Professional Documents
Culture Documents
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 3;2(3):288295
www.jmrt.com.br
Review article
a r t i c l e
i n f o
a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Empirical notch sensitivity factors q have been used for a long time to account for notch
effects in fatigue design. This old concept has been recently modeled using sound mechan-
ical principles to properly quantify the inuence of the stress gradient around the notch
tip on the fatigue behavior of mechanically short cracks. This model can be used to calculate q values from the basic fatigue resistances of the material, its fatigue limit and its
Keywords:
crack propagation threshold, considering all the characteristics of the notch geometry and
Short cracks
of the loading. This model predictions have been validated by proper tests, and based on
Non-propagating cracks
this experimental evidence a criterion to accept tolerable short cracks has been proposed.
In this work the mechanical principles that support this criterion are extended to account
for notch effects in environmentally assisted cracking problems.
2013 Brazilian Metallurgical, Materials and Mining Association. Published by Elsevier
Editora Ltda. All rights reserved.
1.
Introduction
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: julioccleite@gmail.com, julioccl2003@yahoo.com.br (J.C.C. Leite).
2238-7854/$ see front matter 2013 Brazilian Metallurgical, Materials and Mining Association. Published by Elsevier Editora Ltda. All rights reserved.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jmrt.2013.02.010
Document downloaded from http://http://www.jmrt.com.br, day 26/09/2013. This copy is for personal use. Any transmission of this document by any media or format is strictly prohibited.
289
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 3;2(3):288295
160 na(MPa)
140
1000 (MPa)
800
SL
Kt
120
100
HT80 steel,K0=11.2MPam
600
500
400
0
(ETS model)
(a+a0)
(long crack
= a0 threshold)
300
200
non-propagating cracks
80
specimen fracture
non-propagating cracks
40
Kt
0
1
10 11 12 13
14 15
K = g
a0 =
(a + a0 ),
where a0 =
1 K 2
0
S0
0.2
0.5
a(mm)
1.0
2.0
5.0
10
geometries, re-dening:
K =
0.1
in a HT80 steel with K0 = 11.2 MPa m and S0 = 575 MPa.
no cracks
20
a0=( K0/S0)2/=0.12
100
80
0.05
60
(1)
a
w
1
(a + a0 ),
K0
g(a/w) S0
where
2
(2)
(a + a0 ),
where a0 =
1 K 2
0
S0
(3)
K0 (a) = K0
a
a + a0
(4)
K0 (a) = K0 1 +
a /2 1/
0
(5)
Document downloaded from http://http://www.jmrt.com.br, day 26/09/2013. This copy is for personal use. Any transmission of this document by any media or format is strictly prohibited.
290
1.0
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 3;2(3):288295
K0(a)
K0
=8
=2
0.5
=1.5
K0(a)
/2 1/
=[1+(a0/a) ]
K0
0.2
a/a0
0.1
0.01
0.1
10
100
K =
a
a /2 1/
0
(6)
1
KR
1.12 SR
2
(7)
KR (a) = KR 1 +
a /2 1/
R
(8)
2.
Behavior of short cracks departing from
slender notches
Before jumping into more elaborated mechanics, it is worth
to justify using relatively simple arguments why small cracks
that depart from notch roots can propagate for a while before
f1 =
y (x, y = 0)
n
= 1+
(b2 2bc)(x
(b c) (x2 b2 + c2 )
x2 b2 + c2
(9)
F = SL /Kf n = 200/150 =
But the sharper elliptical hole would not be admissible by traditional SN routines, since it has a tip radius
= c2 /b = 0.1 mm, thus a very high Kt = 1 + 2b/c = 21. Its notch
sensitivity estimated from the usual Peterson q plot [12] would
Document downloaded from http://http://www.jmrt.com.br, day 26/09/2013. This copy is for personal use. Any transmission of this document by any media or format is strictly prohibited.
