PART 1

go
0:04
room
0:07
theme
0:17
hmm inch after a we will describe and discuss well completion
0:21
well completion means preparing the well for production of course
0:27
well completion is warranted only way I am the well has sufficient amount of oil
0:32
and gas to be commercially viable
0:34
that is why the data from all the evaluations and tests in chapter seven
0:40
were so important
0:41
now with probable positive evaluations
0:45
we are ready to complete the open hole part of the well
0:49
this open hole
0:52
where we conducted our wireline tests and coring
0:55
can now be cased and cemented to become a closed hole
0:59
when we talk about running casing and well completion
1:03
we r only referring to the casing that in cases on or zones of interest
1:08
in the open hole these casing strings
1:11
are referred to as production casing it is sometimes easy to confuse the
1:17
function of production casing
1:19
with those I'll surface or intermediate casing
1:22
let me explain surface casing for example
1:27
is the first case in string to be run
1:30
when the well as for stroke as the name implies
1:34
this surface casing sits at the top part
1:37

up the well and is attached to the wellhead its primary function

1:42
is to protect the groundwater formations from contamination
1:46
in deeper wells a second type
1:50
call it intermediate casing is run and cemented
1:54
where intermediate casing is required
1:58
its primary function is to protect and support the whole
2:02
above the zone or zones of interest surface
2:06
and if needed intermediate casing
2:10
strings are installed during drilling are all wells regardless of whether they
2:14
are commercially viable or not
2:18
production casing strings on the other hand are already run when the well shows
2:22
promise
2:23
up becoming a producing oil well running and cementing these casing segments are
2:29
all part are the first steps in well completion
2:32
once the production casing is run
2:36
and cemented an attached to the surface and the intermediate casing string at
2:40
the wellhead
2:41
these casings for what is known as a close whole
2:45
are cased hole this whole from the top to the bottom
2:49
is now sealed off from the natural fluids and solids that exist in the
2:54
subsurface
2:55
well completion however
2:58
involves more than running casing and sealing the hole
3:01
to complete a well after the casing is run and cemented
3:05
the following procedures can be performed one
3:09

perforation once the production casing is in place

3:12
in the zones of interest the casing is then perforated
3:16
which means life through the casing string
3:19
the cement and deep into the formation to
3:23
stimulation after perforating is on
3:26
is stimulated so that inadequate production or flow rate
3:30
other hydrocarbons can be attained 3
3:34
if needed design can also be gravel packed
3:37
to stop Sam production for
3:41
finally the well is equipped with two men Packers
3:44
and a Christmas tree to control the flow of fluids to the surface
3:48
before I describe each other
3:52
above procedures to finalize well completion in more detail
3:56
let me take a minute to explain what action is taken
3:59
when I well as not commercially viable when I well
4:03
exhibits no zones of interest or has little commercial viability
4:08
it is declared a dry hole this well
4:11
is then permanently plugged and abandoned called P&A
4:15
for plug and abandon this procedure requires that several cement plugs
4:20
be placed in the hole to seal it in previous lectures
4:24
we've mentioned that wildcat wells wells in areas where no one has drill before
4:30
are more likely to be dry holes
4:33
industry figures suggest that as many as 75 percent of all drilled wildcat wells
4:39
are dry
4:40
PN a procedures therefore can become quite routine
4:44

in Wildcat areas
4:47
that said the rest is this lecture will pertain to the procedures
4:51
and their functions used in well completion
4:55
although already mentioned will again present the three types of casing
4:59
strings
5:00
and explain their functions in addition
5:03
will illustrate the different procedures and the specific equipment needed
5:07
to ready the well for production specifically
5:11
will present a brief summary of casing design
5:14
casing equipment cement operations perforations
5:19
well stimulation San control along with the file equipment needed to prepare
5:24
well for production let's start with the four main functions above the surface
5:29
intermediate and production casing strings
5:33
with their cement sheets or covers
5:36
first all three have the different types of casing
5:40
protect the whole from the mud thus preventing softer formations
5:44
up shale from drawing water out of the mud
5:47
which then can cause a shale to swell and block
5:50
or unpaid the drilling operations
5:54
in addition casing prevents loose surface sediments
5:57
and other unconsolidated formations from being eroded by the mud system
6:04
a second function relates already to surface casing
6:08
this casing protects near surface freshwater zones
6:11
from contamination by deeper saltwater zones
6:16
I'm sure people rely on these fresh water
6:19

