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DESIGN
OF
EXPERIMENTS
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CHAPTER 3
DESIGN OF EXPERIMENTS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Design of Experiment (DoE) is a useful method in identifying the significant parameters and
in studying the possible effect of the variables during the machining trials. This method also
can developed experiment between a ranges from uncontrollable factors, which will be
introduced randomly to carefully controlled parameters. The factors must be either
quantitative or qualitative. The range of values for quantitative factors must be decided on
how they are going to be measured and the level at which they will be controlled during the
trials. Meanwhile, the qualitative factors are parameters that will be determined discretely.
The advantages of design of experiments are as follows:
Important decision variables which control and improve the performance of the
product or the process can be identified.
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II.
Determine where to set the influential controllable process variables so that response
is almost always near the desired nominal value.
III.
IV.
Determine where to set the influential process variables so that the effects of the
uncontrollable variables are minimized.
Statistical design of experiments refers to the process of planning the experiment so that
appropriate data that can be analyzed by statistical methods will be collected, resulting in
valid and objective conclusions.
The statistical approach to experimental design is necessary if we wish to draw a
meaningful conclusion from the data [62].
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II.
Mathematical Modeling
III.
Orthogonal Array
IV.
ANOVA
Multiple regression is a statistical technique that allows to predict someones score on one
variable on the basis of their scores on several other variables. Multiple linear regression
examines the linear relationships between one continuous response and two or more
predictors. The independent variable that is used to predict values of the dependent, or
response variable in a regression analysis, If the number of predictors is large, then before
fitting a regression model with all the predictors, use stepwise techniques to screen out
predictors not associated with the responses [65].
A current trend in statistics is to emphasize the similarity between multiple regression and
ANOVA, and between correlation and the t-test. All of these statistical techniques are
basically seeking to do the same thing explain the variance in the level of one variable on
the basis of the level of one or more other variables. These other variables might be
manipulated directly in the case of controlled experiments, or be observed in the case of
surveys or observational studies, but the underlying principle is the same. Thus, although we
have given separate chapters to each of these procedures they are fundamentally all the
same procedure. This underlying single approach is called the General Linear Model [64].
Multiple linear regression attempts to model the relationship between two or more
explanatory variables and a response variable by fitting a linear equation to observed data
[66].
Every value of the independent variable x is associated with a value of the dependent
variable y.
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The regression line for p explanatory variables x1, x2,. ..., xp is defined to be
= + + + +
The mean response , described by the regression line changes with the explanatory
variables. The observed values for y vary about their means and are assumed to have
the
same
standard
deviation .
The
fitted
the
parameters , , of the regression line. Since the observed values for y vary about
their means , the multiple regression model includes a term for this variation.
The regression model is expressed as Data = Fit + Residual [66], where the
"Fit" term represents the expression + + + + .
The "Residual" term represents the deviations of the observed values y from their
means , which is normally distributed with mean 0 and variance . The notation for the
model deviations is
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(or MSE).
The estimate of the standard error s is the square root of the MSE [66].
3.2.2 MATHEMATICAL MODELING
Once experimental design becomes final, the next step is to fit the given data in
mathematical model using regression analysis.
A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and
language. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical
modeling. Mathematical models are used in engineers, statisticians, research analysts
and economists use mathematical models most extensively. In general, mathematical
models may include logical models, as far as logic is taken as a part of mathematics. In many
cases, the quality of a scientific field depends on how well the mathematical models
developed on the theoretical side agree with results of repeatable experiments. Lack of
agreement between theoretical mathematical models and experimental measurements
often leads to important advances as better theories are developed [67].
3.2.3 ORTHOGONAL ARRAY
Orthogonal array (OA) represents a simplified method of putting together an experiment.
Taguhis orthogonal arrays are selected on the basis of the condition that the total degree of
freedom of selected OA must be greater than or equal to the total degree of freedom
required for the experiment [68].
An orthogonal array provides a set of well balance (minimum experimental runs)
experiments and used to design experiments and describe trial condition. Experiments
design using orthogonal arrays yield result that are more reproducible.
Standard notation for orthogonal arrays [69].