291
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 3;2(3):288295
K(MPam)
10
9
K0(a)
8
KI(a)
elliptical
notch
7
6
5
S0=400MPa
K0=9MPam
a00.13mm
n=100MPa,R=1
KI(a)
circular
notch
4
3
2
20
a(mm)
0
0
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0
Fig. 4 By Eq. (9), fatigue cracks should not initiate at the circular hole border, which tolerates cracks a < 1.54 mm, while the
crack that initiates by fatigue at the elliptical notch tip should stop after reaching a
= 0.33 mm.
xed service loading conditions ( n = 100 MPa and R = 1). But
the non-propagating crack at the elliptical notch tip, a clear
evidence of fatigue damage, renders it much less robust than
the circular one, as discussed in Castro and Meggiolaro [1].
For more precise mechanical analysis purposes, the SIF
range of a single crack with length a emanating from a semielliptical notch with semi-axes b and c (where b is in the same
direction as a) at the edge of a very large plate loaded in mode
I can be written as:
KI = F
a c
,
b b
a
(10)
Kt = 1 + 2
b
1+
0.12
(1 + c/b)
(11)
2.5
To obtain expressions for F, extensive nite element calculations were performed for cracks departing from several
semi-elliptical notches. The numerical results, which agreed
well with standard solutions [14], were tted within 3% by:
Kt = 1 + 2
F
a c
,
b b
b
1+
0.12
(1 + c/b)
2.5
c b and s =
a
b+a
(12)
f (Kt , s)
=
s/2
Kt [1 exp(Kt2 )]
1 exp(sKt2 )
sKt2
cb
(13)
Document downloaded from http://http://www.jmrt.com.br, day 26/09/2013. This copy is for personal use. Any transmission of this document by any media or format is strictly prohibited.
292
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 3;2(3):288295
the -factor, but not the F(a/b,c/b) part of KI , should be considered in the short surface crack characteristic size a0 . Note
as well that these expressions for the semi-elliptical SCF Kt
include a term [1 + 0.12/(1 + c/b)2.5 ], which could be interpreted
as the notch free surface correction (FSC), because as the
ratio c/b 0 and the semi-elliptical notch tends to a crack,
3.
1 K 2
R
SR
(14)
4.
A short crack acceptance criterion for
EAC applications
The resistance to EAC in aggressive environments is an important problem for many industries, because the costs and
particularly the delivery times for special EAC-resistant alloys
keep increasing. For example, they are important in the oil
industry, where oil and gas elds can contain considerably
amounts of H2 S, and in the aeronautical industry, where very
light structures usually made of high-strength Al alloys must
operate in saline environments known to affect many of them.
Nevertheless, traditional design routines used to deal with
such problems are based on simplistic structural integrity
assessment (SIA) procedures based on an overly conservative
policy of totally avoiding materialenvironment pairs susceptible to EAC conditions. Indeed, when such conditions are
unavoidable during the service life of the structural component in question, the standard solution is just to choose
a nobler material to build it, one that is resistant or even
immune to crack initiation and/or propagation by EAC mechanisms in the operational environment. Alternatively, the
design solution may be to recover the structural component
Document downloaded from http://http://www.jmrt.com.br, day 26/09/2013. This copy is for personal use. Any transmission of this document by any media or format is strictly prohibited.
293
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 3;2(3):288295
surface with a suitable properly adherent and scratch resistant EAC-resistant coating. However, in many cases there are
no such coatings available in the market.
Such over-conservative and inexible design criteria are
certainly safe, but they can also be too expensive if an otherwise attractive material is summarily disqualied when it
may suffer EAC in the service environment, without considering any stress analysis issues. Indeed, decisions based on
this approach may cause severe cost penalties. Moreover, to
neglect the stress effect on EAC issues is equivalent to neglect
the crack growth physics, since no crack can grow unless
driven by a tensile stress, caused by the superposition of
applied loads, residual stresses induced by previous loads or
overloads, and maintenance or manufacturing procedures. In
fact, even though practical EAC conditions may be difcult
to dene, due to the number of metallurgical, chemical, and
in particular mechanical variables that affect them, SIA procedures in the design stage should always be associated to
proper stress analysis techniques to dene a maximum tolerable aw size. In other words, EAC cracks cannot be properly
evaluated neglecting the stress and strain elds that drive
them.
However, the main advantage of the methodology proposed
here is to allow the proper evaluation of existing structural
components not originally designed for EAC service, when by
any reason they pass to operate under such conditions due to
some unavoidable operational change. For example, an existing oil pipeline must pass to operate transporting originally
unforeseen amounts of H2 S due to changes in the well conditions while a new one specically designed for such service
is not built and commissioned. Such problems are not academic exercises. In fact the economical pressure to take such
a structural risk may be unavoidable, since loss of prot issues
associated with the time required for substituting a pipeline
can be quite long, especially in off shore applications.
