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IMPROVED LOAD-ON-TOP
Robert J. Fiocco
Exxon Research and Engineering Company
Florham Park, New Jersey
and
Vincent W. Ridley
Exxon International Company
New York, New York
ABSTRACT
Slop tanks are the focal point of the Load-On-Top system used
on crude oil tankers to prevent pollution of the sea. Design of
these tanks and their operating procedures strongly affect the degree
of oil-water separation achieved. This paper presents the results of
an investigation undertaken to define designs and procedures for
improving separation and minimizing oil discharge to sea. The program was funded in part by the U.S. Maritime Administration.
Based on tanker experience and laboratory tests with tank
models, guidelines on capacity, structure, inlets, outlets, system
design, and wastewater handling, procedures were developed. The
guidelines aim at assuring successful Load-On-Top operations by
(1) providing tanker operational flexibility for handling oily water,
(2) minimizing the degree of oil-water mixing, (3) avoiding redispersion of separated oil during feeding and discharging operations,
and (4) eliminating the possibility of accidental oil contamination.
This investigation provides a basis for future large-scale or shipboard studies to improve the performance of slop tanks on existing
tankers as well as on future tankers.
INTRODUCTION
Over the past several years, a considerable effort has been expended by the oil and maritime industries to aid in developing
technology and regulations to avoid pollution of the sea. The
urgency for this work was spurred on by the greatly expanded needs
to transport oil by sea.
One of the major steps to control pollution was introduced in
1964 with the adoption of the Load-On-Top (LOT) system for
crude tankers. The system involves the use of slop tanks to separate
oil-water dispersions generated during the ballast voyage. After
setting, water is discharged to sea. At the loading port, crude cargo
is loaded on top of the oil, and water is retained in the slop tank.
The slop tank contents are ultimately discharged with the rest of
the cargo refineries or other receiving facilities. There are economic
incentives to minimize the amount of oily water retained with slop
oil since water reduces cargo payload space and can lead to severe
processing problems at refineries.
Pollution regulations aimed at controlling the amount of oily
water discharged are established by the Inter-government Maritime
Consulative Organization (IMCO). The most recent 1973 IMCO
convention prohibits discharge of oily water unless the tanker is en
route and more than 50 miles from land. These discharges cannot
exceed a maximum of 60 liters per nautical mile, and the total
quantity of oil discharged cannot exceed 1/15,000 DWT. More
Program description
A program was carried out to define slop tank designs and operating procedures which enhance oil-water separation and thereby reduce the oil content in water discharged to sea [1]. The guidelines
developed in the investigation are intended to provide a basis for
further efforts by tanker operators and builders to upgrade the performance of slop tank systems and to assure that present and future
tankers can comply with pollution requirements.
The guidelines are based on a review of tanker operating experience and studies with laboratory models. The laboratory program provided a means for analyzing separation phenomena and
evaluating alternate designs. Plexiglass models representing the
bottom sections of center and wing tanks (figures 1 and 2) were
evaluated under static and rolling conditions. For ease of handling,
a product oil, Isopar M, was used as the dispersed oil phase. Tests
were also carried out with Kuwait crude oil.
195
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Primary
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the dirty ballast tanks. Dirty ballast residues are then pumped to the
slop tank, and the lines are flushed in preparation for clean ballast
discharge.
After allowing time for oil-water separation, settled water in
the slop tank(s) is again discharged to sea. If there is more than one
slop tank, all residues are transferred to the primary tank. Stripping
lines are then flushed into the primary slop tank. Additional time
for oil-water separation is allowed and water is again discharged to
sea, retaining the oil layer and water with high oil content in the slop
tank.
Upon arrival at the crude oil loading port, the tanker discharges
all clean ballast. After crude is loaded into all tanks, including the
slop tank, the tanker proceeds to the discharge point.
Each operation should be considered from the viewpoint of
promoting oil-water separation in the slop tank and minimizing oil
content of water discharged to sea. The following general criteria
for slop tank design and operation were used as bases for specific
guidelines discussed in subsequent sections of this paper.
1. Operational flexibility for handling oily water should be provided to assure that adequate settling time is available.
2. The degree of mixing energy imparted to the oil-water
mixtures being transferred to the slop tank should be minimized.
3. During transfers and discharging operations, redispersion of oil
which has already separated in the slop tank should be
avoided.
4. Accidental oil discharge should be prevented.
Slop tank capacity should be adequate to allow tanker operational flexibility with regard to oily water handling. Therefore, the
recommended slop tank capacity is based on the total amount of
oily water to be handled including:
a. Oily water generated during tank washing. On VLCCs with
closed cycle washing, a minimum one-hour water holdup in
the secondary tank insures a sufficient head for the cargo
pump and also allows for separation during the washing cycle.
b. Retained dirty ballast water.
c. Water from flushing and drainage of lines and bilges.
d. Allowance for operational flexibility and avoidance of overfilling.
