Chapter 15: Small Group Communication

Outline
I.

II.

Nature and functions of groups

A.
A group is a collection of people possessing:
1.
Definable membership
2.
Group consensus or collective perception of unity and identity
3.
Sense of shared purpose; shared goals or ideals
4.
Interdependence in satisfaction of needs
5.
Interaction which includes communicating, exerting influence, being
supportive, and being sensitive to the individuals who make up the group
6.
Capability of behaving as a unified whole
B.
The purpose of a group may not match the reason members join the group.
C.
People can be placed in groups voluntarily, by others, or by default.
D.
In small groups, everyone should be able to communicate directly and collaborate
with all other group members.
1.
Small groups consist of no fewer than three members and up to a dozen
members.
2.
A dyad is a collection of two people.
3.
With more than about 12 people, communication between members tends
to suffer.
E.
Virtual groups perform the functions of groups without all the members being
present at the same time or place.
1.
Technology is an essential component of virtual groups.
2.
Instead of meeting face-to-face, members can meet online; these virtual
meetings can supplement face-to-face interactions.
3.
Virtual groups can save time, money, and effort that would be spent
traveling or arranging meetings.
4.
Virtual groups face several challenges.
a)
Members must assert their membership by making the effort to log
on and offer some sort of tangible contribution to receive notice.
b)
Some virtual groups face challenges confirming member identities.
c)
Disclosure in cyberspace carries risks, such as revealing personal
information that can be misused.
Groups can utilize various formats.
A.
A panel consists of a small number of featured speakers appearing in front of an
audience.
1.
Panel presentations follow a theme.
2.
Panelists may make individual presentations and then allow for audience
questions.
3.
Panel presentations are good for themed presentations and when the
audience should have a form of interaction.
B.
In a roundtable, participants are arranged so they can address each other directly.
1.
Roundtables usually have limited structure; each participant is free to
speak to another.
2.
A facilitator may be present to maintain order.
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3.

III.

IV.

An advantage of roundtables is that they encourage input from as many

participants as possible.
4.
A limitation of roundtables is that groups have to remain fairly small to
allow everyone to interact with one another.
C.
In a symposium, a series of speakers makes formal speeches on one topic.
1.
A host often introduces and links the presentations.
2.
Symposia provide a lot of depth on a topic.
D.
In a forum, the audience controls the flow of communication by asking questions.
1.
Forums are commonly used when a group of people want to obtain
information.
2.
The audience instead of the speakers drives a forums agenda.
Participants in groups must weigh the advantages and limitations of group work.
A.
Group work can yield many advantages.
1.
Members can pool their talents and abilities, making for more creative
ideas.
2.
Groups can take on more complex projects than individuals working
alone.
3.
Groups can use checks and balances, with members checking each others
progress, providing mutual feedback and support.
4.
Synergy describes how the collective efforts of a group add up to more
than the sum of each members individual capacity.
5.
With positive synergy, each group members enthusiasm, energy,
creativity, and dedication amplify the same qualities in other members,
taking the group to higher levels of performance.
B.
Group work can suffer from serious limitations.
1.
With negative synergy, groups impede individual accomplishments and
under-perform compared to solo efforts.
2.
Groups can take more time than doing something alone.
a)
Groups involve input from many people.
b)
Arranging meetings, sharing reports, and navigating member
personalities can require extra time.
c)
Groups can cope with the additional time commitments.
(1)
Set due dates before the dates set by the instructor.
(2)
Set due dates for various portions of the group project in
addition to the final due date.
3.
Groups can involve complicated interpersonal dynamics, since members
may people have to work with others they dont like.
Groups operate along two interrelated dimensions.
A.
The task dimension deals with how effectively the group meets its objectives.
1.
Productivity is the output of the task dimension: how much the group is
able to accomplish in a specified amount of time.
2.
The task dimension is affected by the interpersonal dynamics of the group.
B.
The maintenance (or social) dimension deals with the emotional aspects of a
group.
1.
People seek the following benefits from groups:

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a)

V.