ako fires polluting is acker fires

6:22
is usually prohibited by law or can create serious
6:26
environmental issues third
6:29
all three types of casing the surface the intermediate
6:33
and the production casing provide a smooth entryway and passed for running
6:38
tools in and out of the whole
6:40
finally in production casing its surrounding cement chief
6:45
isolates downhole zones so that the different zones Kenmore
6:49
easily be produced separately now
6:52
let's examine the standard procedures involve for closing an open hole
6:57
the first step in closing an open hole is to drive the production casing string
7:02
to the bottom of the hole
7:04
the casing string is permanently set
7:07
in the well by pouring concrete into the annular space
7:11
between the casing and the wall all the whole
7:16
let me point out here that because the drilling string
7:19
must be able to fit comfortably inside the casing string
7:23
the casing string pipe must be large enough to allow the drilling string pipe
7:27
to fit inside it
7:30
like the drilling string the three types of casing strings
7:33
consistent multiple joints but if larger diameter pipe
7:37
that is screwed together one joined at a time as it is inserted
7:41
to the bottom of the hole or total depth 2d
7:47
casing strings are run and cemented into place
7:50
as the well is drilled deeper to protect the whole from further
7:54

exposure to the circulating mud the exact number of strings depends on the
7:59
depth of the well
8:00
the relative stability or the formations being penetrated
8:04
and the characteristics out the drilling mud
8:07
as I mentioned earlier as each casing string is run
8:11
it is run inside the previous string that was slightly larger
8:15
conversely the diameter up each no string
8:19
will be smaller than the one that fits into as a casing is run deeper
8:24
imagine those sets a plastic balls that you can buy
8:27
any supermarket where the smaller bowl
8:30
fits inside a larger one which fits inside an even larger one
8:35
until you get to the biggest bowl with all the smaller balls fitted
8:39
neatly inside therefore
8:42
to be sure that the casing string fits together properly
8:46
it is imperative that the casing programs the plan before drilling begins
8:50
so that the surface hole and pipe can be large enough to accommodate
8:54
all the strings that will be pushed through it
8:59
keep in mind that the final string must be small enough
9:02
to fit through all the case in joints while still being large enough
9:06
to allow oil or gas to flow adequately for its capacity
9:12
when inserting the initial casing strings the drilling operation
9:16
drills a large diameter surface Holt to penetrate unconsolidated
9:21
surface material and protect sources a fresh water in the nearby water tables
9:27
called the surface casing string it is usually
9:30
a few hundred feet deep and runs to the bottom of the hole at the beginning
9:35

when drilling first begins

9:38
once in place cement slurry is then pumped down the inside of the pipe
9:43
and circulated up the backside annular space
9:47
between the casing and whole
9:51
once the surface casing is in place growing resumes
9:55
for shallow wells the surface casing maybe all that is required before
9:59
initializing the production casing
10:03
for deeper wells or where the formation becomes unstable because a prolonged
10:07
contact with the mud
10:09
and intermediate casing string may be necessary
10:13
very day polls may require two or three intermediate strings
10:19
to establish an intermediate casing the surface casing must be drilled through
10:24
using a smaller bit that fits inside the surface casing pipe
10:29
drawable shoe on the surface string and the cement in the bottom of the hole is
10:33
easily penetrated once the slow things on his penetrated
10:38
the drill string is polled and an intermediate casing string is run
10:42
to the existing bottom and then cemented into place
10:46
when using an intermediate casing it is important
10:49
that this summer rises high enough in a handy list
10:53
to reach anti into the cement in the surface casing pipe
10:58
it is essential to provide an unbroken cement chief
11:01
that covers the entire line for the whole
11:05
these steps are repeated as each successive string of the intermediate
11:09
casing
11:10
is hung from the wellhead at the surface
11:13

finally the wellhead acts as a seal

11:16
to seal off the annulus at the end of the casing string
11:21
both the surface an intermediate casing strings
11:24
are installed while drilling continues to total depth
11:29
one sees only the interest has been indentified it is not cased
11:33
this section of the well is referred to as open hole
11:37
basically it is the link for the whole from the surface
11:41
or intermediate casing strings to TD
11:44
if you remember from Chapter seven it is an open hole
11:48
that open hole logs that identify lithology
11:52
measure permeability per of the day the reservoir thickness
11:56
and fluid saturation levels are finalized
12:00
once a potentially commercial viable well as confirmed
12:04
this section or the whole is the encased for completed
12:10
called production casing long string or all story
12:14
this string is set through the producing zone
12:18
and cemented insuring that it is tied to the string about
12:21
so that there is a continuous sheet the pipe and cement from bottom to top
12:27
later this casing and cement will be perforated
12:30
to get access to the producing zone
12:33
in zones that do not perforated well a liner maybe run
12:38
on my casing strings liners do not extend
12:41
all the way to the surface but our hong from the long string
12:45
as this illustration shows liners
12:49
a lot cheaper may appear more convenient
12:52

