2nd & Higher-Order2

Second and Higher-Order
Delta-Sigma Modulators
MEAD March 2008
Richard Schreier
Richard.Schreier@analog.com
ANALOG
DEVICES
R. SCHREIER
ANALOG DEVICES, INC.
Overview
1
MOD2: The 2nd-Order Modulator
MOD2 from MOD1

NTF (predicted & actual)
SQNR performance
Stability
Deadbands, Distortion & Tones (audio demo)
Topological Variants
Higher-Order Modulators
MODN from MOD1

NTF Zero Optimization
Stability
SQNR limits for binary and multi-bit modulators
Topology Overview
R. SCHREIER
1. MOD2 from MOD1

Replace the quantizer in MOD1 with another copy of
MOD1 in a recursive fashion:
Replace Q with MOD1
E
E1
Q
X1
z-1
z-1
z-1
z-1
V =
V =
E
V
U + ( 1 z 1 )E
X 1 + E = X 1 + ( 1 z 1 )E 1
= ( 1 z 1 )E 1
= U + ( 1 z 1 ) 2 E 1
3
R. SCHREIER
Simplified Diagram
Combine feedback paths, absorb feedback delay into
second integrator
E
U
z
z1
1
z1
V ( z) = z 1 U ( z) + ( 1 z 1 ) 2 E ( z)
NTF( z) = ( 1 z 1 ) 2 and the STF is STF( z) = z 1
MOD2s NTF is the square of MOD1s NTF
4
R. SCHREIER
NTF(e j2f)
(dB)
NTF Comparison
0
20
MOD1
40
60
MOD2
Twice as much attenuation
at all frequencies
80
100
103
102
101
Normalized Frequency
5
R. SCHREIER
Predicted Performance
In-band quantization noise power
1 ( 2 OSR )
IQNP =
NTF(e j2f ) 2 S ee( f ) d f
1 ( 2 OSR )
( 2f ) 4 2 e2 d f
4 e2
= --------------------5 ( OSR ) 5
Quantization noise drops as the 5th power of OSR!
SQNR increases at 15 dB per octave increase in OSR.
R. SCHREIER
Predicted SQNR vs. OSR

140
120
SQNR (dB)
100
MOD2
80
MOD1
60
40
20
0 3
2
24
25
26
27
28
29
210
OSR
For OSR = 128 and binary quantization, the predicted
SQNR of MOD2 is 94.2 dB
7
R. SCHREIER
MOD2 Simulated PSD

Half-scale sine-wave input with
f f s 500
dBFS/NBW
20
SQNR = 85 dB
@ OSR = 128
40
60
Simulated spectrum
(smoothed)
Theoretical PSD
k=1
80
100
40 dB/decade
120
140 3
10
NBW = 5.7106
101
102
Observed PSD similar to theory (40 dB/decade slope)

But 3rd harmonic is visible and in-band PSD is slightly higher.
8
R. SCHREIER
Gain of the Quantizer in MOD2

The effective quantizer gain can be computed from the
simulation data using
v, y
E[ y ]
k = --------------- = -------------[S&T Eq. 2.5]
y, y
E[ y2 ]
For the preceding simulation, k = 0.63 .
k 1 alters the NTF:
NTF 1( z)
NTF k( z) = ----------------------------------------------k + ( 1 k )NTF 1( z)
-1
-1
R. SCHREIER
Revised PSD Prediction

0
Theoretical PSD
k = 0.63
20
dBFS/NBW
40
60
Simulated Spectrum
(smoothed)
80
100
120
NBW = 5.7106
140
103
102
101
Agreement is now excellent
10
R. SCHREIER
Variable Quantizer Gain

When the input is small (below -12 dBFS), the effective
gain of the quantizer is k = 0.75
The small-signal NTF is thus
( z 1 )2
NTF( z) = ------------------------------------z 2 0.5 z + 0.25
This NTF has 2.5 dB les quantization noise suppression
than the ( 1 z 1 ) 2 NTF derived from the assumption
that k = 1
Thus the SQNR should be about 2.5 dB lower than
As the input signal increases, k decreases and the

suppression of quantization noise degrades
SQNR increases less quickly than the signal power, and eventually the
SQNR saturates and then decreases as the signal power is increased.
11
R. SCHREIER
Simulated SQNR of MOD2