Affection - the sense group members genuinely care about each

other.
b)
Affiliation - the feeling of belonging.
c)
Appreciation - knowing you and the work you do are valued.
d)
Recognition - giving and receiving credit for accomplishments.
e)
Open exchange - learning from others and willingness of others to
learn from you.
2.
In their early, formative stages, groups tend to address social issues.
3.
The social connection among members promotes group cohesion.
a)
Cohesion refers to the feeling of connection among the individual
group members; they share a sense of bonding.
b)
The sense of bonding in cohesion forms trust and interdependence
among group members.
c)
Cohesion in moderation increases productivity.
C.
Cohesion is responsible for many of the emotional rewards of groups.
Groupthink, which can arise from excessive cohesion, describes a groups tendency to
focus on agreement among its members more than the quality of the groups work.
A.
Several symptoms point to the emergence of groupthink.
1.
Illusion of invulnerability: A collective view that the group is incapable of
making bad decisions.
2.
Collective rationalization: Group members discuss reasons why their
decision is the best course of action, discounting opposing evidence and
arguments.
3.
Belief in inherent group morality: Group members dont challenge the
ethical consequences of decisions.
4.
Stereotyping outsiders: Group members view any opponents to be inferior
by stereotyping them as biased, misinformed, or unskilled.
5.
Pressure on dissenters: Members feel compelled to agree through threats
or fears.
6.
Self-censorship: Individual concerns are not voiced for fear of rejection,
ridicule, or embarrassment by the group.
7.
Illusion of unanimity: Group members believe all individuals agree with
the decision.
8.
Self-appointed mindguards: People who insulate group members from
information that does not support their decision.
B.
Groupthink has identifiable outcomes in group behaviors.
1.
Discussion focuses on only a few alternatives.
2.
The group does not question or challenge its original preferences.
3.
The group does not reconsider ideas rejected earlier.
4.
The group does not seek advice from experts.
5.
Group members selectively seek advice confirming their pre-existing
biases.
6.
Members fail to prepare for possible failure or negative reaction to the
groups decisions.
7.
The group limits its objectives only to those that are the most convenient
and agreeable.
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C.

VI.

VII.

VIII.

When groupthink starts, the group tends to exhibit excessive group solidarity.
1.
Group solidarity is defined as the tendency of a group to act as a single
unit instead of as a collection of individuals with diverse ideas.
2.
Group solidarity is useful until the solidarity starts to prevent new
opinions or challenges to current ideas.
D.
Groups can prevent or reduce the occurrence of groupthink.
1.
Keep leaders impartial.
2.
Assign a devils advocate whose duty is to present alternative viewpoints
and challenge ideas.
3.
Bring in unbiased outside experts.
4.
Split the group to solve the problem as independent subgroups.
5.
Actively seek and deal with rival ideas or proposals.
6.
Encourage members to interact with trusted associates beyond the group.
7.
Require criticism, evaluation, challenges, questions, and alternatives.
8.
Allow members a chance to reconsider important decisions.
Deadlock describes group paralysis that arises from insufficient cohesion.
A.
Deadlock (also called gridlock) occurs when a group does not function as a unit
but instead fails to progress because its membership gets embroiled in petty
disputes, splinters into antagonistic camps, or simply cannot reach a decision.
B.
Deadlock can be caused by dogmatic defense of positions.
C.
Groups can cope with deadlock by employing conflict management techniques
that prevent disagreements from becoming impasses.
A problem-solving group assembles to complete a specific task and render a decision.
A.
These groups may exist for reasons other than something being wrong.
B.
Problem-solving groups can form to find ways to improve on something.
C.
Problem-solving should be viewed as solving a puzzle and justifying a solution.
1.
A complaint expresses dissatisfaction with a problem but offers no
productive solution.
2.
Problem-solving groups render reasoned decisions to complete their work.
3.
Problem-solving groups need to create a plan and act on the plan.
The basic steps in problem solving expand on John Deweys reflective thinking method.
A.
Step 1: Define the problem or issue.
1.
A group must agree a problem or need exists.
2.
The definition of the problem or need must be specific and factual.
3.
Questions to consider during this stage:
a)
When and did the problem first occur? How did it happen?
b)
What is the history of the problem? When does it improve or get
worse?
c)
Who does this problem affect? How are they affected?
d)
Who has an interest in solving or not solving the problem?
e)
What is the significance of this problem? How severe is it? How
widespread is it? What are its effects?
f)
When must the problem be solved? Is there an absolute or target
deadline?
g)
What other information is needed to understand the problem?
What more does the group need to know before it can proceed?
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4.
5.

B.

C.

Groups tend to spend the most time on this step.