but in fact are not preferred because they can cause difficulty
12:57
in running tools past the restriction above the liner hanger
13:02
they also can limit the control of water when production begins
13:07
complete casing strings are preferred if conditions permit
13:12
of yours different then I'm sure because %uh the need to run pipe
13:16
through the water before reaching the bottom of the ocean
13:20
when bottom supported units are used like in an offshore platform
13:24
an additional large diameter strain called a conductor casing is than
13:28
first-run
13:32
the conductor casing is hammered into the sea floor
13:36
and then extended up through the water to the surface just below the rig floor
13:41
this casing becomes a conduit or passageway
13:44
for the drill pipe and the mud with floating units
13:48
like drillships or semi-submersible
13:52
a guide structure is fastened to the bottom of the body of water
13:56
and secured to the ocean floor with piles
13:59
the blowout preventers are then lapsed into the guide structure
14:03
on the seafloor and then connected to the surface
14:07
be a marine riser these risers function as conductor strings

PART 2

0:00
go
0:04
room
0:07
theme
0:17
hmm as you can imagine
0:19
casing and its different components can be very expensive
0:23
so choosing the correct equipment for the depth and pressure on the well is
0:27
very important it is usually up to the drilling team
0:31
to calculate the least expensive casing that is capable of safely
0:36
and adequately encasing the well so fluid
0:39
can flow freely well containing the pressure that could lead to dangerous
0:44
blowouts
0:45
providing a margin of safety
0:48
to protect the monetary investment the crew
0:52
and the environment casing designs can be critical
0:55
especially on deep high-pressure wells the well think this
1:00
and yield strengths %uh a string of pipe must be carefully planned
1:04
to fit the conditions %uh the well for example
1:09
if the casing pipe is too thin the case in can fail
1:13
causing a blowout but on the other hand if the casing is to
1:17
thick then money is spent unnecessarily fortunately there are computer programs
1:23
that help simplify this process
1:25
to ensure adequate and safe design
1:28
there are four design criteria that the drilling engineer
1:32
must factor into his equations for the casing design
1:36
the first distension since

1:39
all the casing hangs from the top joint that joint must be strong enough to
1:43
support all the strings
1:44
it is sometimes better to strengthen the upper part of the string by using a
1:49
thicker wall
1:50
or higher grade pipe of course if it thicker wall is used
1:55
the engineer must account for this weight in his calculations for the rest
1:58
of the strings
1:59
the next is the danger of collapse
2:03
this danger is greatest when cement has just been circulated
2:07
up the outside of the casing because the cement is much heavier than the mud that
2:11
is inside it
2:12
the day for the whole the greater the outside and pressure differential is
2:18
strengthening for collapse is usually done
2:21
at the bottom of the hole with a higher grade of casing
2:24
third are burst stresses
2:28
like collapse the stresses are concentrated at the bottom of the
2:32
critical time for BER stress isn't pumping operations
2:36
at the beginning of the cement job and during a fracture treatment or
2:40
stimulation
2:41
the entire string is designed to be stronger at the top for tension
2:45
and at the bottom for collapse in burst that weaker casing pipe is usually in
2:52
the middle of the street
2:53
the fourth is corrosion in deep wells
2:58
higher grade pipe must be used to get the necessary strength because
3:02
too thick wall piped can be too heavy for the tension

3:06
higher grade pipe however
3:09
is more susceptible to corrosion for example
3:13
the presence %uh hydrogen sulfide gas is particularly troublesome
3:18
because h2s can't penetrate high-strength steel
3:22
to become brittle and lead to cracks and breaks
3:25
in very deep high-pressure sour gas wells
3:29
nickel alloy pipe is often the only solution
3:33
because it is very expensive it is used only when nothing else will do the job
3:38
now let's turn our attention once again to the wellbore
3:42
in running casing and cement the initial cementing
3:46
call primary cementing creates a shape
3:49
or cover up heart so Matt that fills the annular space
3:53
between the outside of casing and the wellbore wall
3:56
as I mentioned earlier its primary function
4:01
is to block fluid movement and pressure transmission
4:05
up or down the annulus subsequent cementing
4:09
is called squeeze cementing and is done to repair the primary cementing
4:14
or in connection with a workover a well that is being really works because of
4:18
declining production
4:20
let me describe the various places I've
4:23
accessory equipment needed when running casing
4:26
and then later cementing in this illustration
4:30
you can view the typical equipment setup
4:34
at the bottom is a guide shoe
4:37
it has a rounded base that is run to the bottom of the casing string