These quantities are considered to be additive since under some
conditions, such as short voyages or bad weather, vessels may not be
able to partially decant slop tanks prior to these operations. Tanker
operations should be aimed at limiting the amount of oily water
generated, for example, by minimizing dirty ballast tankage and
tank washing. Quantities of dirty ballast residue and flushing
water will be affected by factors such as sea conditions and length
PREVENTION
and complexity of piping to be flushed. In view of the wide variation
in tanker configurations and operating conditions, the desirable
capacity for slops receipt is in the range of 2.5 to 6% of the total oil
carrying capacity.
As an example, for a 240,000 DWT inerted VLCC with closed
cycle washing, the estimated minimum slop tank capacity is as follows:
water for washing and eductor drive
3-ft water innage from dirty ballast
tank
flush and drainage of lines and bilges
Subtotal
20% allowance for operational
flexibility
5,000 tons
4,000 tons
2,000 tons
11,000 tons
series allow better separation than a single tank with the same total
volume (table 1). For these tests, a standardized 1,125 ppm Isopar
oil-in-water dispersion was fed to the primary tank and the effluent
from the last settling tank was averaged over a one-hour period. A
3' long x 2' wide x 2-1/2' high tank was partitioned lengthwise to
give the various settling volume ratios. The inlet to each tank was
positioned near the top of the water phase and directed downward.
Unequal settling tanks (2:1 and 1:2 volume ratio) were found to
be slightly more effective than tanks with a 1:1 ratio and an equivalent total volume. Separation with three equal size tanks was comparable to two unequal tanks. In practice, a two tank system is
preferable to a three tank cascade because operations are simplified.
Also, a smaller primary tank offers advantages in segregation of slop
oil and final decantation of water.
2,200 tons
13,200 tons or 4.4% oil
carrying capacity
Total
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6
8
WATER DRAINAGE RATE (G PM)
197
Volume Ratio of
Settling Sections
Oil Content
in Effluent
ppm
151
1:1
127
1:2
113
2:1
117
1:1:1
117
Inlets
Slop tank inlets should be designed to avoid redispersion of
separated oil and to minimize disturbances which hinder oil droplet
settling. Redispersion of the oil layer by the jet action of incoming
water not only creates additional oil contamination in the water
phase, but also generates water-in-oil emulsions. Depending on the
type of crude oil, these emulsions can be stable and form very irregular "froth" zones at the oil-water interface. Emulsion layers are
undesirable since they lower the oil-water interface level and increase the amount of water which must be retained on board ship.
The inlet jet of water can also remix oil droplets which have
partially settled from the lower portion of the water phase. In a continuous flow system, such as used in closed cycle washing on inerted
VLCCs, these droplets can be entrained in the recirculated washed
water. Another situation to be avoided in continuous flow systems
is directing the inlet jet toward the discharge line and, in effect,
causing partial short-circuiting.
Laboratory tests were carried out to investigate the tendency
of various inlet configurations to redisperse oil which has already
separated in the slop tank. The tests were conducted by feeding a
stream of clean water into a tank containing water with a layer of oil
on the surface. The following inlets did not redisperse the oil layer:
1. nozzles positioned within the water phase directed horizontally with adequate clearance to the oil layer
2. nozzles positioned within the water phase directed downward
with adequate clearance to the oil layer and to the bottom of
the tank
3. nozzles directed upward from below the oil layer and, if close,
baffled to deflect the flow away from the oil layer.
Clearances for the various inlets required in lab tests with an
Isopar oil layer and an inlet velocity of 8 feet per second are shown
in figure 5. For the horizontal inlet, the clearance of 10 pipe diameters to the oil-water interface allowed for expansion of the inlet jet;
this could be decreased to 5 pipe diameters when an expanded inlet
nozzle (twice the pipe diameter) was used. For the downwarddirected nozzle, very little clearance below the interface was required; however, to avoid disturbance by the reflected jet, a
minimum height of 10 pipe diameters for the oil-water interface
above the bottom of the tank was required. Upward-directed
nozzles required 50 pipe diameters distance to the interface; this
could be decreased to 4 diameters using a flat deflector baffle over
the nozzle directed away from the wall.
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INLET PIPE VELOCITY (FT/SEC)
Outlets
Clearance requirements depend strongly on inlet velocity and
interface properties of the oil layer. Figure 6 shows clearance requirements as a function of inlet velocity for horizontal inlets with
and without an expanded nozzle (diffuser) which promotes dissipation of the jet. Clearance requirements increase with increasing inlet
velocity, but are reduced with the use of an expanded nozzle. When
testing with a Kuwait crude oil layer, the clearance requirements
were approximately twice those needed for the Isopar oil tests. This
was primarily due to the presence of loose oily particles which built
up at the interface and were readily swept into the water phase by
the inlet jet.
When the inlet is positioned either above, within, or too close to
the oil layer, a wide range of oil droplet sizes can result depending
on specific conditions. Finer, more persistent oil drops are generated
as the clearance decreases, as inlet velocities increase, and as oilwater interfacial tension decreases.