Troubleshooting:
a)
Rushing through this step causes vague and ineffective solutions.
b)
Research the nature of the issues to arrive at better solutions later.
Step 2: Establish criteria for solutions.
1.
Decide what rules govern acceptable solutions.
2.
Decision-making criteria can include the following considerations.
a)
Determine the stakeholders.
b)
Determine precedent (whether some of the problems and solutions
have existed or been attempted way before).
c)
Time frame: how long should the solution take to work?
d)
Logistics: what is needed to implement the solution?
e)
Constraints: what needs to be ruled out automatically?
3.
Troubleshooting:
a)
This step is often overlooked.
b)
Focus on what potential solutions should or should not do.
Step 3: Identify solutions.
1.
Generate as many ways of coping with the issue as possible.
2.
Working together to create solutions has several benefits.
a)
Collaboration increases alternatives for solutions.
b)
Working together increases the creativity of alternatives.
c)
Working together points out potential errors in the alternatives.
d)
Group members receive encouragement from each other.
e)
Groups can avoid restrictive thinking.
3.
Brainstorming generates ideas in a criticism-free environment.
a)
Solicit input from each group member.
(1)
Make sure shy people have an opportunity to speak ideas.
(2)
Do not criticize ideas.
(3)
A designated person records all ideas.
(4)
Accept ideas at face value.
(5)
Allow equal opportunity to participate.
(6)
When ideas no longer emerge, review the list of all ideas.
(7)
Brainstorming ends when no one has any more suggestions.
b)
Several hints can improve the effectiveness of brainstorming.
(1)
Brainstorm more than once.
(2)
Invite diversity.
(3)
Keep sessions short.
(4)
Divert attention between brainstorming sessions.
4.
Always have doing nothing as a solution.
a)
Doing nothing provides a comparison to other solutions.
b)
This option reminds the group some existing components of the
status quo could still remain and be effective.
5.
Troubleshooting:
a)
Dont evaluate the solutions yet.
b)
Focus on new ideas.
c)
Combine or divide suggested proposals to create new ideas.
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D.

E.

Step 4: Evaluate solutions.

1.
List the solutions and the advantages and disadvantages to each solution.
2.
When evaluating solutions, groups should consider several factors.
a)
What are the short-term and long-term benefits?
b)
What are the short-term and long-term drawbacks?
c)
What are the intangible costs (time, effort) as well as the financial
costs?
d)
When will the costs and benefits be realized?
e)
Which parts of the problem are solved by this proposal?
f)
Which parts of the problem remain after this proposal is
implemented?
g)
Where have similar proposals been tried? How have they worked
in those situations?
h)
How will others outside the group react to the proposal? How
readily will they endorse the option?
3.
Focus on the merits and drawback of the solution rather than who said the
idea.
4.
The group should consider endorsing more than one possible solution to
keep options open.
5.
The group should consider the criteria established in step 2 when
evaluating solutions.
Step 5: Select the best solution.
1.
The group needs to employ a method for reaching decisions.
a)
In consensus, all group members agreebut beware of a false
consensus arising from groupthink.
b)
In majority rule, the group votes on solutions.
(1)
Majority rule risks leaving out the minority.
(2)
To account for minority views, a group can prepare a
minority report that explains dissenting viewpoints.
c)
In authoritarian rule, a person decides on behalf of the entire
group.
(1)
Authoritarian rule does not mean a leader does all the work.
(2)
The decision maker bears the responsibility of listening and
considering everyones viewpoints.
(3)
Authoritarian rule can work well in online groups when
group members have difficulty making collective decisions.
(4)
Authoritarian decisions save time compared to other
methods.
(5)
Authoritarian rule can leave group members feeling
excluded.
2.
Troubleshooting:
a)
Clearly decide how the decision is going to be made.
b)
If the authoritarian method is used, then clearly indicate who the
decision maker will be.
c)
If the majority rule method is used, then decide what is the
requirement for a majority (2/3, 50%+1, etc.).
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F.

Step 6: Implement and test solutions.

1.
This stage is often overlooked, since groups think their job ends when they
select a solution.
2.
The group needs to consider how to put a solution into practice.
3.
In implementing and testing solutions, groups need to consider several
issues.
a)
Who is responsible for implementation? Must the person (or
people) who supervises implementation also participate in
adopting the proposal?
b)
When will implementation occur? When should it begin? When
should it be completed?
c)
How long will adoption of the plan take? Will the solution be
adopted all at once or will it be phased in?
d)
What resources are required for the solution to take effect? What
are the minimum resources needed? What resources would be most
desirable?
4.
After the decision has been put into effect, the group must make
provisions to monitor the solutions progress.
5.
Predict possible outcomes of the decision to prevent setbacks later.
6.
Decide how to define whether the solution succeeds.
a)
What are identifiable or measurable ways to identify success?
b)
When will the effects be realized?
c)
How often should the solution be monitored and assessed?
d)
Who ultimately determines whether the solution has succeeded?
e)
What alternatives exist if this solution fails?
7.
Contingency planning enables a group to have back-up solutions prepared
in case the preferred solution does not work.

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