4:42
in the whole to prevent the casing from sticking on ledges
4:45
it can easily be drilled through later if necessary
4:50
next is the float valve
4:53
it can't sit either in a show called it floats you
4:57
or in a float collar located a joint or two above the shoe
5:01
the function of the float Val is to prevent mud
5:05
from filling the pipe it also provides buoyancy to the pipe
5:10
which them lessons the load on the derek have the top joy
5:13
other pipe as the casing is run in the whole
5:17
the casing pipe is periodically filled with water at the surface
5:22
to reduce differential pressure that might cause the casing to collapse
5:27
inside the float Val
5:30
the ball and c-type valve keeps the pipe close
5:33
while the casing is being run and opens it while the cement is being popped them
5:38
the ball and sit fell also prevents backflow
5:42
up is that the fluid for the summer into the drill pipe
5:46
next are the Scriptures are wall cleaners
5:50
they remove mud cake from the sides of the whole
5:53
attached to the outside of the pipe the Scriptures
5:57
allow the pipe to make better contact with the sides of the whole
6:01
has the cement is pumped into the annulus as you might guess
6:06
smoother walls along the sides open hole
6:10
allow a better seal to form between the cement
6:13
and the formation rock radio type scratchers
6:17
required that the pipe be reciprocated for moved in and up

6:21
and down motion before and during cementing
6:24
vertically mounted scratchers require the pipe to be rotated
6:29
centralizers set up the top-up selected joints
6:34
they are attached to the outside as a casing pipe
6:38
to center the pipe in the hole in preparation for cementing
6:43
centralization up the pipe is essential
6:46
because for maximum functionality the cement sheet
6:50
must evenly and completely surround the pipe
6:54
these are the essential pieces of equipment used in preparation for
6:58
cementing
7:00
let me now describe the process of running some at
7:04
first dry cement is mixed with additives
7:07
made up of accelerators retires and density adjusters
7:13
the function of these additives is to adjust the dry summer
7:16
properties to fit the conditions of the well
7:20
accelerator speed up the setting time %uh the cement
7:24
retired to the opposite they prevent premature sending
7:27
in deep high-temperature wells
7:31
density adjusters increase the cement wat
7:34
to reduce pumping pressures or to permit
7:38
a higher cement column without fracturing the formation
7:42
after the casing is in place the cement
7:46
is properly blended with water and the hall is prepared for pumping
7:51
first a heart rubber rupture plug is inserted into the casing
7:55
followed by the cement slurry this product will separate the existing mud

8:00
from the new cement
8:03
top to the bottom of the hole the wet cement slurry
8:06
pushing the plugin fraud as it flows down
8:10
forces the rupture Plogue into the seat
8:13
in the float collar once in place
8:17
the driller slightly increases the well pressure to break through this rupture
8:21
plug
8:23
once the plug is broken the cement slurry displaces the existing mud in the
8:28
annulus
8:30
when adequate summit has been pumped a second plug
8:34
Coliseo plug is then inserted this seal plug
8:38
serves to separate the cement slurry from the fresh mud that follows
8:43
finally the cement slurry is displaced out of the casing into the annulus
8:50
that cement job is completed when the second plug
8:53
the seal plug laps or seats in the group
8:56
in the float valve this landing is signaled
9:00
at the surface by a sharp pressure increase
9:03
the pumps are then shut down which allows the pressure to drop
9:08
the decrease in pressure causes the floor about the clothes
9:12
preventing the heavier so mad in the annulus from running back into the
9:16
casing
9:17
after the pumps are shut down well operations are suspended
9:22
4 from 12 to 24 hours so that the cement can set
9:27
with the cemented casing in place the next task is to perforate the casing
9:32
in the zone of interest now called pays I'll

9:37
perforating means that the whole for walls of the casing
9:42
the cement sheet and content hearing i'm for about one meter into the formation
9:47
rock
9:49
it is through these holes that hydrocarbon fluids
9:52
will pass to the surface when production begins
9:56
to blast through the casing and cement Jetpur furriers
10:00
are set to blast on average four to eight at holes
10:03
per foot it shot is rotated 90 degrees
10:07
or 180 degrees from the one above
10:10
throughout the Paizo
10:13
to blast these Jetpur for Raiders threw the casing and out into the formation
10:18
casing guns are used fault retrievable
10:22
and reusable these casing guns are made up strongly constructed still
10:27
which are run on electric wireline before first firing the guns
10:32
the hole is filled with salt water this salt water is called water black accord
10:37
load Bryan
10:39
when the well was perforated the water rushes out through the new perforations
10:44
killing the well and preventing a blow-up
10:47
with the potential for further damaging the formation near the wellbore
10:52
using over bounce conditions the engineering team
10:55
may decide to stop further perforations until the well has been prepared for
10:59
production
11:01
this means that the well will be outfitted with turbine Packers and the
11:04
Christmas tree
11:05
to better accommodate perforating in preferred under bells conditions