Several inlet configurations were evaluated in the laboratory
for continuous flow conditions such as used in closed cycle washing.
A standardized dispersion of 1,125 ppm Isopar oil in water was fed
to the 3' X 2' X 2-1/2' tank. Inlet velocity was 8 feet per second;
effluent was averaged over a one-hour period.
These tests (table 2) indicated that horizontal and downwarddirected inlets are equivalent in tanks with transverse structure
between the inlet and outlet. In tanks without transverse structure,
a downward nozzle allowed better separation than horizontal or
upward-directed nozzles. For all configurations, there was a degree
of short-circuiting of feed to the outlet due to the mixing currents
set up by the inlet jet Poorest separation was obtained with an upward-pointed nozzle which caused a high-velocity stream just below
the interface that swept oil droplets towards the outlet.
In summary, for feeding oily water to a partially-filled slop tank,
a horizontal inlet with an expanded nozzle positioned near the
bottom of the tank is preferable. This inlet avoids the need for
baffles which are subject to erosion/corrosion problems and allows
greater operational flexibility for transferring oily water into the
tank without disturbing settled oil. For continuous flow systems,
low horizontal or downward-directed inlets are suitable for tanks
with transverse structure between the inlet and outlet. However, for
specially-designed tanks without transverse structure, a downwarddirected inlet is preferred.
Outlets should be designed so that settled oil does not remix into
the water phase during discharge of water. Remixing of oil into
water increases the oil contamination in the discharged water and
ultimately limits the amount of water which can be decanted from
the slop tank.
As illustrated in figure 7, oil entrainment in the discharge water
can occur when (1) oil is drawn down around the bellmouth due to
the flowing water, (2) a vortex forms near the outlet at the oil-water
interface, or (3) jetting of water through openings in structural members causes tearing of drops from the oil-water interface.
At low interface levels, the acceleration of the water flow around
the bellmouth causes oil to be drawn down into the discharging
water. Laboratory tests showed that the interface height at onset
of oil entrainment depended on drain rate, presence of restrictive
structure, and oil layer properties. Also, crude oils with higher
densities and lower interfacial tension are more easily entrained.
Lower drainage rates delay the onset of oil entrainment. Taller
bottom longitudinal structures cause oil entrainment at higher
interface heights. In addition, with crude oil, oily emulsion particles
which arise from natural surfactants tend to collect at the interface
and are readily entrained by the discharging water phase.
Oil drawdown around the bellmouth can occur prematurely due
to a weiring effect when tank structures that divide the slop tank
into subcompartments are present. For strength reasons, there are
limitations in the bottom hole drainage area in these structural
members. As a result, when the interface drops below the top of
the structure, oil spills over, causing the interface to be lower in the
outlet subcompartment than in the neighboring subcompartment
(figure 8). Decreasing discharge rates reduce the weiring effect.
To delay the onset of oil entrainment, expanded downward-facing
outlet nozzles (i.e., bellmouths) are recommended. It is desirable
that the peripheral clearance area to the base of the tank be twice
the cross-sectional area of the connecting pipe. The use of expanded
outlet nozzles allows this ratio to be achieved while keeping bottom
clearance to a minimum. Laboratory tests indicated that circular
and elliptical-shaped bellmouths were equivalent. Special-design outlets, such as elephant-foot bellmouths, which may permit decantation at higher rates were not tested. However, since it is desirable to
reduce drainage rates during the final stages of decantation to avoid
accidental oil discharge, the shape of the bellmouths appears to be of
secondary importance.
PREVENTION
Table 2. Effect of inlet configuration on settling in a continuous
flow system
Inlet Nozzle Configuration
Oil Content
In Effluent
ppm
151
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Separation aids
Slop tanks should be provided with heating coils to speed up oilwater separation. These are particularly useful for providing a
sharper oil-water interface and reducing water content in the oil
layer. To allow flexibility, the heating coils should have at least
two stages, one at low-tank level and the other at midtank level.
Oily water separators are desirable for use during the final stages
of slop tank decantation. Present separator limitations in regard to
capacity and effectiveness restrict their usefulness during the entire
decantation process. However, in the final stages of decantation
when flow rates are low and oil content is rapidly increasing, they
can be useful and provide insurance against accidental oil spills.
CONCLUSION
This investigation provides a basis for future large-scale or shipboard studies. Slop tank designs and operating procedures have
been described which can improve oil-water separation and assure
compliance with international pollution conventions. Design improvements can be implemented on existing tankers or in some
cases, operations modified to account for design limitations. The
guidelines should also aid in the evaluation of slop tank-system designs for new tanker construction.
REFERENCES
1. Fiocco, R.J.; Lanotte, V.X.; and Raffaelli, G. 1974. Investigation of slop tank designs to improve oil-water separation.
U.S. Maritime Administration Report, 1974.
2. Shibata, K., and Hikita, K. 1971. Test report on distribution of
oil in slop tanks. Japan Naval Architecture Society Transaction, Vol. 129, June 1971.