100
15 A 2 ( OSR ) 5
-------------------------------2 4
SQNR (dB)
80
High-frequency input
Low-frequency input
60
40
SP = A 2 2
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
Input Amplitude (dBFS)
4( 1 3 )
IQNP = ---------------------5 ( OSR ) 5
SP
SQNR = --------------IQNP
Well-modeled by ideal formula; less erratic than MOD1

Saturation at high signal levels due to decreased quantizer gain and
altered NTF. (Worse with low-frequency inputs.)
12
R. SCHREIER
Stability of MOD2
Known to be stable with DC inputs up to full-scale,
but the state bounds blow up as u 1
Hein [ISCAS 1991]: u 1
x 1 u + 2 (output of 1st integrator)
( 5 u )2
x 2 ----------------------- (output of 2nd integrator)
8(1 u )
However, with a hostile input (whose magnitude is less

than 30% of full-scale) MOD2 can be driven unstable!
0.5
-0.5
= 0.3
100
200
As a result of this input-dependent stability, it is wise to

keep the input below 70-90% of full-scale
13
R. SCHREIER
Deadbands, Distortion & Tones

Audio Comparison of MOD1 and MOD2
1
-1
-1
-1
-20
-20
-20
-40
-40
-40
-60
-60
-60
-80
-80
-80
NBW = 3.0 Hz
-100
10
100
1kHz
-100
2
10
NBW = 0.8 Hz
-100
10
14
10
100
1kHz
R. SCHREIER
Observations
Tones
Quantization noise of MOD1 is distinctly non-white
Audible tones when input is near zero, or near other simple rational
fractions of full-scale.
MOD2 is better than MOD1 in terms of its tendency

toward tonal behavior
Dead-bands
MOD1 has dead-bands whose widths are proportional
to 1/A, where A is the gain of the internal op-amp
MOD2 has dead-bands whose widths are proportional
to 1/A2
Dead-band behavior is less problematic in MOD2
15
R. SCHREIER
Topological Variant
Delaying Integrators
E
1
z1
U
-1
1
z1
-2
NTF( z) = ( 1 z 1 ) 2
STF( z) = z 2
+ Delaying integrators reduce the settling requirements

Can decouple the integration phase from the driving phase
16
R. SCHREIER
Topological Variant
Feed-Forward
E
U
1
z1
z
z1
NTF( z) = ( 1 z 1 ) 2
STF( z) = 2 z 1 z 2
+ Output of first integrator has no DC component

Dynamic range requirements of this integrator are relaxed.
Although STF 1 near = 0 , STF = 3 for =

Instability is more likely.
17
R. SCHREIER
Topological Variant
Feed-Forward with Extra Input Feed-In
E
U
1
z1
z
z1
NTF( z) = ( 1 z 1 ) 2
STF( z) = 1
+ No DC component in either integrators output

Reduced dynamic range requirements in both integrators.
+ Perfectly flat STF

No increased risk of instability.
18
R. SCHREIER
Topological Variant
Error Feedback
E
Q
2
z-1
z-1
NTF( z) = ( 1 z 1 ) 2
STF( z) = 1
+ Simple
Very sensitive to gain errors
Only suitable for digital implementations.
19
R. SCHREIER
2. MODN from MOD2

