ANATOMY

dissect, cut apart, and separate parts of the body for study.

study of the structure and shape of the body and body parts and their
relationship to one another.

Covers a wide range of studies:

- Structures of body parts
- Microscopic organization
- Process by which they develop
- Examines the relationship between the structure of a
body part and its function
CHAPTER 1
Anatomy and physiologY
Subdivisions
Gross Anatomy
-Large, easily observable structures (heart, bones, muscles etc.)
Microscopic Anatomy
-Use of microscope or magnifying instrument to see very small objects (cells and
tissues)
TWO BASIC APPROACHES in studying
Systemic Anatomy
Regional Anatomy
Two basic approaches in studying anatomy
SYSTEMIC ANATOMY
- study of the body by system.
Nervous
Muscular
Skeletal

Digestive
Integumentary
Respiratory

Regional Anatomy
- Study of the body by areas.
Head

Thorax

Upper Extremities

Abdomen

pelvis

lower Extremities

2 Procedures to examine the internal structures of a living person:

1. SURFACE ANATOMY
- Study of external features, which serves as landmarks for locating
deeper structures.
2. ANATOMICAL IMAGING
- involves the use of x-rays, ultrasound, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Ultrasound machine and other technologies to create pictures of the

internal structures
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
X-RAY MACHINE
Computerized Axial Tomography (CT Scan)

PHYSIOLOGY
-

the scientific discipline that deals with the processes or functions of

living things.

Divided according to:

1. The organisms involved;
Human physiology the study of specific organisms, the human.
2. The levels of organization within a given organism.
Cellular & systemic physiology emphasize specific organizational levels.

Major goals of Physiology are:

(1) To understand and predict the bodys responses to stimuli;
(2) To understand how the body maintains conditions within the narrow
range of values in the presence of a continually changing environment.

ORGANIZATION OF THE HUMAN BODY:

A. CHEMICAL
A. ATOM
- Tiny building blocks of matter.
- Combine to form molecules like water, sugar, proteins;
B. CELLS
- Smallest unit of living things.
C. TISSUES
- Groups of similar cells that have a common function.
D. ORGANS
- a structure consisting 2 or more types of tissues performing a specific
type of function.
E. SYSTEM
- group of organs that cooperate accomplish a common purpose.
F. ORGANISM
- Is any living thing considered as a whole
- made up by a group of organ systems.
ORGAN SYSTEM OVERVIEW
INTEGUMENTARY
SYSTEM
-

Provides protection

Regulates temperature

Prevents water loss

Produces Vitamin D precursors

- Consists of skin, hair, nails & sweat glands

The Skeletal System

-

Provides protection & support

Allows body movements

Produces blood cells

Stores mineral & fat

Consists of bones, associated cartilages, ligaments & joints

The Muscular System

-

Provides body movements

Maintains posture

Produces body heat

Consists of muscles attached to the skeleton by the tendons

The Lymphatic System

-

Removes foreign substances from the blood & lymph

Combats diseases, maintains body fluid balance, & absorbs fat from
the digestive tract.

Consists of the lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, & other lymphatic

organs.

The Respiratory System

-

Exchanges oxygen & carbon dioxide between the blood & air &
regulates blood pH

Consists of the lungs & respiratory passages.

The Digestive System

-

Performs the mechanical & chemical processes of digestion,

absorption of nutrients, & elimination of wastes.

Consists of the mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, & accessory

organs.

The Nervous System

A major regulatory system that detects sensations & controls

movements, physiological processes, & intellectual functions.

Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves & sensory receptors.

The Endocrine System

- A major regulatory system that influences metabolism, growth,
production, & many other functions.
- Consists of glands, such as the pituitary, that secretes hormones.

The Cardiovascular System

-

Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, & hormones throughout

the body.

Plays a role in the immune response & the regulation of body

temperature.

- Consists of the heart, blood vessels & blood.

The Urinary
System
- Removes waste
products from the
blood & regulates
blood pH, ion
balance, & water
balance.
-

Consists of

the kidneys, urinary bladder, & ducts that carry urine.

The Female Reproductive System

-

Produces oocytes & is the site of fertilization & fetal development;

produces milk for the newborn.

Produces hormones that influence sexual function & behaviors.

Consists of the ovaries, vagina, uterus, mammary glands, &
associated structures.

The Male Reproductive System

- Produces & transfers sperm cells to the female & produces hormones
that influence sexual functions & behaviors.
-

Consists of the testes, accessory structures, ducts & the penis.

Characteristics of Life

Organization

Metabolism

Responsiveness

Growth

Development

Reproduction

Necessary Life Functions

Maintaining boundaries

- every cell of the body is surrounded by external membrane that contains its
contents & allows needed substances in while restricting unnecessary substances or
potentially damaging substances.

Movement

- includes all activities promoted by the muscular system.

Responsiveness

- ability of the organism to sense changes in the environment & make adjustments
that help maintain its life.

Digestion

- breaking down of food ingested into simple molecules capable of being absorbed
by the body.

Excretion

- process of removing excreta or wastes from the body.

Reproduction

- formation of new cells & organisms.

Metabolism

- Ability to use energy to perform vital functions such as growth, movement &
reproduction.

Growth

- an increase in size of all or part of the organism. It can result to an increase in cell
number, size or the amount of substances surrounding the cells.