Such uneconomical or risky decisions can at least in principle be potentially avoided by the methodology proposed
following, which extends the analysis developed to mechanically explain the behavior of deep and shallow fatigue cracks
to the EAC problem. Indeed, if cracks behave well under EAC
conditions, i.e. if Fracture Mechanics concepts can be used
to describe them, then a Kitagawa-like diagram can be used
to quantify the stresses any cracked component can tolerate
under EAC conditions, using the material EAC resistances to
dene a short crack characteristic size under EAC conditions
by:
a0 =
1 K
2
IEAC
SEAC
(15)
=Sscc
(MPa)
8
3
2
=1.5
KIscc
a g(a/w)
Sscc(a)=
a o=
KIscc[1+(a0/a)/2]-1/
KIscc 2
a g(a/w)
.Sscc
a(mm)
amax
1 K (1 + a /a)/2 1/
0
IEAC
a g(a/w)
(16)
5.
Educated guesses for tolerable cracks
under EAC conditions
It is now possible to estimate characteristic (a0 ) and tolerable (amax ) sizes for cracks that initiate from notches,
e.g. with depth b = 10 mm and various tip radii , using
SEAC and KIEAC data gathered on the literature for three
materialenvironment pairs [1619]. Fig. 6 denes the notch
parameters and Table 1 lists the material and geometric properties used in this analysis.
The reason for using just the three materialenvironment
pairs in Table 1 is simple: it is a little bit hard to nd the parameters KIEAC and SEAC measured under identical conditions on
the literature. Maybe this could be explained by the lack of
models that try to unify these parameters as joint crack driving
forces under EAC conditions.
Fig. 7 shows a graphical interpretation for the short crack
tolerance predicted by the proposed model equations. The
maximum allowed crack size is obtained when the applied SIF
KI (a) becomes higher than the short crack propagation threshold KIEAC (a). Once again, it is worth to emphasize that this
predicted behavior is totally similar to the one observed under
fatigue conditions. This similitude indicates that a notch sensitivity factor could indeed be proposed to properly treat stress
Document downloaded from http://http://www.jmrt.com.br, day 26/09/2013. This copy is for personal use. Any transmission of this document by any media or format is strictly prohibited.
294
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 3;2(3):288295
Table 1 Estimated results for tolerable crack sizes at some notch geometries.
Material/environment
Aluminum 2024/
gallium
SEAC (MPa)
KIEAC (MPa * m)
a0 (mm)
b (mm)
(mm)
Kt
= SEAC /Kt (MPa)
amax (mm)
Aluminum 2024/
NACE solution
70
1.2
0.075
10
0.335
12.881
5.434
1.9
140
8
0.829
10
3.136
4.754
29.448
6.65
0.1
440
30
1.18
10
4.9
3.982
110.5
5.41
0.05
A
C
2
3
a (mm)
0.05
0.1
analysis issues in EAC problems, eliminating the need to continue using overly conservative passfail criteria to deal with
such problems.
Graphical solutions can provide other important visual
information as illustrated in Fig. 8, which shows that a aw on
the size region A could propagate until reaching the region
B when it would become non-propagating because it reaches
the condition KI (a) < KIEAC (a). Nevertheless, all aws sizes on
KI(MPam)
KIEAC(a)
KI(a)
1.0
0.5
KI(a)=a g(a/w)
KIEAC(a)=KIEAC[1+(ao/a)/2]-1/
a(mm)
0
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
amax
2.0
6.
Conclusions
Document downloaded from http://http://www.jmrt.com.br, day 26/09/2013. This copy is for personal use. Any transmission of this document by any media or format is strictly prohibited.
j m a t e r r e s t e c h n o l . 2 0 1 3;2(3):288295
Conicts of interest
The authors declare no conicts of interest.
Acknowledgements
CNPq and Petrobras have provided research scholarships
for the authors. Dr. A. Vasudevan from the Ofce of Naval
Research of the US Navy has contributed with many stimulating discussions.
references
295