The Communication Process It takes a significant amount

of work and energy to communicate effectively with others. One

measure of our effectiveness stems from our understanding of
ourselves and of others, a subject that is treated at length in the
following chapter. Several factors contribute to our effectiveness
as communicators, namely, our ability to listen, our verbal
communication skills, our nonverbal communication skills, our
understanding of our relationships with others, our ability to
analyze an audience, and our knowledge of the way to research,
prepare, and deliver a public speech.
Communicating effectively, more broadly, stems from an
overall understanding that people are simultaneously different
and similar. We approach communication and each
communication situation from diverse perspectives.
We used to think of communication as a one-way process. This
was called the linear model of communication. The linear
model argued that communication can only move in one
direction, from the sender to the receiver. The receiver played a
passive role in the overall process. Over the years, scholars have
added to and revised the linear model. We now describe
communication as an ongoing, dynamic process. The
transactional model describes communication as an
interdependent process whereby the speaker and receiver are
simultaneously sending and receiving messages. With this in
mind, lets turn to a more detailed definition of communication.
Communication is the interdependent process of sending,
receiving, and understanding messages. This definition implies
that the components of the communication process (discussed
later in this section) cannot be examined separately. Rather, the
relationship that exists between the sender and the receiver, as
well as the environment of the communication event, must be
viewed as a whole. According to this perspective, if any of the
components or circumstances change (that is, the number of
individuals involved in the interaction, the seating arrangements,
or the time of day), the communication event is altered.
Communication is an ongoing process; we never stop sending and
receiving messages. In fact, we do both simultaneously. For
example, when we tell our supervisor about how all our overtime
is hurting our grades, we also observe the supervisors reaction to
what we are sayingwe simultaneously send a message and
receive the supervisors message (that is, his or her concern, or

surprise, or apparent lack of concentration on what we are

saying). Even though we may not deliberately or directly
communicate with another person, we constantly send out
information about ourselves. Our clothing, our behavior toward
others (children, spouses, lovers, colleagues, and so on), and the
amount of eye contact we establish all communicate information
about ourselves. People make inferences about our behavior, just
as we interpret what we observe about others. As you will
discover, communication is a dynamic process, a process that
changes from one communication setting to the next. Although it
is difficult to predict the ways your ideas will be interpreted by
others, certain components are always present in the
communication process: people, a message, encoding, decoding,
the channel, feedback, the context, and noise. Understanding
these components will give you both an awareness of the
communication process and a working vocabulary to help you
formulate and dissect messages.

People
People are an integral part of the communication process. Todays
technology offers sophisticated telecommunication and computer
systems. Yet this technology simply facilitates human
communication, which includes conversations between
individuals, public speeches delivered to an audience, employee
interviews, small-group discussions, knowing glances between
friends or partners, and so on. None of these situations is possible
without the involvement of people. Each of us is unique in many
ways. Our ethnicity, race, sexual orientation, gender,
socioeconomic status, age, values, and many other
characteristics make up who we are, how we feel, and, more
importantly, how we approach communication. These aspects
together create our frame of reference. Frame of reference allows
us to create and interpret messages. It is our unique view of the
world and everything in it. Think about the other students in your
class. What things do you share with them? Are you all the same
age? How many men and women are in the class? How about
ethnicity and race? Paying close attention to the frames of
reference of your classmates will help you become a more
effective communicator this semester. Human interaction places
the individual in two roles: the source and the receiver. The
source is the person who creates and sends a message, whereas

the receiver is the individual to whom the message is sent. The

receiver also sends messages back to the source, so the entire
process bounces back and forth. For example, Joan (the receiver)
listens to Karl (the source) explain how his overtime on the job is
effecting his grades at school. She remarks, I understand, and
lets try to work something out with your schedule for next week.
What she has done, momentarily, is send a message of her own.
For that instant, Karl becomes the receiver. When people
communicate with each other, messages are sent and received
simultaneously.

Message
The message is the thought, feeling, or action that is sent from
the source to the receiver with the use of symbols. When we
create messages, we have a choice of code systems such as
verbal or nonverbal and oral or nonoral. Thus, messages can be
communicated either verbally or nonverbally, intentionally and
unintentionally. Verbal messages are composed of words: I was
so offended by Larrys comments that I thought I was going to
scream at him! Nonverbal messages are composed of gestures,
facial expressions, vocal inflection, touch, and so on. Nonverbally,
we might communicate our anger at Larrys comments by glaring
at him or turning red. The content of our messages can reflect a
great deal of preparation or structure (as in public speeches), a
casualness (as in a conversation with a good friend), or no
forethought at all (as in many of our nonverbal messages). We
can also strategically alter our message to be better understood
by the receiver. For example, a speaker will want to do extensive
audience analysis before giving a public speech to ensure that the
audience understands the message. We can alter our message
through language choice, delivery style, and many other
variables.