11:11
in addition many other subsequent well treatment processes described in the
11:15
next section of this chapter
11:18
are optimally done after the well has been outfitted
11:21
with these three components they include the wellhead
11:25
and the various processes of preparing a well for production
11:29
and will be discussed here in preparing the well for production
11:34
smaller diameter pipe called curbing is installed down the casing with the
11:39
Packer at the bottom
11:41
let me point out here that the permanent casing
11:45
is rarely use as a conduit to get oil and gas to the surface
11:51
remember its main function along with the annulus
11:55
is to seal the well bore and keep it sealed
11:58
instead smaller to bring installed through the casing is used to bring the
12:02
fluids to the surface
12:06
manufactured in joints thirty feet with threaded couplings
12:10
the diameter of the tube in can vary depending on the fluid amount projected
12:14
to be produced
12:16
for example small to big that is two and three eights inches
12:20
outside diameter is used for shellow low productivity wells
12:26
while large 6 inch outside diameter tubing is used in high volume gas wells
12:33
in any case to bring a smaller than either the drilling
12:36
or casing pipe and is relatively lightweight
12:40
when compared to them because I've tubing smaller size and weight
12:45
it can be run in and out of the hole by workover rigs
12:48
outfitted with smaller hoisting equipment then you would find on a

12:51
drilling rig
12:53
here you can see that the strings hang from the tubing hanger
12:57
in the wellhead and I retrievable I'm like the permanent casing strings
13:02
keep in mind also that although only one set of casing is ever run
13:08
tubing because a bit smaller size can be run through the casing in single dual or
13:13
multiple strings
13:15
inside the tubing a Packers answered then used to seal off the tube in from
13:20
the casich
13:21
by sealing of the tubing from the casing the more easily
13:26
replaceable tubing protects the more permanent
13:29
casing from the pressure and corrosive elements found in the crude oil or gas
13:33
as they pass to the surface in this illustration for example
13:38
you can see a single to being with a packer
13:42
in the second to all strings can be seen side by side with the Packer at the end
13:47
of the string
13:48
at different depths a dual configuration is preferred when production from the
13:53
well come from two different zones
13:56
that the engineering team wants to keep separate
13:59
in addition cool or multiple strings offer economic incentives
14:04
where warranted because only one well has to be drilled instead of multiple
14:08
ones
14:09
both to ok and lawful strings can be installed but multiple strings are less
14:14
popular
14:14
because other mechanical complexities

PART 3
go
0:04
room
0:07
theme
0:17
hmm
0:19
Packers come in many configurations
0:21
and have many functions but basically
0:25
they have three things in common first its Packers made a very flexible rubber
0:30
sealing element
0:31
that closes of the space between the outside the tubing
0:34
and the inside the casing second they all have mechanical projections
0:40
that dig into the casing to keep the Packers solidly in place
0:44
third they all have one or more holes for vertical private rations
0:50
which permits single dual or multiple strings
0:53
have to bring to pass through the Packer depending on the requirements of the
0:58
well
0:59
two different types of Packers called either permanent
1:02
or retrievable temporary Packers are available
1:06
permit Packers are run into the wellbore
1:09
on too big or a wireline and set with a small explosive charge
1:14
when this charge these explosive charges
1:17
generate a large pressure that allows the Packer to expand
1:22
and then be firmly and probably set into the sides as a casing
1:26
want Sep the tubing strings then run through the Packer
1:30
the rubber sealing

1:34
elements on the outside of the Packer sale against the smooth inside bore of
1:39
the Packer
1:40
these permanent Packers cannot be retrieved
1:44
but are constructed a materials that can be drilled through easily
1:48
screwed directly into the production tubing string
1:51
retrievable or temporary packers are firmly
1:55
but temporarily set by rotating picking up setting down or pressure rising up
2:00
the tubing.
2:01
designed to be fully retrievable these retrievable or temporary Packers are
2:07
used
2:07
for example when a secondary cementing job or screens job is performed
as I
2:13
mentioned earlier
2:14
a squeeze job is when additional cementing is required
2:18
after the initial cementing has taken place or when they work over is in
2:22
progress
2:23
during the process of preparing a well for production
2:27
the surface casing is mounted on the wellhead
its function
2:31
is the seal off to any other spaces between the strings
2:35
its additional casing string and tubing string
2:38
are then hung from the wellhead as they are right once the well as complete as
2:43
however
2:44
access to the well it is no longer required so they are usually placed just
2:49
below ground level
2:50
finally a Christmas tree is installed

