how the data were
acquired and processed.
Knowledge of geology is clearly needed to interpret seismic images, in the same way that knowledge
of anatomy is needed to interpret medical imagery (FIGURE 1.2). However, other knowledge is
also needed in order to maximize the benefit obtained from a seismic interpretation, including:
The physical controls on seismic wave propagation through the subsurface, including
how reflections are generated and limits on seismic resolution.
The relationships between acquisition and processing parameters and seismic image
quality.
How seismic data are tied to other sources of subsurface information, such as wireline
logs, in order to calibrate the seismic images.
These topics are addressed in Chapters 2 5 respectively. Geologic aspects of seismic interpretation
are covered in Chapters 6 (structural geology) and 7 (sedimentary geology), whereas CHAPTER 8
focuses on quantitative methods for rock property prediction.
Exploration and development in the mining industry. Seismic methods have been
tested for mineral exploration (e.g., Milkereit et al., 1997; Eaton et al., 2003) but
are relatively uncommon (Milsom, 2006), partly because of cost but mostly because
the lack of coherent layering in igneous and metamorphic rocks makes processing
and interpretation difficult. Applications for coal mining are more common (e.g.,
Gochioco, 2000; Pu and Xizun, 2005; Zuo et al., 2009).
Seismic data have been collected by research groups for many years to image deep
crustal structure (e.g., Allmendinger et al., 1987; Milkereit and Eaton, 1998; Snyder et
al., 2005; FIGURE 1.3) and to plan ocean drilling projects (ODP/IODP) and interpret
the data (core, wireline logs) collected (e.g., McIntosh and Sen, 2000; Tobin et al.,
2009).
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FIGURE 1.3:
Perspective view showing
integration of crustal-scale
seismic profiles with surface
geologic maps
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A) Arbitrary section
through a 3-D
seismic volume
showing various
types of igneous
intrusions.
C
C) Zoom in on a portion of the top of basalt
horizon. From Thomson (2007).
FIGURE 1.4:
Application of petroleumindustry 3-D seismic data to
study igneous intrusions from
the North Sea
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FIGURE 1.5:
Seismic transect across
Quaternary and Holocene
strata from eastern Ontario
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In some cases, such as in the petroleum industry, an interpreter or an interpretation team might
pursue all three of these objectives. In other cases, seismic data are collected and analyzed to answer
specific questions that can be broadly related to one of the three topics described above.
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C) The brown-colored
igneous dyke
in the middle
of this photo
(from Montreal)
crosscuts the
layered, grey
sedimentary rocks,
indicating that it
formed sometime
after deposition of
the sedimentary
rocks.
B) The bedding in
these sedimentary
rocks from
Alberta is no
longer horizontal,
indicating a period
of structural
deformation
at some point
after the rocks
were deposited
and lithified.
Sedimentary
structures of the
rocks have been
used as way-up
indicators to infer
the relative ages of
the strata exposed
in this outcrop.
FIGURE 1.6:
Outcrop photos illustrating
various basic fundamental
geologic concepts
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FIGURE 1.7:
Introductory geology level
example of how fundamental
geologic concepts are used to
reconstruct geologic histories
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B
B) Animated reconstruction
of the geologic history
represented by the
seismic image in A. See
text for discussion.
Click image to play
animation.
FIGURE 1.8:
Simple example showing
how fundamental geologic
principles are used to
reconstruct the geologic
history of a seismic image
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Page 8
FIGURE 1.9:
Venn Diagram depicting
how integration of various
data types helps to reduce
interpretation uncertainty
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B) Deep-tow profiler
image that includes
the area shown in part
A. This image provides
information about the
stratigraphy, but is less
helpful than the sidescan sonar image for
mapping purposes.
Depth scale in part
B assumes a water
velocity of 1450 m/s.
Modified and used with
permission from Hart
and Barrie (1996).
FIGURE 1.10:
Integration of side-scan
sonar data with highresolution profiling data in
an environmental marine
geology study of the Fraser
Delta, Canada
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FIGURE 1.11:
Use of gravity data to test
the validity of a seismic
interpretation
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FIGURE 1.12:
Integration of a crustalscale seismic profile with
tomography-derived velocity
overlay
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FIGURE 1.13:
Biostratigraphic
interpretation from an
offshore well in the Gulf of
Mexico
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FIGURE 1.14:
Integration of seismic profile
with core data from Ocean
Drilling Program coring,
offshore Costa Rica
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B) SCUBA diving on a
modern reef, Red Sea
A) Measuring outcrops
of Cretaceous clastics,
Book Cliffs, Utah
FIGURE 1.15:
Becoming a better seismic
interpreter by studying
geology
Back to Chapter
A
B) Submarine fan models based on
observations of the Permian Brushy
Canyon Formation in West Texas. From
Beauboeuf et al. (1999). Knowledge
of the elements found in submarine
channel and fan systems helps guide
the interpretation of the seismic data.
FIGURE 1.16:
Comparison of a seismic
image with an outcrop-based
depositional model
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FIGURE 1.17:
Similarity in structural
features across five orders
of magnitude difference in
spatial scale
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geophysicist working the seismic data and vice versa. In other organizations, the interpreters are
integrated geoscientists who are expected to work with both seismic and log data. There are
advantages and disadvantages to both approaches. An interdisciplinary team that works closely
together can generate an integrated interpretation that covers all aspects of a problem in greater depth
than can be achieved by generalist geoscientists. On the other hand, a team can be dysfunctional if
it consists of groups of specialists whose interests and knowledge do not allow them to effectively
communicate and reach a common interpretation.
