Air Core Reactors

Introduction to
Switching of Shunt
Capacitor Banks

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AREVA T&Ds Expertise

Introduction
Shunt capacitor banks are commonly installed in
power systems to provide reactive compensation,
reducing costs and optimizing power transmission.
Some advantages of shunt capacitor bank installation
are:

The philosophy of mitigation and control of switching

transients results in the application of one or more of
the following methods:
1. Synchronized closing control for breakers and
switches

> Compensation of the systems inductive reactive

power

2. Inrush current limiting reactors (damping reactors)

> Power factor correction

3. Temporary insertion of resistance between circuit

elements (for example, the insertion of resistors in
circuit breakers)

> Voltage control

> Harmonic filtering
However, the switching of shunt capacitor banks may
cause thermal, mechanical and dielectric stresses
in the other substation equipment. For this reason,
transient studies are recommended to identify and
quantify the transient duties that may arise in the
system and to prescribe economical corrective
measures whenever deemed necessary. The results
of a switching transient study can affect operating
procedures as well as the equipment in the system.
The main objectives of the transient study are listed
below:
> Identify the nature of transient duties that can
occur for any realistic switching operation. This
includes determining the magnitude, duration, and
frequency of the oscillations.
> Determine if abnormal transient duties are likely to
be imposed on equipment by the inception and/or
removal of faults.

4. Surge arresters
5. Surge capacitors
6. Tuning reactors
7. Damped filters
8. Surge protective circuits
This paper presents the procedures for calculation
and specification of damping reactors for limitation of
inrush current of shunt capacitor banks.
SHUNT CAPACITOR BANKS
There are three basic capacitor bank configurations:
1. Grounded wye
2. Ungrounded wye
3. Delta-connected

UN / fN / Scc

UN / fN / Scc

> Recommend corrective measures to mitigate

transient overvoltages and/or overcurrents. This
may include solutions such as resistor preinsertion, tuning reactors, appropriate system
grounding, and application of surge arresters and
surge protective capacitors.
> Recommend alternative operating procedures to
minimize transient duties (if applicable).
> Register the study results on a case-by-case
basis in readily understandable form for those
responsible for design and operation. Such
documentation usually includes reproduction of
wave shape displays and interpretation of, at least,
the limiting cases.

Grounded-Wye
Capacitor Bank

Ungrounded-Wye
Capacitor Bank
UN / fN / Scc

Delta-Connected
Capacitor Bank

Delta-connected capacitors are generally used at low voltages

(e.g., 2.4 kV) where a standard capacitor rating is not available
for a wye connection. Usually, wye-connected capacitor
installations are less complicated to construct and more
economical.
Concerning the grounding of the shunt capacitor banks, the
advantages of the grounded-wye arrangement compared to the
ungrounded-wye are as follows:
> Initial cost of the bank may be lower since the neutral does
not have to be insulated from ground at full system BIL, as
in the case with floating neutral arrangements.

The maximum continuous current of a wye-connected shunt

capacitor bank depends on the:
> Voltage variations (typically, 5% or 10%)
> Tolerance of the equipment manufacturing (typically,
-0/+15% for capacitors)
> Total voltage distortion due to harmonic resonances
(typically, from 10 to 20%)
Therefore, the maximum continuous current can be estimated as
follows:

> Recovery voltages due the capacitor switching are reduced.

> Mechanical duties may be less severe for the structure.
On the other hand, the disadvantages of the grounded-wye
compared to the ungrounded-wye are as follows:

The international standards indicate some guidelines for

calculation of the effective current for wye-connected shunt
capacitor banks, which are summarized in the table below:

> H
 igh inrush currents may occur in substation grounds and
structures, which may cause instrumentation problems.
> G
 rounded neutral may draw zero-sequence harmonic
currents and cause telephone interference.
> T
 he grounded-wye connection provides a low impedance
fault path to ground and may require resetting of ground
relays on the system. This is one of the reasons why
grounded-wye banks are not generally applied to
ungrounded systems.

The overcurrent factors for correction of the rated current are

presented below:

> T
 he grounded-wye arrangement usually makes currentlimiting fuses necessary due to the line-to-ground fault
magnitudes.
Grounded-wye, ungrounded-wye and delta-connected capacitor
banks may also be subject to ferroresonant overvoltages if they
are switched together with transformer banks of certain winding
connections with single-pole switching devices or if a stuck pole
should occur on a three-phase device.