U
z
z1
z
z1
1
z1
1
z
z
V = E + ----------- V + ----------- V + ----------- ( V + U )
z1
z 1
z 1
( 1 z 1 ) N V = ( 1 z 1 ) N E ( ( 1 z 1 ) N 1 + ( 1 z 1 ) N 2 + + 1 )z 1 V + z 1 U
( 1 z ) 1 1
- z V + z 1 U
( 1 z 1 ) N V = ( 1 z 1 ) N E -------------------------------- 1 z 1 1
( 1 z 1 ) N 1 1
- z V + z 1 U
( 1 z 1 ) N V = ( 1 z 1 ) N E --------------------------------
z 1
1 N
V ( z) = z 1 U( z) + ( 1 z 1 ) N E( z)
NTF of MODN is the Nth power of MOD1s NTF
20
R. SCHREIER
NTF Comparison
20
-0
-20
-40
MOD1
-60
-80
D2
MO
D
O
M
-100 -3
10
M
O
D
M 4
OD
5
NTF(e j2f)
(dB)
40
-2
10
-1
10
21
R. SCHREIER
Predicted Performance
In-band quantization noise power
1 ( 2 OSR )
IQNP =
NTF(e j2f ) 2 S ee( f ) d f
1 ( 2 OSR )
( 2f ) 2N 2 e2 d f
2N
-2
= ------------------------------------------------( 2N + 1 ) ( OSR ) 2N + 1 e
Quantization noise drops as the (2N+1)th power of
OSR!
SQNR increases at (6N+3) dB per octave increase in OSR.
22
R. SCHREIER
Improving NTF Performance

Zero Optimization
Minimize the rms in-band value of H by finding the ai
which minimize the integral of H 2 over the passband.
Normalize passband edge to 1 for ease of calculation.
H( f )
i.e. Find the ai which minimize the integral
( x 2 a 12 ) 2 d x ,
n = 2
x 2 ( x 2 a 12 ) 2 d x ,
n = 3
( x 2 a 12 ) 2 ( x 2 a 22 ) 2 d x ,
n = 4
1 f fB
1
1
-1 -a
23
R. SCHREIER
Solutions Up to Order = 8
Order
Optimal Zero Placement Relative to fB
SQNR Improvement
0 dB
1
------3
3.5 dB
3
0, --5
8 dB
3 2 3
3
--- --- -----
7
7
35
13 dB
5 2 5
5
0, --- --- ------ [Y. Yang]
9
9
21
18 dB
0.23862, 0.66121, 0.93247
23 dB
0, 0.40585, 0.74153, 0.94911
28 dB
0.18343, 0.52553, 0.79667, 0.96029
34 dB
24
R. SCHREIER
Topological Implication
Apply feedback around pairs integrators:
Non-delaying + Delaying
Integrators (LDI Loop)
2 Delaying Integrators
-g
1
z1
-g
1
z1
z
z1
Poles are the roots of

1
1 + g -----------
z 1
i.e.
1
z1
Poles are the roots of

gz
1 + ------------------ = 0
( z 1 )2
= 0
i.e. z = e j, cos = 1 g 2
z = 1 j g
Not quite on the unit circle,

but fairly close if g<<1.
Precisely on the unit circle,

regardless of the value of g.
25
R. SCHREIER
Problem: High-Order Modulators Want

Multi-bit Quantizers
e.g. a 3rd-Order Modulator
with an Infinite Quantizer and Zero Input
7
Quantizer input gets large,

even if the input is small.
5
3
6 quantizer levels are

used by a small input.
v1
-1
-3
-5
-70
10
20
30
Sample Number
26
40
R. SCHREIER
The 3rd-Order Modulator is Unstable

with a Binary Quantizer
Long
strings
of +1/-1
0
-1
0
10
20
30
40
200
HUGE!
100
0
-100
-200
0
10
20
Sample Number
30
40
The quantizer input grows without bound

The modulator is unstable, even with an arbitrarily small input.
27
R. SCHREIER
Solutions to the Stability Problem

Historical Order
1 Use multi-bit quantization
Originally considered undesirable because the inherent linearity of a
1-bit DAC is lost when a multi-bit quantizer is used.
Less of an issue now that mismatch-shaping is available.
2 Use a more general NTF (not pure differentiation)

Lower the NTF gain so that quantization error is amplified less.
A common rule of thumb is to limit the maximum NTF gain to ~1.5.
Unfortunately, limiting the NTF gain reduces the amount by which
quantization noise is attenuated.
3 Use a multi-stage (MASH) architecture