Encoding
Encoding is the process of putting thoughts, ideas, or feelings into
meaningful symbols that another person can understand.
Symbols represent thingsour feelings, names for the objects
around us, explanations for behaviors, and so on. We are most
familiar with the concept of words (language) as our primary
symbol system (more about this in Chapter 4). When we want to

send a message, we rely on our frame of reference to choose the

www.ablongman.com/dunn Photo caption here. If caption is one
line, I will crop photo taller. For example, the words chosen for this
message would be easily understood by the receiver: Im really
glad to see you. Ive missed you so much these past two weeks.
Nonverbal symbols also convey our messages effectively. A hug,
for example, symbolizes an expression of warmth toward another
person. In both these examples, the symbols used to convey the
message (verbal expression using words, nonverbal expression
using a hug) are easily discerned by the receiver.

Decoding
Decoding is the process of interpreting or attaching meaning to
another persons message. Communication often stops because
people decode messages differently based on their frame of
reference. Because of diverse attitudes, knowledge, and past
experiences, receivers often interpret messages differently from
the way they were intended by the senders. Take the example of
Shelly and Tom. Shelly and Tom have been dating for the past two
years. They are ready to go off to different colleges this fall. Shelly
will be attending the large state university several hours away,
while Tom is staying home to attend the local college and work
part-time. Shelly feels it is time to see other people and wants to
break off their relationship. She calls Tom and says she has
something important to talk to him about and they set up a place
and time to meet. Tom, however, believes that he will do better in
school because he is in a committed and loving relationship with
Shelly and knows they will be able to visit one another on the
weekends, exchange daily emails, and phone calls. When Shelly
called to say she had something important to discuss, Tom
assumed they would discuss when they would announce their
engagement to their families. Obviously, Tom has decoded the
meaning of Shellys message differently than she intended.

Feedback
Another important component in the communication process is
feedback. Feedback is the receivers response to the senders
message; it provides information about the way the message is
being interpreted. For example: Tameka is working with several of

her colleagues on a new procedure to order office supplies. There

have been several instances of over-ordering and it has cost the
company thousands of dollars. Tameka and her team have been
asked to determine the best way to control office supply ordering.
After many weeks of discussion, each team member presents his
or her idea to the group. The group discusses each idea and then
decides on the best procedure to recommend to their supervisor.
The groups discussion of each idea is an example of feedback.
Often we are unaware of the feedback we send to others. For
instance, Candi may tell Jorge that she is interested in hearing
about his trip to Cincinnati, but she may be nonverbally
communicating her boredom by glancing at the clock or stifling a
yawn. In this example, the verbal feedback and the nonverbal
feedback differ; Candis verbal expression of interest is not
supported by her nonverbal yawn. At other times, what we say is
supported by our nonverbal response. For example, Glen might
tell Kevin that he understands Kevins instructions, and he
reinforces this verbal feedback by nodding his head. As senders
we sometimes have difficulty interpreting the feedback we get
from a receiver. For instance, we might interpret the feedback
from an audience as being negative, when in reality it is positive.
Consider the following: Cathy is a student who likes to sit in the
front row. She feels this helps her stay involved in the class. She
never misses class and also enjoys listening to speeches;
however, because she finds direct eye contact difficult, she looks
down at her class notes frequently. When Sean gives his speech,
he may misinterpret her behavior as a negative response to his
message. Cathys behavior toward the speaker is motivated by
her own discomfort, not by her disapproval of the presentation.
Now consider another student: James sits in the front row for a
different reason. He hopes to make a positive impression on both
his instructor and his peers. He consistently gives Sean nonverbal
approval by nodding his head after the presentation of each idea.
Occasionally as he nods, he is daydreaming about the upcoming
weekend. So, even though James is providing Sean with positive
feedback, he is not really listening. Listening is covered in Chapter
3. The preceding examples illustrate the difficulty we can face
when attempting to interpret the feedback given by receivers.
Because we use feedback to alter our subsequent messages,
problems can arise when our interpretations are incorrect.
Remember, we are using our frame of reference to encode a

message, and the receiver is using his or her different frame of

reference to decode the message. If, for example, the speaker
interprets Cathys lack of eye contact as disapproval of his or her
presentation, then his or her future interactions with Cathy might
be less than friendly.