2:54
containing a valve manifold that controls flow in the tubing
2:59
that must be strongly constructed to contain fall reservoir pressure
3:03
a Christmas trees function is to control that pressure
3:08
in this illustration
3:12
the main valves that control the well's pressure are labeled
3:15
they are dual master valve, the crown valve
3:19
the wing valve the choke and the safety valve
3:23
let me explain the function of each
3:26
let's start with the dual master valves which are used to shut in the well
3:31
the top shelf controls the well's pressure
3:34
the bottom valve acts as a backup
usually kept
3:39
Open
the bottom valve can be used in the event that the first fell fails
3:43
for whatever reason
next the crown or lubricator valve is used when they
3:49
lubricator is attached
3:51
it is used when well service to operations are being conducted
3:55
such as through tubing perforations
will explain more about through tubing
4:01
perforations in the next section
4:02
when we discuss perforating in under bounce conditions
4:06
the when valve is normally used for the retainer opening and closing of the well
4:11
the choke is an office that varies in size to control the well's flow rate
4:17
it also confines full well pressure
4:21
to the tree that's protecting equipment downstream
finally
4:25

the safety valve automatically shuts in the well when unsafe conditions are
4:30
recorded
4:31
such as excessively high or low
4:34
downstream pressures
with the well-prepared for production
4:39
we can now return to finalize any additional treatment
4:43
that is needed before actual production begins
4:47
earlier in the lecture we got as far as perforating in o ver balance conditions
4:53
highlighting the damage to the facility around the wellbore
4:57
that it can cause we mentioned that engineering team may prefer to perforate
5:02
in another way
5:04
if they elect a perforated under balance conditions
5:08
the well has to be made ready with tubing Packers
5:11
and a Christmas tree to control the pressure required for under bounds
5:15
Perfo rating
5:16
since we have now explain the components used to prepare a well for production
5:22
we can now proceed with explaining how
5:26
a well is perforated in under balanced conditions
5:29
perforating in under balanced conditions
5:33
is considered best practices in under balance perforating
5:37
wireline through tubing perforating with a small diameter gun that can fit
5:42
through the existing tubing
5:44
is performed after the well has been prepared for production
5:48
with aforementioned Packers tubing and surface valving
5:52
called a Christmas tree
with the Packers & Christmas tree in place
5:57

the flood level in the casing can then be kept low so that
6:01
its hydrostatic pressure is less than the formation pressure
6:06
in addition once the zone has been perforated
6:09
in under balance conditions it can then be immediately placed on production
6:15
not only saving time and money through tubing perforating
6:20
can also greatly reduce any formation damage
6:24
that might be caused when the flow rates are stopped
6:27
known as killing a well to run down hole equipment
6:32
in running wire line through tubing perforating
6:35
the crown valve in the lubricator on a tree is opened
6:41
the perforating gun is then run into the well and fired
6:44
the stuffing box sitting at the top of the lubricator
6:48
holds the pressure buildup in the formation to prevent blowouts
6:53
this pressure buildup in the formation causes the formation fluids
6:57
to rush out into the wellbore flushing out the JEP charge debris
7:01
along with the damage formation rock
7:04
under balance perforating in other words immediately claims up
7:08
around the area impacted by the perforating
7:11
which should then enhance flow rates when production begins
7:16
when the gun is pullback into the lubricator
7:19
the lubricator fell on the tree is closed
7:23
the pressure is then blot of the lubricator and the gun is removed
7:28
the wing valve is opened in the Christmas tree and oil should begin to
7:31
Flow
7:34
another type tubing conveyed perforating
7:37

also permits under bounds perforatin g and a fully equipped well

7:42
tubing conveyed perforating guns are run into the whole be lower packer
7:46
on the bottom of the production string
as you can see
7:50
from the illustration tubing conveyed perforating guns
7:54
are much longer with larger charges
7:57
its advantages that the tubing conveyed perforating
8:00
allows the perforating going to be pushed into highly deviated
8:04
or horizontal holes that would be inaccessible to a wireline conveyed gun
8:10
now that the well as prepared for production with casing
8:13
cementing perforations to being Packers
8:17
and a Christmas tree
all attached to the wellhead
8:21
it may be assumed that the well reservoir fluids will begin to flow
8:24
freely into the wellbore
8:26
and up into the stock tanked
in wells with highly permeable formations this is
8:30
probable
8:32
wells that flow easily without further procedures have what is called
8:35
natural completions
8:39
many wells however require what is known as stimulation treatment
8:43
years because it provides the reservoir fluid better access to the wellbore
8:48
stimulation treatment helps allow the fluid to flow in formations with lower
8:53
permeability
8:54
by pumping acid into the formation or by creating hydraulic fracturing
9:00
Stimulating treatments can be highly effective
9:04
it can cause production rates to double triple or even quadruple