Application Examples
Two installations of high voltage wye-connected shunt capacitor
banks with associated current limiting reactors are shown in the
pictures below:

Calculation of the Wye-Connected Shunt

Capacitor Bank Ratings
The ratings of a wye-connected shunt capacitor bank can be
calculated as follows:
1. Rated three-phase reactive power :

2. Rated capacitive reactance per phase :

132 kV capacitor bank with associated series damping reactor

3. Rated capacitance per phase :

4. Rated current per phase :

245 kV capacitor bank with associated series damping reactor

Switching of Shunt Capacitor

Banks
Introduction
The switching of shunt capacitor banks has long
been recognized as a potential source of voltage
and current surges. Inrush currents associated with
energization of single capacitor bank are about 5 per
unit at frequencies of 200 to 600 Hz depending upon
source impedance and bank size and its configuration.
In comparison, energization of back-to-back capacitor
banks and discharge of shunt capacitor banks to faults
can produce transient currents of 40 to 100 per unit at
frequencies of 2 to 20 kHz.
It is well known that restrikes during opening of shunt
capacitor banks can cause severe problems on
systems due to the possible escalation of overvoltages
to as high as 4 per unit or more. In addition, the
switching surges produced may propagate into the
system and cause damages in power transformers and
reactors at the remote end of radial transmission lines.
As mentioned in the previous section, various methods
are currently in use to minimize switching transients,
such as the using of pre-insertion resistors and
current limiting reactors. Nowadays, the problems
associated with restriking on switching capacitor banks
are not of great concern, since the SF6 breakers are
generally restrike-free. However, restrikes have been
occasionally reported which have resulted in damage
to system equipment.
Requirements of Control Systems and
Switching Devices
For control of both inrush currents and overvoltages
on switching of shunt capacitor banks, the optimum
closing time for each pole would be at voltage zero
between the poles of the switching device. For this
reason, the control system and the switching device
must have a capability of closing with an accuracy of
approximately 1 msec. A system with this degree of
accuracy will limit switching surges to approximately
the same order of magnitude as one with pre-insertion
resistors or current limiting reactors. For these cases,
no overvoltages would be expected, since the phaseto-earth and phase-to-phase overvoltages would be
typically 1.2 per unit and 2.0 per unit respectively
(e.g., normal system overvoltages). In addition, inrush
currents would be reduced to insignificant values,
particularly for back-to-back capacitor banks.
However, if errors are greater than approximately 1.4
msec, the prospective phase-to-phase overvoltage
at a remote terminal could be greater than 4 per
unit. At this level, phase-to-earth connected surge
arresters, limiting phase-to-earth voltage to 2.0 per unit
per phase, would begin to limit the phase-to-phase
overvoltages.
Grounded and Ungrounded Neutral
Capacitor Banks
The optimum closing time of wye-connected capacitor
banks depends on whether its neutral is grounded

or ungrounded. For grounded neutral banks installed

on grounded neutral systems, the optimum closing
time would be at phase voltage zero at each pole. For
ungrounded neutral banks, the optimum closing time is
dependent upon the pole closure sequence.
Random closing is satisfactory for the first pole since
no current flow is established. Assuming the first pole
remains conducting, the second to close must close at
voltage zero of the phase-to-phase voltage appearing
across the pole. The third pole must close at voltage
zero of the 1.5 per unit voltage appearing across that
pole. Of course, if two poles close simultaneously, then
the voltage across each pole will be 0.87 per unit and
the third pole to close would experience a 1.5 per unit
voltage.
When it is anticipated that the capacitor bank will be
re-energized after a short-time after the de-energization
(not a common requirement), then a trapped charge
may be presented on the capacitor bank, and
therefore, the optimum closing time depends on
the magnitude of the trapped voltage. In this case,
monitoring of both the source side and the load side
voltages are necessary in order to establish the voltage
across the open contacts of the breakers.
Since the optimum closing time for all three poles
for either a grounded or ungrounded neutral bank is
variable, it is recommended to use circuit breakers
with the capability of independently closing the three
poles. However, controlled switching is limited to
applications in which the introduction of time delays
between the closing time of the first, second and
third poles are suitable. If there is some possibility
of restriking on opening, then a rough control of the
opening operation may be desirable such that contact
parting is achieved well before a current zero. This
would provide a maximum gap and dielectric strength
across the switching device at the time of maximum
recovery voltage and essentially eliminate reignitions
and restrikes, and therefore, overvoltages.
Capability of Capacitors and Switching
Devices
The circuit breakers and capacitors are the most
sensitive equipment concerning the transient currents
and voltages associated with the switching of shunt
capacitor banks.
The capacitors are generally designed to withstand
an overcurrent up to 100 times its rated current. The
level of overcurrent is closely related with the life
expectancy of the capacitor unit. For transient currents
of 100 times the rated current, the maximum number
of switchings shall not exceed 1000 times per year.
However, for transient currents of 30 times the rated
current, the maximum number of switching increases
up to 100,000 times per year. [5]
For circuit breakers, according to international
standards, the transient current and frequency shall not
exceed the figures presented in the table below.