Homeostasis
homeo the same
stasis standing
-Ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside
world is constantly changing

 Variables
Set point ideal normal value
Normal Range

HOMEOSTATIC CONTROL MECHANISMS

2 Kinds of Mechanisms:
1. Negative Feedback Mechanism
- functions to maintain homeostasis
- any deviation from the set point is made smaller or is resisted. It does not prevent
variation but rather it keeps variation within normal range.
e.g. maintenance in BP
Maintenance in Body Temp.
3 Components of the Negative-feedback Mechanism
(1) Receptor monitors the value of a variable
(2) Control System - establishes the set point around which the variable is
maintained.
(3) Effector can change the value of the variable.
2.) POSITIVE FEEDBACK MECHANISM
- Not homeostatic & are rarely in healthy individuals.
- Positive implies that when a deviation from a normal value occurs, the response
of the system is to make the deviation even greater. Positive feedback therefore
usually creates a cycle leading away from homeostasis & in some cases results in
death.
HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE

What is Homeostatic Imbalance?

Disturbance to homeostasis that results to disease

THE LANGUAGE OF ANATOMY
ANATOMICAL TERMS

A. Anatomic position (standard body position)

- refers to person standing erect with the face directed forward, the upper limbs
hanging to the sides, & the palms of the hands facing forward.
Body positions:

Supine lying with face upward.

Prone lying with face downward.

B. Planes of Division
1. Directional Terms

Superior

- means above

Inferior

- means below

Anterior/Ventral

Posterior/dorsal - means back

Proximal

- means nearest

Distal

- means farthest

- means front

Medial

- means towards the midline

Lateral

- means away from the midline or side

Superficial

close to the surface of the body

Deep

- toward the interior of the body

Body Parts and Regions

Upper limb

Arm

Forearm

Wrist

Hand

Lower limb

Thigh

Leg

Ankle

Foot

Central Region

Head

Neck

Trunk
Thorax
Abdomen
Pelvis

Regional Terms

Visible body landmarks on the surface of the body.

Divisions

Anterior body landmarks

Posterior body landmarks

Anterior body landmarks

2.c.1. Central Region
Cephalic (Head)

Frontal (forehead)

Orbital (eye)

Nasal (nose)

Oral (mouth)

Otic (ear)

Buccal (cheek)

Mental (chin)

Cervical (neck)

Trunk

Thoracic (thorax)
- Pectoral (chest)

- Sternal (breastbone)
- Mammary (breast)

Abdominal (abdomen)

Umbilical (navel)

Pelvic (pelvis)

Inguinal (groin)

Pubic (genital)

Upper Limb

clavicular (collar bone)

axillary (arm pit)

brachial (arm)

antecubital (front of elbow)

carpal (wrist)

palmar (palm) Manual

digital (fingers) (hand) .

Lower Limb

Coxal (hip)

Femoral (thigh)

Patellar (knee cap)

Crural (leg)

Talus (ankle)

Dorsum (top of foot)

Digital (toes)

Pedal (foot)

POSTERIOR BODY LANDMARKS

Cranial (skull)

Occipital (Base of skull)

Nuchal (Back of neck)

Trunk

Scapular (shoulder blade) Dorsal

Vertebral (spinal column) (back)

Lumbar (loin)

Sacral (between hips)

Gluteal (buttocks)

Perineal (perineum)

Upper limb
Acromial (point of the
shoulder)
Olecranon (point of elbow)
Dorsum (back of hand)

Lower limb
Popliteal (hollow behind the knee)
Sural (calf)
Plantar (sole)
Calcaneal (heel)

C. Subdivisions of the Abdomen

ABDOMINAL REGION

Umbilical region

Epigastric region

Hypogastric region (pubic area)

Right & left iliac regions (inguinal regions)

Right & left lumbar regions (loin regions)

Right & left hypochondriac regions

9 Regions of the Abdomen

Umbilical region area around the umbilicus
- includes sections of the small & large intestines, inferior vena cava, & abdominal
aorta.
Epigastric region superior to the umbilical region.
- contains most of the pancreas & portions of the stomach, liver, inferior vena cava,
abdominal aorta, & Duodenum.
Hypogastric region ( Pubic area)
- lies inferior to the umbilical region.
- prominent structures include a portion of a sigmoid colon, urinary bladder &
ureters, & portions of the small intestines.

Right & Left Iliac regions (Inguinal regions)

- situated on either side of the hypogastric region.
- They include portions of the small & large intestines.

Right & Left Lumbar Regions (loin regions)

- located on either side of the umbilical region.
- they include portions of the small & large intestines & portions of the kidneys.
Right & Left
Hypochondriac Regions
- located on either side of the epigastric region
- they contain the diaphragm, portions of the kidneys, the right side of the liver, the
spleen &part of the pancreas.
PLANES
PLANES imaginary flat surfaces passing through it.
(1) Sagittal plane
(2) Midsagittal plane
(3) Transverse
(4) Frontal plane
(5) Longitudinal section
(6) Transverse (cross-section)
(7) Oblique section
Sagittal plane
runs vertically through the body & separates it into right & left parts.
Midsagittal plane divides the body into equal left & right parts.
Transverse plane means horizontal & runs parallel to the surface of the ground &
divides the body into superior & inferior parts.
Frontal plane a.k.a. coronal plane

- runs vertically from right to left & divides the body into anterior & posterior parts.
Longitudinal section a cut through the long axis of the organ.
Transverse (cross-section) cut at a right angle to the long axis.
Oblique section cut made across the long axis other than a right angle.
Sagittal, transverse & frontal section of the body

Longitudinal, Transverse & Oblique section of an intestine