9:08
this increase in production can turn a non-viable a commercial well
9:14
into a viable one
surprisingly
9:17
in the fluids journey from the perimeters other reservoir or
9:21
to the stock tank it is the last few inches a reservoir rock
9:25
where the obstacle is encountered
9:28
as I said earlier stimulation trading operations
9:32
are used in areas with low probability
9:36
high permeability zones with natural completion
9:39
do not usually need stimulation
9:43
let me show you an illustration that helps explain the function of
9:46
stimulation
9:48
here you see the geometry over radio flow
9:52
as the flow approaches the wellbore the flow arrows begin the crowd each other
9:56
out
9:57
the fluid represented by these flow arrowbecomes constricted
10:02
as approaches the wellbore
10:05
this constriction reduces the flow resulting in a decrease in the fluid
10:09
volume that reaches the wellbore
10:13
more evident in lower permeability formations than a higher ones
10:17
this reduction in the fluid volume can result in lower fluid flow
10:22
when production begins
10:25
in addition to this natural restriction just described
10:28
there may also be formation damage which may also prevent the fluid from flowing
10:33
freely
10:35

caused when the formation rock comes into contact with the drilling mud
10:39
formation damage can appear as one of two types:
10:43
in the first some formations containing clays
10:46
absorb mud filtrate and expand
10:49
this expansion may hamper or plug
10:53
the formations permeability
in the second
10:56
solids in the mud can become entrapped in the pores are the formation
11:01
also reducing permeability
working in tandem
11:05
or in isolation natural restriction and formation damage
11:09
can create unwanted bottlenecks in the immediate vicinity up the wellbore
11:15
that can greatly impact the well's production rate
11:19
production rate if you remember from other lectures
11:22
is figured by calculating the number of barrels per day a well can produce
11:28
one of the most important factors in calculating this number
11:31
is estimating how fast the reservoir camp reproduced
11:35
that just as debating how big the reservoir is
11:39
therefore successful stimulation treatment
11:42
to eliminate or reduce the impact up these bottlenecks
11:46
can better ensure the profitability a very well
11:51
let's look at some stimulation trading operations
11:56
they are matrix acidizing.. hydraulic fracturing
12:00
and fractue acidizing in
all stimulation operations
12:05
trading liquids are pumped out on the surface tank
12:08
down the well inside the tubing anchored by a packer

12:12
out so the perforations and into the formation
12:16
in hydraulic fracturing and fracture acidizing
12:19
along with these trading liquids several thousand pounds of surface pressure are
12:23
also introduced into the formation
12:27
in any event the specific type of trading liquids
12:31
coupled with pressure is determined by the formation rock
12:36
and its permeability in the pays on
12:39
the primary function of stimulation as I said before
12:43
is to remove formation damage so that the permeability up the near wellbore
12:48
formation is improved
12:51
for example in matrix acidzing
12:54
different kinds of asses depending on the formation rock type
12:58
are used to increase the number of fractures
13:02
hydrofluoric acid is used in sandstone reservoirs
13:05
well hydrochloric acid has a better result in limestone reservoirs
13:11
regardless of the acid used the appropriate as it is slowly pump down
13:15
the well bore
13:16
and out through the matrix other reservoir while taking care to ensure
13:20
that no undue
13:21
additional pressure is exerted on the reservoir rock
13:24
which might cause the formation to fracture in unproductive ways

PART 4

go
0:04
room
0:07
theme
0:17
hmm the second type of stimulation treatment is hydraulic fracturing
0:22
hydraulic fracturing is the most effective stimulation treatment
0:26
for the tight sandstone formations usually found in older
0:29
more consolidated continental sediments
when using this treatment
0:35
pops on the surface create several thousand pounds of surface pressure
0:40
that are then channelled into the wellbore to break down the formation
0:44
in control fractures
in addition
0:47
water that has been mixed with gelling chemicals
0:50
to increase its viscosity is parked into the well
0:54
to help in the fracturing process
in combination with the down hole increased
0:59
pressure
1:00
from the pressure pumps at the surface this jelled water
1:04
enables increased sandstone pressure to be evenly distributed
1:08
across the pages on thus enabling further fracturing for hundreds of feet
1:13
in a more or less horizontal direction
to limit leak of or run off into the
1:18
surrounding formation
1:19
polymers are added to the gels water
in addition
1:25
gel in the water makes the water slippery enough
1:28

to reduce friction thus lowering pumping horsepower requirements

1:33
once the fracture is extended far enough
1:38
a proping agent often large routed San grains
1:42
is introduced into the Joan fluid being parked
because
1:47
Of the high viscosity up the gelled water the profit
1:51
is suspended evenly throughout the solution
1:54
as it is pumped out into the fractures
when the gel water with the propping
2:00
agent reaches the formation
2:02
the proper for seeps and then packs into the cracks
2:06
in the formation
when the formation is saturated
2:09
popping is then stopped
as the pressure goes down
2:13
the fracture now with the artificially induced pressure removed
2:18
and returned to normal pressure conditions tries to close
2:23
but is instead held open by the profit
this fractures
2:27
now filled with well sorted large property particles
2:31
form an excellent flow path for the oil and gas
2:34
the last stimulation treatment is a combination matrix acidizing
2:40
and hydraulic fracturing and is called fracture acidizing
2:44
it is used to stimulate production in limestone and dolomite
2:48
reservoirs because limestone and dolomite are composed largely of calcium
2:53
carbonates
2:54
they will dissolve in hydrochloric acid
in this operation
3:00

