INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY - KATUNAYAKE

INTRODUCTION TO FUELS AND LUBRICANTS

1.
Analysis of fuel oils the average carbon, hydrogen, sulphur and ASH
contents.
CONSTITUENT OR
PROPERTY

PETROL

RESOURC
E

DIESEL

85.5
14.4
0.1
733
18

86.3
13.6
0.1
739
20

86.3
12.8
0.9
870
55

BOILER
FUEL
RESIDUAL
86.1
11.8
2.1
950
3300

0
47

50
46.7

85
46.0

90
44

43.7

43.6

43.3

41.4

Carbon %
Hydrogen %
Sulphur %
Density Kg / m3
Viscosity Redwood No. 1
at 380C
Closed flash point 0C
Higher calorific value
MJ / Kg
Lower calorific value MJ /
Kg

However the oil higher the viscosity and flash point and lower the calorific
value.
ASH Consists of hard abrasive mineral particles such as quartz,
silicates, iron and
aluminium oxides sand etc.
A sample of oil (250 ml minimum) is cautiously and slowly
heated and evaporated to dryness and ignition continued until all
traces of carbon have disappeared. ASH is then expressed as
amass percentage of the original sample.
The percentage is about 0.02 to about 0.2 % this may be found
in residual fuel.

FLASH POINT

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This is the minimum temperature at which an oil gives off flammable vapor
which on the application of a flame in a specified apparatus would cause
momentary ignition.
The test may be open or closed depending on whether the apparatus is
sealed or not.

IMPORTANCE OF FLASH POINT

Oils with flash points below 220C are classified as dangerous highly
flammable, such oils are gasolines, benzines etc.
Flash points in the range 220C 660C would relate to kerosenes and
vaporising oils.
Flash points above 660C are classified as safe for marine purposes and
include, gas diesel and fuel oils.
Approximate closed flash point .
Petrol
Paraffin
Diesel Oil
Heavy Fuel oil
Lubricating oil

-200 C

250 C
950 C
1000 C
2300 C

Above are average values because there are grades and types. Ex. Petrol
600 C to 250 C.
The flash point is indicative of the fire and explosion risk for storage and
transport for ship board requirements it is a rule that the oil for propulsion
should have a minimum flash point of 66 0C. Also that the oil should not be
heated above 520C.
In special cases where high viscosity oils are used and high degrees of
heating are required to produce atomization, etc. It is allowable to heat to
the oil to within 200C of the closed flash point.

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY - KATUNAYAKE

Care must be taken regarding the control of heat situated on the suction side
of the fuel oil pumps to avoid oil vaporization and the possibility of explosive
vapour formation.

Accidental ignition of fuels oils / precautions

(1).

Keeping a good eye on temperatures of any oils that may be heated

close monitoring.

(2).

Alarms to give warning if temp increases above a safe point.

(3).

Leakages from pipes. Then the leaks to be rectifies.

(4).

High pressure pipe lines (Encased from fuel pump to injector fully
covered new regulation) double skin (Sheathed)

(5).

Some ships are fitted with electrical oil heaters the temp of the oil can
rise if oil flow stops and current switches off the power supply.
Check regularly and ensure cut outs works.

(6).

Steam heaters the max temp to which oil can rise will corresopond
with the saturation temp of the steam. So it will not exceed this temp if
there is no oil flow.
Thermostat to check.

(7).

F/O setting tanks and service tanks are pipes are led to above the fire
deck levels fitted with metallic gause screens overflow pipes
led
to a drain tank.

ALARMS FITTED -

Low level / High level

High fuel temperature
Periodical testing of alarms
Settings of alarms to be checked

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY - KATUNAYAKE

During transfer of oil taking attention not to fill overflow tanks.
VISCOSITY
Viscosity may be described as the property of a fluid (Liquid, vapor, gas)
which is related to its ability to flow.
Thin liquids flow more easily than thick liquids.
This resistance to flow is caused by the shear resistance between adjacent
layer in the moving fluid.
On this basis we may define viscosity as that property of a fluid which tends
to prevent relative movement between adjacent parts within it self.
For atomization of fuels it is necessary to heat high viscosity fuels so that the
viscosity is less than 300 Sec. redwood No. 1.At the injector and near 100
Sec. redwood no 1in internal combustion engines.
Viscosity diesel oil is 50.5 redwood no. 1
It is very essential to specify the temp at which the viscosity is quoted
because increase of temp has a marked effect in reducing the viscosity. Temp
& viscosity are closely related in the choise of an oil for a particular duty.
Redwood viscosities are quoted at 21, 38, 60, 94, & 121 fuel oil is usually
quoted at 380C and lubrication oil at 600%.
Viscosity Temperature Curves