More on this later in the course.
Combinations of the above are possible

28
R. SCHREIER
Multi-bit Quantization
Can show that a modulator with NTF H and unity STF
is guaranteed to be stable if u < u max at all times,
h(i)
where u max = nlev + 1 h 1 and h 1 =
i=0
In MODN,
H( z) = ( 1 z 1 ) N , so
h(n) = { 1, a 1, a 2, a 3, ( 1 ) N a N, 0 } , where a i > 0
and thus h 1 = H( 1) = 2 N .
Thus nlev = 2 N implies u max = nlev + 1 h
= 1.
MODN is guaranteed to be stable with an n-bit quantizer if the input

magnitude is less than /2.
This result is extremely conservative.
Similarly, nlev = 2 N + 1 guarantees the modulator is

stable for inputs up to 50% of full-scale.
29
R. SCHREIER
Proof of h
Criterion
By Induction
Assume STF = 1 and ( n ) ( u(n) u max ) .
Assume e(i) 1 for i < n .
[Induction Hypothesis]
Then
y ( n) = u( n) +
u max +
u max +
i=1
i=1
i=1
h(i)e(n i)
h(i) e(n i)
h(i) = u max + h 1 1
Thus
( u max nlev + 1 h 1 ) ( y(n) nlev ) ( e(n) 1 )
And by induction e(i) 1 for all i > 0.
30
QED
R. SCHREIER
The Lee Criterion for Stability

in a 1-bit Modulator: H 2
[Wai Lee, 1987]
The measure of the gain of H is
the maximum magnitude of H (over frequency),
otherwise known as the infinity-norm of H:
H max( H(e j) )
[ 0, 2 ]
Q: Is the Lee criterion necessary for stability?

For MOD2, H( z) = ( 1 z 1 ) 2 and so H = H ( 1 ) = 4 .
Since MOD2 is known to be stable, the Lee criterion is not necessary.
Q: Is the Lee criterion sufficient to ensure stability?

No. There are lots of counter-examples, but H
1.5 often works.
Lets look at some examples

31
R. SCHREIER
The NTF Family Used by the Toolbox

Poles chosen such that 1 den(H( z)) is a
maximally flat transfer function.
Pole Locus for 5th-order NTFs
1
For lowpass modulators, the pole
placement is similar to a
Butterworth transfer function.
Yields a flat STF for both lowpass
and bandpass modulators
employing the CRFB topology with
one feed-in.
-1
-1
32
R. SCHREIER
e vs. H
Binary modulators of order N = 3, 4, 5 with a small input

e
1
------3 0.5
N=5
N=3
Value of H resulting
in instability depends
on modulator order, N.
Toolbox
default is
H = 1.5
0
N=4
1.5
2.5
33
R. SCHREIER
Two 5th-Order Binary Modulators

NTF Magnitude
0
= 1.5
= 1.75
-20
-40
dB
-60
-80
-100
-120
0
Higher H
has more aggressive noise shaping

0.25
34
0.5
R. SCHREIER
e vs. uDC
For the two 5th-order modulators
e
NTF with higher H has a

lower stable input limit.
0
0
0.25
0.5
DC Input
0.75
35
R. SCHREIER
SQNR vs. H
SQNR
(dB)
5th-Order NTFs, Binary Quantization, OSR = 32

SQNR has a broad maximum
90
70
50
1.25
1.5
1.75
1.75
umax
(dBFS)
-10
-20
Stable input limit drops

as H increases.
1
1.25
1.5
H
36
R. SCHREIER
N=8
N=7
N=6
N=5
SQNR Limits for Binary Modulators

140
N=4
N=3
N=2
Peak SQNR (dB)
120
100
N=1
80
60
40
20
0
4
16
32
64
128
256
512
1024
OSR
37
R. SCHREIER
N=8
N=7
N=6
N=5
SQNR Limits for 2-bit Modulators

140
N=4 N=3
N=2
Peak SQNR (dB)
120
100
N=1
80
60
40
20
0
4
16
32
64
OSR
38
128
256
512
1024
R. SCHREIER
N=8
N=7
N=6
N=5
SQNR Limits for 3-bit Modulators

140
N=4
N=3
N=2
Peak SQNR (dB)
120
N=1
100
80
60
40
20
0
4
16
32
64
128
256
512
1024
OSR
39
R. SCHREIER
SQNR (dB) @ OSR = 8

with 1 LSB (peak) input
Theoretical SQNR Limits

for Multi-Bit Modulators
H
120
H
H
100
N=8
= 32
N=7
= 16
N=6
= 8
N=5
80
= 4
N=4
60
40
20
H
= 2
N=3
N=2
100
101
Total RMS Noise Power (LSBs)