HCL's injected at a high enough pressure in order to fracture the formation and
3:05
the roughly vertical direction
3:07
as the pressure above the pump acid
3:10
extends the fractures it chemically hatch's
3:13
or dissolves and irregular surface on the sides of that fracture
3:18
which leaves a high volume flow channel
3:21
to the well bore.
like it hydraulic fracturing
3:25
the fractures with normal pressures returning try to close
3:29
when the pumps are turned off
but these edged high volume flow channels remain
3:34
open
as you can see in this illustration
3:37
this fracture changes the flow pattern around the wellbore from radio flow
3:42
to a much higher volume lateral flow pattern
3:45
before production begins for some wells an additional procedure called gravel
3:50
packing
3:51
may be wanted
Sand for example
3:54
in sandstone reservoirs consisting largely unconsolidated sand grains
3:59
with very little cementation is usually pushed to the surface
4:03
along with the oil n gas
when produced with high velocity oil and gas
4:08
streams
4:09
it can erode any steel that it might come in contact with
4:13
this grains of sand entering the wellbore
4:16
act like little bullets blasting into the casing or tubing
4:20
wearing away most metallic surfaces it comes in contact with

4:25
the continued blast so these grains of sand can cause the casing to split
4:30
or can cut through the tubing
4:33
gravel packing is therefore used to control the Sand from being produced with
4:38
the oil
4:39
even though gravel packing is expensive and is not completely successful in many
4:44
wells
4:45
it is nevertheless attempted on virtually every completion in Sand
4:49
producing areas
4:51
let's look at the process and the steps involved in gravel packing
4:56
first a wire wrap screen is run into the whole
4:59
on tubing with the specialized packer called a crossover packer
5:04
unlike other packers to cross over packer
5:07
allows the fluids to cross over from the tubing
5:11
to the annulus and back again
5:15
next the gravel is mixed with gelled water and then pumped down the tubing
5:19
through the crossover passage in the Packard into the annular space
5:24
on the other side of the screen
as you can see
5:27
the gelled water passes through the interior of the screen
5:31
crosses over in the Packer into the annulus and circulates to the surface
5:36
because this large graded sand gravel is larger than the mesh
5:41
in the wire wraps crane it is filtered out by the screen
5:45
trapped the gravel dropped to the bottom and accumulates in the annulus
5:50
finally the gravel working as a barrier
5:53
filters out the Sand trapping it in the gravel pack and stopping it from flowing
5:57

into and through the wire screen

6:00
another approach to controlling sand is called frac packing
6:04
used in more tightly consolidated formations
6:08
it plans gravel packing techniques with hydraulic fracturing techniques
6:13
using this method the packing fluid is injected at a
6:17
rate high enough to build up pressure and fracture the formation
6:23
pumping continues as the gravel is packed into the formation
6:27
just like in gravel packing its function is to stop the grains of sand from
6:32
flowing into the wellbore
6:36
even with sand gravel procedures
6:39
Sand can still manage to edge the wellbore
6:43
to protect against the eventual said accumulation
6:46
once production has commenced in these formations
6:49
the engineering team uses very and techniques
6:53
the first is to install blast joints constructed with extra thick walls
6:59
in addition they may use hard rubber coatings on the outside
7:03
that can help the tubing withstand the Sands eroding actions
7:07
another method is used in areas where the oil and gas flow stream
7:10
changes direction
in this scenario
7:14
these continual motion changes can cause the valve manifold
7:18
on the Christmas tree at the surface to cut out at its elbow fitting
7:25
a failure up this fitting can cause a dangerous blowout
7:30
where the possibility of sad accumulation is a continual problem
7:34
the tubing and surface equipment must be cleaned regularly
7:39
for example when Sand settles out the oil and gas

7:43
and bridges over the well's tubing , it can completely plugged of production
7:49
to deal with this accumulation it may be necessary
7:52
to work over the well to wash out this accumulated sand
7:58
finally accumulated San can also drop out of suspension at the surface
8:03
and accumulate in surface equipment such as separators
8:07
regular maintenance can help keep most surface equipment working properly
8:13
as you can see Sand production and accumulation from these
8:17
on cemented unconsolidated sandstone formations
8:20
require constant monitoring with periodic cleanouts
8:25
after having spent a lot of time and money on the well it is now complete
8:29
we have run the casing, we have cement ing the casing
8:33
perforated the zone of interest, install the Christmas tree
8:36
the tubing and Packers
for the low permeability zones with stimulated the
8:41
well with i said
8:43
we have done same control with gravel packing however we are not finished
8:48
we still have the question of the future
how long will it produce
8:52
how much will it produce and how we develop the rest to the field
8:56
in Chapter time we will discuss field development and feel expansion