Redwood No. 1 seconds (Log Scale)

3500

1500

675

275
180

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY - KATUNAYAKE

100
55
38
94

66

82

110
Temp 0C

It is not possible to calculate viscosities at different temps without the use of

viscosity temp curves.
In the case of lubricating oil if viscosity is reduces beyond a certain value
metal to metal contact may occur.
TESTS
Flash Point
The test may be open or closed flash point depending on whether the
apparatus is sealed or not, the closed flash point is always lower because the
lid seal allows accumulation of the volatiles above the liquid surface. The test
applied for oils above 450C which is usual marine range is the pensky marten
closed flashpoint test.
For oils above 450C the apparatus would be used.
Stirer
Testing
Thermometer
Flame element
to

Spring handle
Operate

shutter
When the operating
Handle is depressed
The shutter un covers
the ports (Down movement )
of handle open a shutter

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Ports (B)
Oil cup
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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY - KATUNAYAKE

just below the ports by
means of a rachet, further
jacket
movement and rachetjravel
gives a flame insertion
(Not simple to Draw)

Heated
electric

Gauze

The pensky marten (Closed test

Flame element is depressed through one port above the oil surface. Starting
at a temp 170C below the Judged flash point the flame is depressed left and
quickly raised in a period under 2 seconds at 10C temp intervals.
Just before the flash point is reached a blue shadow occurs around the flame,
the flash point is observe just after this, through the two observation ports,
stirring being discontinued during flame depression.
A fresh sample must be used for every test no trace of solvents must be
present in oil cup.

Thermometers

Copper heating
Tank

Stirrer handle

Fixed oil head

82.5 mm
Oil cup
(135 ml)

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Water is used as the

stirrer
liquid in heating, bath
up to 940 C and heating
oil for higher tube
temps
valve

Bladed

Drain
Orifice (1.62 mm dia)
50 ml flask
Apparatus must

be
Clean and must
be
level
THE REDWOOD VISCOMETER

British
The time for 50 ml outflow is taken by stop watch temperature accuracy is
important a variation of + 0 .10 C is a maximum for temperature up to 600C.
The result is expressed in seconds at the quoted temperature. eg. 500 Secs
redwood No. 1 at 380C.
Redwood No. 1 is the outflow time in Secs of 50 ml of fluid and is used up to
2000 s.
Redwood No. 2 is for oils with outflow time exceeding 2000 s. (usually but
not always) and is designed to give ten times the flow rate of the redwood
No. 1 Orifice test falling sphere viscometer.
TEST / FALLING SPHERE VISCOMETER
American practice
Saybolt universal and say bolt eurol are used in a similar manner.

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But they employ a different orifice size.
DYNAMIC VISCOSITY
Difficult to determine.
Numerically equal to that force to shear a plane fluid surface of one square
meter over another plane surface at the rate of one meter per second. When
the distance between the two surface is one meter.
Centistokes at 50% (1M2 / s = 106 cst)
Approximate relationships between the scales.
1.000
0.100
1.130
0.113
0.033
0.125

Redwood No. 1 second

Redwood No. 2 second
say bolt universal second
say bolt eurol second
engler degree
centistokes

Values of viscosity must be known when oil has to be transferred from tank
to tank on board as vessel. If the viscosity is very high oil has to be heated to
that the pump is able to handle. Specially in cold weather oil transfers
becomes difficult as viscosity increases and oil can become gummy. Normally
double bottom tanks are provided with steam heating coils for heating the oil
which has to be done gradually before transferring.
Viscosity for atomization and injection for engines care must be taken as
excessive heating causes vapourising of oil. Which may form explosive
misture with air and also suction becomes difficult for the pump.
Flash point must be known as heating is done so that oil in storage is heated
to within 200C of the closed flash point.
WATER CONTENT
Quick test for presence of water and a sample to copper sulphate (CuSO 4)
which turns to blue in the presence of water.
Water finding paste
I.P. Standard test
100 ml of sample is mixed
completely with 100 ml of

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Glass tube water cooled

reflux condenser
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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY - KATUNAYAKE

special high grade gasoline
having standard properties
Heat is applied for about
one hour. Water vapoures
are carried over with the
distilled gasoline and are
condensed in the condenser
and measured in the
lower part of the receiver.