Geophysicists tend to be pay finders, i.e. people who focus on quantitative methods
to directly detect hydrocarbon accumulations or other physical properties of interest.
Geologists tend to be play finders, i.e. people who integrate pattern recognition
skills with an understanding of geologic models to prepare plausible models (e.g.,
structural reconstructions, depositional histories) that integrate different data types.
Sternbach (2002) described most interpreters as integrated geoscientists who combine training in
geology and geophysics with computer skills and knowledge of engineering concepts. University
programs typically focus on either geology or geophysics, and so integrated geoscientists only
emerge after several years of industry cross-training. Hart (1997) discovered that most 3-D seismic
interpreters learned to use computer systems and interpretation software through on the job
training. Despite the abundance of generalists, some interpreters are specialists, perhaps in the
structural interpretation of salt-tectonics features, amplitude-variation-with-offset, depth conversion,
or some other topic.
Herron (2003) listed some of the technical and personal skills needed to survive and thrive as a
seismic interpreter in the petroleum industry. Some of these included:
Ability to visualize geology in 3-D without advanced interpretation software (i.e. uses
computer visualization to enhance, not replace, fundamental visualization skills)
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FIGURE 1.18:
A simplified generic seismic
interpretation workflow
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The first step in this workflow is to define the purpose of the project and to decide
whether seismic data can be helpful or not. That decision might be based on
seismic modeling experiments, examination of previous reports/papers, or other
considerations. Knowledge of rock properties and seismic wave propagation
(CHAPTER 2) is necessary at this point.
The next task is to assemble and load different types of data into a common database.
Seismic data may need to be collected (which means designing, acquiring and
processing the data; CHAPTER 3), purchased, downloaded or otherwise obtained.
The next step is to make an initial tie between the seismic data and any other data
types. In the petroleum industry, this typically means tying the seismic and well data,
usually by generating synthetic seismograms but also potentially including checkshot
data and vertical seismic profiles (CHAPTER 5).
Physical properties prediction (CHAPTER 8) should begin only once the structural
and stratigraphic frameworks have been established. Structural, stratigraphic or
physical properties analyses may indicate a need to revise the ties between seismic
and other data types.
If, following the interpretation, new data are collected (wells are drilled, new seismic
lines are acquired, etc.), they should be loaded into the database and used to update
the interpretation.
Ultimately some type of report, with associated maps, digital volumes, etc., will be
prepared based on the work completed.
Geologic, geophysical and other types of knowledge are needed at all stages of the interpretation.
__________________________________________________________________
1
In the words of the French philosopher Paul Valry, All that is simple is false, all that is complex is useless. This
quote will be included on all major flow diagrams in this text as a caveat about the problems of simplifying complex
workflows.
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The Virtual Seismic Atlas is an online repository that shows many examples of
seismic images and their interpretations. Website: http://www.seismicatlas.org/
The Marine Seismic Data Center makes seismic reflection and refraction data
available from seismic cruises worldwide. Website: http://web.ig.utexas.edu/sdc/
Reports and other publications of the Integrated Ocean Drilling Program (IODP),
a successor to the Ocean Drilling Program (ODP), present many excellent images
of seismic data and show how those data can be integrated with other data types.
Seismic data collected during site surveys are available for download for some
expeditions. Website: http://www.iodp.org/index.php.
The Consortium for Continental Reflection Profiling (COCORP) was the first group
to use seismic reflection profiling to study the continental lithosphere. Information
about the groups activities, data availability and links to other similar programs in
other countries are available through its website:
http://www.geo.cornell.edu/geology/cocorp/COCORP.html
The Woods Hole Seismic Center (United States Geological Survey) has online
descriptions of various acoustic-based methods for sea-floor mapping. Website:
http://woodshole.er.usgs.gov/operations/sfmapping/index.htm
The Center for Wave Phenomena at the Colorado School of Mines, distributors of
Seismic Un*x, an open-source seismic utilities package (primarily processing).
Website: http://timna.mines.edu/cwpcodes/
Various types of seismic data viewers are available as freeware. Data are
generally viewable when in SEG-Y format. Several web pages provide links,
including: http://gsegyview.sourceforge.net/index.php?option=com_
weblinks&catid=13&Itemid=30
OpendTect is a free, open-source seismic interpretation system for 2-D and 3-D
seismic data. Free datasets are available through the sites Open Seismic Repository
link. Website: www.opendtect.org
The Schlumberger Oilfield Glossary has definitions of many terms used in seismic
exploration and the petroleum industry in general:
http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com/
Several professional societies have online material, publications, or meetings that should be of
relevance to seismic interpreters. A non-exhaustive list includes:
The Society for Exploration Geophysics (SEG) promotes the science of applied
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geophysics and the education of geophysicists, with most of its members being from
the petroleum industry. The society has a search engine (Digital Cumulative Index)
that enables users to search publications of the SEG and other geophysical societies.
Website: www.seg.org
Many publications of the Geological Society of London deal with issues of relevance
to seismic interpreters. Website: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/index.html
1.6 References
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Page 17
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