Table 04 Transient capability of circuit breakers

Calculation of Transient Currents of Shunt

Capacitor Banks
The determination of transient currents associated with
energization and discharge of shunt capacitor banks should
always be done by using appropriate software, such as ATP
(Alternative Transient Program). However, the calculation of
inrush and outrush currents may be acceptable, if the complete
set of data required for a reliable digital simulation is not
available.
As guideline, this section describes a simplified calculation
procedure for current limiting reactors to be installed in series
with shunt capacitor banks in order to keep the transient
currents within the admissible values for the equipment
(capacitors and switching devices).

> Natural frequency of undamped oscillations

Since the magnitude and frequency of the inrush current

associated with energization of single capacitor banks are not
significant, the use of a current limiting reactor or pre-insertion
resistors may not be necessary. However, for a system with very
high short-circuit power (e.g., small source impedances) damping
reactors may be required. The calculation of the reactance to be
introduced in the circuit to limit the inrush current magnitude and
frequencies to admissible values for the capacitor and switching
devices are as follows:
> Criteria of maximum current

Energization of single shunt capacitor banks

(Inrush Currents)
The inrush currents associated with energization of single
capacitor banks are about 5 per unit at frequencies of 200 to
600 Hz, depending on the source impedance, bank size and
configuration. Due to the high value of equivalent inductance
of the system, this transient current does not cause relevant
stresses on the equipment.

CB

UN

Picture 05 Circuit for analysis of energization of single

capacitor bank

> Criteria of maximum frequency

Application Examples
Energizating a single capacitor bank, 138 kV, 30 MVAr, groundedwye, connected to a 138 kV busbar with symmetrical shortcircuit level of 20 kA and maximum operating voltage of 145 kV.
By installing a damping reactor of 0.571 (1.515 mH) per phase,
the calculated inrush current is 2.4 kAp at 708 Hz. This case
was also performed in the software ATP and same results are
presented below. It can be noticed that the simulated inrush
current is a bit smaller than the calculated value, due to the
effective resistances of the source, reactor and capacitor, which
have not been considered in the calculations.

The source impedance (or system impedance) depends on the

short-circuit power of the system at the capacitor bank busbar,
given by:

The total time-varying current during the energization of single

capacitor banks is compound by two components: steady
state and transient period. The steady state component, which
oscillates at 50 or 60 Hz, is generally neglected in the calculation
of the inrush currents.
The transient component of the inrush current is given by:

Phase-to-earth voltage at capacitor bank bus

The surge impedance of circuit, the peak value of the inrush

current and its undamped natural frequency are given by:
>S
 urge impedance of the circuit

>P
 eak value of the inrush current

Inrush current associated with energization of the single capacitor

bank

Energization of back-to-back capacitor

banks (Inrush Currents)
It is common to divide large capacitor banks in
smaller shunt capacitor banks, to provide flexibility
and reliability to the reactive compensation system.
However, when two or more capacitor banks are
in back-to-back configuration, the inrush currents
associated with energization of a capacitor bank
with other ones in operation can achieve up to 100
per unit at frequencies of 2000 to 20,000 kHz. It may
produce high mechanical and dielectric stresses on the
capacitor bank components and other equipment in its
vicinity.