Graduated
receiver
for water

The result being expressed

as say 1% water I.P. method.
This is a very simplified diagram.
500 ml
Distillated
Flask

Gas burner
Water contamination in L/O
A drop of oils is placed on to a blotting paper then the shape and colour of
the spot gives indication of oil condition. An irregular shape indicates the
presence of water.

QUESTION ON F/O AND 4/O S

(1). Give the average contents of, carbon hydrogen, sulphur and ASH in
following fuels.
Petrol, Kerosene, Marine Diesel
Boiler Fuel Oil

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INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY - KATUNAYAKE

(2).

Define flash point

What are the flash points of following petrol, Kerosene, marine diesel

fuel
Boiler fuel oil, lubricating oil
Explain the importance of flash point
(3).

What are the precautions necessary to prevent accidental ignition of

oils listed in question (2).

(4).

Describe on experiment to determine the closed flash point of a fuel oil

what is the effect of temperature on viscosity.

(5).

Define viscosity describe an experiment to find viscosity of a fuel oil.

Why is it necessary to raise the temperature of some fuel oils.

(6).

Explain why both flash point and viscosity have to be considered

storage and transferring fuel oils and lubricating oils.

(7).

Describe a test to determine the water content in F/O & L/O.

Describe a salinometer state how it is graduate.

Purpose is to measure the density of water.
It has a Hollow spherical Bulb 1.5 mm in diameter Instrument constructed of
light sheet copper as it is chromium plated for protection against corrosion.

Upper stem flat

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Hollow spherical bulb

Hollow steam
Contains lead shots to make
It upright
Boiler density can be engine is express in ounces / gallon or is thirty
seconds Some salinometers with bottle scale.
A density of 1/32 corresponds to 5 ounces / gallons or 2/32 to 10 ounces full
gallon and
Signifies that 5 ounces of solids are dissolved in a gallon of pure water.
As the density of the liquid varies with the temperature. It is necessary to
take the reading at the temperature mark on the instrument which is 2000F.
A thermometer is required when using the salinometer.

CARBON RESIDUE (CONRADSON METHOD)

This test indicates the relative carbon forming propensity of an oil. The
test is a means of determining the residual carbon, etc., left when an oil is
burned under specified conditions. This test has been used much more in
recent times in line with the use of high viscosity fuels in L C. engines.
The mass of the sample placed in the silica crucible must not exceed 0.01
kg.
Initial heating period 10 minutes 1 1/2, vapour burn off period 13 minutes
1, further heating for exactly 7 minutes, total heating period 30 minutes 2. The covers must be a loose fit to allow vapours to escape.

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The heating and test method are closely controlled. After re moval of
sample and weighing, the result is expressed as 'Carbon Residue
(Conradson)' as a percentage of the original sample mass. The test is
usually repeated a number of times to obtain a uniformity of results.

VISCOSITY CONTROL
Consider first the viscometer(Fig. 2.19). A gear pump is driven by a
constant speed electric motor through a reduction gear. A small constant
quantity of oil (fuel in this case) is passed through the fine capillary tube.
As the flow is arranged to be stream-line (laminar), as distinct from
turbulent, the differential pressure across the capillary tube is directly
proportional to the viscosity of the oil. This differential pressure in two
tappings, shown + and , is led from the viscometer to a differential
pressure transmitter (D.P. cell) (upper sketch).

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Consider the D. P. transmitter (Fig. 2.19). Differential pressure from the
viscometer is applied across the diaphragm of the transmitter.
Increased differential pressure, caused by increased viscosity, causes the
diaphragm and balance beam to move to the left. The air inlet no/Ac is
closed in and air pressure builds up in the feedback bellows due to a
relay supplying increased air pressure to the feedback bellows (not
shown on Fig. 2.19). Equilibrium occurs when the feedback force
equals the originating force, under these conditions air escape is
minimal. The feedback bellows pressure is the control output signal.
Transmitter diaphragm chambers are filled with glycerine or silicone as
oil would clog the parts.

In practice the output signal is fed to a controller (and recorder) to control

the steam flow to the oil fuel heater which will cause viscosity adjustment.
The actuator has a piston and valve positioner. The controller has desired
value setting and incorporates a reset (integral) action. This detail has been
simplified for examination sketch purposes on Fig. 2.19, lower sketch, so
that the out-put pressure increase from the feedback bellows (due to
viscosity increase) directly increases air pressure on a diaphragm valve to
open up steam to the oil fuel heater, to reduce fuel viscosity.
In fact it is generally not good control practice to control one variable by
means of another (this induces time delays and can cause appreciable
offset) but it is sometimes unavoidable.

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VISCOMETER AND DP CELL TRANSMITTER

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