LN (XY)
Where,
N = Number of experiments, X = Number of levels, Y = Number of factors
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For example:
2- Level Arrays: L4 (27), L12 (211), L16 (215)
3- Level Arrays: L9 (34), L18 (2137), L27 (313)
4- Level Arrays: L16 (45), L32 (2148)
Example: L9 (34)
9 = Number of experiments, 3 = Number of levels, 4 = Number of factors
Taguchis orthogonal arrays are experimental designs that usually require only a fraction of
full factorial combination. The columns of arrays are balanced and orthogonal i.e, in each
pair of columns, all factors combinations occurs the same number of times. Orthogonal
designs allow estimating the effect of each factor on the response independently of all other
factors.
There are 18 basic types of standard Orthogonal array (OA) in the Taguchi parameter design
[]. Since four factors were studied in the present work, three levels of each were considered.
Therefore an L9 (34) Orthogonal array has been selected in the present study, for multiperformance optimisation shown in Table 3.1.
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Runs
3.2.4 ANOVA
The purpose of the ANOVA is to investigate which wire EDM process parameters
significantly affect the quality characteristics. This is accomplished by separating the total
variability of the S/N ratios, which is measured by the sum of the squared deviations from
the total mean of S/N ratio, into contributions by each Wire EDM process parameter and
error. The percentage contribution by each of the process parameter in the total sum of
squared deviations can be used to evaluate the importance of the process parameter
change on the quality characteristic. In addition the F-test method can also be used to
determine which Wire EDM process parameter has a significant effect on the quality
characteristic when the F value is large. The fundamental technique is a partitioning of the
total sum of squares S into components related to the effects used in the model. For
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example, we show the model for a simplified ANOVA with one type of treatment at different
levels.
= +
So, the number of degrees of freedom f can be partitioned in a similar way and specifies
the chi- squared distribution which describes the associated sums of squares
= +
The F-test is used for comparisons of the components of the total deviation. For example, in
one-way or single-factor ANOVA, statistical significance is tested for by comparing the F test
statistic [70].
ANOVA for Multiple Linear Regression:
Multiple linear regression tries to fit a regression line for a response variable by using more
than one explanatory variable. ANOVA calculations for multiple regression are nearly
identical to the calculations for simple linear regression, except that the degrees of freedom
are adjusted to reflect the number of explanatory variables included in the model [71].
3.3 TEST FOR SIGNIFICANCE OF REGRESSION [72]
The test for significance is a test to determine if there is a linear relationship between the
response variable y and a subset of the regressor variables x1, x2,.., xk.
Once the co-efficient have been estimated and tested for their significance, the estimated
regression equation is then tested for the adequacy of fit.
The appropriate hypotheses are
: = = = =
:
Rejection of in equation indicates that at least one of the regressor variables x1, x2,..,
xk. Contribute significantly to the model. The test procedure involves an analysis of variance
partitioning of the total sum of squares due to the model (or regression) and a sum of
squares due to residual (or error).
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= +
Now, if null hypothesis : = = = = is true, then / is distributed as
, where the number of degree of freedom for are equal to the number of regressor
variable in the model.
Computational formula for error sum of square
=(
y i )2
= , '
The regression sum of square
= '
Table 3.2 Shows Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for significance of Regression in Multiple
Regression
Source of
Degree of freedom
Sum of square
Mean square
variation
(df)
(SS)
(ms)
Due to regression
SSR
MSR = SSR/k
(error)
Nk-1
SSE
MSE = SSE/(n k 1)
Total
N-1
SST
Due to residual
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FO
MSR/MSE
The estimated regression equation fits the data adequately if P<0.05 at 95% confidence
level or if P< 0.99 at 99% confidence level.
The coefficient of multiple determinations R2
R squared: A measure of the amount of reduction in the variability of y obtained by using
regressor variables x1, x2,.., xk in the model.
2 =
=1
Adjusted R squared: A measure of the amount of variation around the mean explained by
the model, adjusted for the number of terms in the model. The adjusted R-squared
decreases as the number of forms in the model increase, if those additional terms do not
add value to the model.
2 =
/( )
1
= 1
(1 2 )
/( 1)
PRESS: The prediction sum of squares (PRESS) provides a useful residual scaling.
=
=1
Pred R- squared: A measure of the amount of variation in new data explained by the model.
= 1
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The predicted R2 and adj- R2 should be within 0.20 of each other otherwise there may be
problem with either data or the model. In addition to the adequacy test mention above the
validity of developed models checked by drawing scatter diagram which shows the
relationship between the observed and predicted values of the weld bead dimension.
, , , . ,
yi
=nm
The sum of square for lack of fit
=
y i y i
=
=
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/( )
=
/( )
The present study has utilized the Multiple linear regression analysis to predict model and
find the optimal parameter settings.
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