40
R. SCHREIER
Example Waveforms
7th-order 17-level modulator, H
= 2
16
SQNR = 55 dB
@ OSR = 8
-16
50
100
Time Step
41
R. SCHREIER
Example Waveforms
7th-order 17-level modulator, H
= 8
16
SQNR = 105 dB
@ OSR = 8
-16
50
Time Step
42
100
R. SCHREIER
Spectra
0
SNR = 105dB @ OSR=8

SNR = 55dB @ OSR=8
20
dBFS/NBW
40
60
80
100
120
140
NBW=1.8x104
160
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
43
R. SCHREIER
SNR Curves
120
peak SNR = 105dB
@ OSR = 8
SNR (dB)
100
stable input
limit = 0dBFS
80
peak SNR = 61dB
@ OSR = 8
60
40
stable input
limit = 6dBFS
20
0
120
100
80
60
40
Input Level (dBFS)

44
20
R. SCHREIER
Example Topology Feedback

-g
I
-a1
-a2
Adjust ai to get
the desired NTF
-a3
N integrators precede the quantizer

Feedback from the quantizer to the input of each
integrator (via a DAC)
Local feedback around pairs of integrators is possible
Multiple input feed-in branches are also possible
45
R. SCHREIER
Example Topology Feedforward

a1
a2
I
-g
a3
Q
V
N integrators in a row
Each integrator output is fed forward to the quantizer
Local feedback around pairs of integrators is possible
Multiple input feed-in branches are also possible
46
R. SCHREIER
General Single-Quantizer Modulator

The input to the quantizer is some linear combination
of the input to the modulator and the fed-back output
E
U
L0
L1
Y = L0 U + L1 V
V = GU + HE , where
1
H = -------------- & G = L 0 H
1 L1
V = Y+E
Inverse Relations:
L1 = 1 1/H, L0 = G/H
47
R. SCHREIER
Summary
MOD2 is better than MOD1
Higher SQNR
Whiter quantization noise
Smaller deadbands
MODN is better than MOD2

Even higher SQNR
Tonal behavior unlikely
Deadbands virtually eliminated
BUT high-order modulators must deal with instability

Modify the NTF, reduce the input range, and/or use multi-bit
quantization
48

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2nd &amp; Higher-Order2

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Second and Higher-Order

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

MOD2: The 2nd-Order Modulator

MOD2 from MOD1

MODN from MOD1

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

1. MOD2 from MOD1

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

NTF(e j2f ) 2 S ee( f ) d f

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

Predicted SQNR vs. OSR

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

MOD2 Simulated PSD

Observed PSD similar to theory (40 dB/decade slope)

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

Gain of the Quantizer in MOD2

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

Revised PSD Prediction

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

Variable Quantizer Gain

As the input signal increases, k decreases and the

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

Simulated SQNR of MOD2

Input Amplitude (dBFS)

Well-modeled by ideal formula; less erratic than MOD1

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

However, with a hostile input (whose magnitude is less

As a result of this input-dependent stability, it is wise to

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

Deadbands, Distortion & Tones

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

MOD2 is better than MOD1 in terms of its tendency

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

+ Delaying integrators reduce the settling requirements

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

+ Output of first integrator has no DC component

Although STF 1 near = 0 , STF = 3 for =

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

+ No DC component in either integrators output

+ Perfectly flat STF

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

2. MODN from MOD2

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

NTF(e j2f ) 2 S ee( f ) d f

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

Improving NTF Performance

i.e. Find the ai which minimize the integral

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

Optimal Zero Placement Relative to fB

0.23862, 0.66121, 0.93247

0, 0.40585, 0.74153, 0.94911

0.18343, 0.52553, 0.79667, 0.96029

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

Poles are the roots of

Poles are the roots of

Not quite on the unit circle,

Precisely on the unit circle,

ANALOG DEVICES, INC.

Problem: High-Order Modulators Want

Quantizer input gets large,

2nd & Higher-Order2

2nd & Higher-Order2