CB

CB

Due to the high currents and frequencies, the

energization of back-to-back capacitor banks always
requires the insertion of damping reactors or preinsertion resistors. The calculation of the reactance to
be introduced in the circuit to limit the inrush current
magnitude and frequencies to admissible values for the
capacitors and switching devices are as follows:
> Criteria of maximum current

> Criteria of maximum frequency

CB

UN

The equivalent inductance and capacitance are given

by:
> Equivalent inductance of the circuit

Picture 05 Circuit for analysis of energization of backto-back capacitor banks

The total time-varying current during the energization
of a capacitor bank is compound by three
components: steady state, contribution of the system
and contribution of the capacitor banks in operation in
the same bus. Each component has a different peak
value and frequency. Since the third component is
more significant than the other ones, the steady state
component and the contribution of the system to the
inrush current may be neglected.
Therefore, the inrush current associated with
energization of the capacitor bank N, with N-1
capacitor banks in operation in the same bus, is given
by:

The surge impedance of circuit, the peak value of the

inrush current and its undamped natural frequency are
given by:
> Surge impedance of the circuit

> Peak value of the inrush current

> Equivalent capacitance of the circuit

Remarks:
a. It was assumed the installation of identical current
limiting reactors in series with each phase of the
capacitor bank.
b. For N capacitor banks of the same size, the
equivalent capacitance is given by:

Application Examples
Energizing two back-to-back capacitor banks, 138kV,
30MVAr, grounded-wye, connected to a 138kV
busbar with symmetrical short-circuit level of 20kA
and maximum operating voltage of 145kV.
By installing a damping reactor of 0.571 (1.515 mH)
per phase, the calculated inrush current is 3.3 kAp at
2000 Hz. This value is greater than the one obtained
for a single capacitor bank due to the contribution of
the capacitor bank in operation in the same bus at the
instant of the energization. In addition, the damping
of the oscillations is faster due to the higher effective
resistance value of the reactor at a higher frequency.

> Natural frequency of undamped oscillations

Phase-to-earth voltage at capacitor bank bus

Application Examples
Occurrence of a three-phase-to-ground fault in a 138 kV busbar
with a symmetrical short-circuit level of 20 kA and one single
capacitor banks, 138 kV, 30 MVAr, grounded-wye, in operation at
the instant of the fault.
By installing a damping reactor of 0.571 (1.515 mH) per phase,
the calculated outrush current to the fault is 6.7 kAp at 2000 Hz.
As per single capacitor banks, the simulated value is smaller
than the calculated value due to effective resistance of the
system components. In addition, the damping of the oscillations
is faster due to the higher resistance value of the reactor at high
frequency of the discharge.

Inrush current associated with energization of the back-to-back

capacitor banks
Discharge of Shunt Capacitor Banks to Faults
(Outrush Currents)
When a short circuit occurs near to the shunt capacitor bank,
it will discharge its energy through the low impedance path
provided by the fault. The magnitude and frequency of the
outrush current are of the same order as the inrush currents
associated with energization of back-to-back capacitor banks,
which can achieve up to 100 per unit at frequencies of 2000 to
20,000kHz.
The worst condition is when the voltage across the capacitor
bank is in its peak value. So the outrush current due to the
discharge of the capacitor bank to fault is given by:

Outrush current of single capacitor bank during a fault at system

Influence of the Q-Factor of the

Reactor
The surge impedance of circuit, the peak value of the inrush
current and its undamped natural frequency are given by:
>S
 urge impedance of the circuit

>P
 eak value of the inrush current

>N
 atural frequency of undamped oscillations

Due to the high currents and frequencies, the discharge of a

single capacitor banks to a fault always requires the insertion of
damping reactors or pre-insertion resistors. The calculation of
the reactance to be introduced in the circuit to limit the inrush
current magnitude and frequencies to admissible values for the
capacitors and switching devices are as follows:

Up to now, no dissipative elements have been considered in the

previous presented analysis, but practical circuits have losses
arising primarily from system and equipment resistances, iron
losses in transformers and shunt reactors. In addition, system
loads represent very important dissipative elements.
The dissipation is accommodated by including resistances in
the circuit. In making transient analysis, all losses usually are
neglected in the first instance, which simplifies the calculations.
Moreover, this approach leads to conservative results with more
severe overvoltages. Once the general behavior of the circuit
has been established, the modification introduced by the system
losses can be considered separately. Introducing resistance
always has the effect of damping out the natural oscillations of
a circuit. How quickly it occurs will depend on the amount of
the losses or, in other words, the value of resistance relative the
values of inductance and capacitance.
Concerning the air-core current limiting reactors installed in series
with the shunt capacitor banks, their losses are represented by
insertion of a series resistance in the circuit. Both the reactance
and the AC series resistance of a damping reactor depend on the
frequency, and the relation between them provides the Q-factor
of the reactor, given by:

>C
 riteria of maximum current

>C
 riteria of maximum frequency

The damping of the inrush and outrush currents is evaluated by

the Q-factor value at transient frequency. Typically, the Q-factor
of a damping reactor decreases with the increasing of frequency.
The effective resistance depends on various factors, such as:
reactor design, geometry of the coil (diameter and height),
number and size of internal conductors of the winding, material
of the conductor (aluminum or cooper) and numbers of turns of
each layer of the winding.

The Q-factor at fundamental frequency of a damping reactor can

be calculated by the relation between the rated reactive power
and the total active losses per phase, as follow:

In some cases, power resistors may be installed in parallel with

the current limiting reactors to reduce the Q-factor to very small
values. In other cases, pre-insertion resistors are installed in the
circuit breakers to provide high damping during energization
of the shunt capacitor banks. During normal operation, these
resistors are by-passed to reduce the total power losses of the
circuit.
Application Examples
Energizating a single capacitor bank, 138 kV, 30 MVAr,
grounded-wye, connected to a 138 kV busbar with symmetrical
short-circuit level of 20 kA and maximum operating voltage of
145 kV.
By installing a damping reactor of 0.571 (1.515 mH) per phase
and running this case in the software ATP with two different
effective resistances (or Q-factor), the inrush currents obtained
from simulations are plotted in the curves below.

Simbology
Representation Description

Unity

UN

Rated system voltage

(kV)

UMAX

Maximum system operating voltage

(kV)

fN

Rated system frequency

(Hz)

Natural system frequency

(rad/sec)

SCC

Rated system three-phase short-circuit power

(MVA)

ICC

Rated system three-phase short-circuit current

(kA)

XSIST

Equivalent system reactance

()

LSIST

Equivalent system inductance

(mH)

XCN

Rated shunt capacitor bank reactance

()

SC3

Rated three-phase shunt capacitor bank

power

(kVAr)

CN

Rated shunt capacitor bank capacitance

(F)

ICN

Rated shunt capacitor bank current

(A)

IRMS

Design shunt capacitor bank current

(A)

Number of parallel shunt capacitor banks

fMAX

Maximum circuit breaker operating frequency

(kHz)

IMAX

Maximum circuit breaker breaking/making

current

(kAp)

LR

Rated current limiting reactor inductance

(H)

FQ

Current limiting reactor Q-Factor

Current limiting reactor AC resistance

()

Time

(seg)

Z0

Surge impedance of the circuit

()

References
[1] ANSI/IEEE C57.16/1996 Standard Requirements,
Terminology and Test Code for Dry-Type Air-Core Series
Connected Reactors.
[2] IEC 60289/1988 Reactors.
[3] ANSI/IEEE C37.012/1979 Application Guide for Capacitance
Current Switching for AC High Voltage Circuit Breaker Rated on a
Symmetrical Current Basis.
Inrush current for a damping reactor with an effective resistance
of 60 m at 708 Hz

[4] IEC 62271-100 High Voltage AC Circuit-Breakers

[5] Manoeuvre et protection des batteries de condensateurs MT.
Cahier Technique N 189. Group Schneider. 1997.
[6] Capacitive Current Switching State of Art. Electra N 155.
1994.
[7] ATP Rule and Theory Book.

To request technical information, please contact us by e-mail:

aircorereactors.itr@areva-td.com

Inrush current for a damping reactor with an effective resistance

of 1500 m at 708 Hz

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www.areva-td.com/contactcentre/
Tel. : +44 (0) 1785 250 070
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Therefore, the Q-factor of damping reactors depends on their

ratings. For reliable analysis, the manufacturer should be
contacted to provide the typical values for a previously specified
current limiting reactor.