Context
The conditions surrounding communication with others are
referred to as the context of the interaction. What types of
conditions are there? The physical setting in which the
communication occurs can have a substantial impact on
communication. Consider the difference between discussing a
business proposal with a few clients over lunch at a posh
restaurant and discussing the same proposal with the same
clients in your firms conference room. The location influences the
degree of formality in the interaction. Such factors as seating
arrangements, time of day, degree of privacy, room size,
temperature, and lighting affect how people communicate with
each other. A second aspect of context is the psychological
climate of the interaction. This refers to the attitudes and feelings
we have about ourselves and the other people involved in the
communication. These feelings can affect how we respond to
others. For example: Sherry is an English major and has a difficult
time in Professor Andersons course. Sherrys assignments in
Professor Andersons course have caused her considerable
anxiety because she perceives Professor Andersons comments
about her writing to be overly critical. Sherry brings these
negative feelings about Professor Anderson to every class
meeting; as a result, the psychological climate of each class
session is tense. A positive psychological climate, on the other
hand, can contribute immensely to the interaction between
people. Consider the following: Beth, a student in the basic
speech class, is terrified of public speaking. Because her
instructor offers encouragement to all the students, Beth
gradually feels a genuine warmth develop within the class. After
several weeks Beth gains confidence and actually looks forward to
coming to class. She notices changes in her classmates as well.
As the semester progresses, Beths speeches, as well as those of
her classmates, show significant improvement.

Communication skills
This competency means that the sender is able to express his
ideas and reflections clearly, make contacts with people quickly
and to maintain them, provide feedback, be tolerant to different
customs and cultures. Communication competency means that
the sender is able to look for, find and transfer different,
information, coordinate all inner and outer information that
reaches the organization.

How to be a good communicator

express own reflections and ideas clearly
develop relationships
provide feedback (answers, reacts)
be open to others feedback (accept others answer without
prejudice, references etc.
respect attitudes and opinions of others
be tolerant to different customs and cultures
Give full attention to people while they are talking to you.
Encourage other people to talk, and ask appropriate questions.
Present your ideas so that others are receptive to your point of
view.
Treat people fairly and let others know how you want to be
treated.
Value teamwork and know how to build cooperation and
commitment.
Strive to understand other people and to be empathetic.
Be able to easily win peoples trust and respect.
Check to make sure you have understood what other people
are trying to communicate.
Follow through on your commitments.
Be able to work with people you have difficulties with without
becoming negative yourself.

Four keypoints of communication

1. If you want to convince others with a message, convince them

that you are a good person and that you know what you are
talking about..
2. Use words that your audience will easily understand and
remember.
3. Speak direct, in a conversational way for a better
communication.
4. Move away from egocentrism Communication skills is the set of
skills that enables a person to convey information so that it is
received and understood. The most important in effective
communication is to know the following:
WHO you are communicating with (it's of great importance to
know your audience, who they are, of what age they are, what
they already know, how many people will receive your message,
etc.)
WHAT you are communicating the communication should be
adequate to the subject
WHY - what the goal of your communicate is, what you want to
achieve
WHEN you will communicate the issue
HOW you will communicate the issue think about the method
you will choose,.

How to communicate effectively

Connect
o Establish bond with people
o Pay attention to peoples facial expressions, body language,
and tone of voice. o See things from the other persons point of
view.
o Adjust your communication style to match theirs.
o Avoid criticizing, making negative judgments, or saying that the
other person is wrong.
o Show interest in the other persons interests and concerns.
Listen
o Encourage people to talk.
o Show your willingness to listen. Minimize distractions. Attend to
the other person with your whole body (your body language,
eyes, facial expressions). Nod your head and give verbal cues to
communicate that you are paying attention.

o Ask open-ended questions.

o Listen to what people are trying to communicate, not just to
what they are saying. Listen to their emotions. Listen also to what
they want.
o Check to make sure you understand. Use your own words to
reflect what you have heard and noticed.
Communicate
o Speak with sincerity and conviction.
o Be sensitive to other peoples communication style.
o Know what you want to accomplish. Do you want people to
understand your position? Lend their support? Approve your
request?
o Listen at least as much as you talk.
o Attune what you say with how you say it. Keep your message
fitting with your tone of voice, facial expression, and body
language.
Speak
o Project confidence.
o Connect with your audience.
o Know what you want to accomplish. Do you want people to
understand your position? Lend their support? Approve your
request?
o Keep it short and simple. Most communication can accomplish
only one objective, develop three main points, and hold peoples
attention only so long.
o Ask for feedback; was the message understood.

Intercultural communication
Communication between people from different cultural groups is
one of the most complex areas of human communication. Culture
are defined as the lifestyle of a group, and includes the values,
beliefs, ways of behaving and communicating of that group.
Culture is aquired or learnt no one is born with a particular
culture. Some people eat grasshoppers, while others by
insecticides to destroy them. Some people adorn their entire
bodies with paint and decoration, while others spend a fortune
painting just their faces. Some people speak English and others,
Finnish. What is the reason for these differences? The answer is
that peoples thoughts, feelings, beliefs, behaviour and goals are
all moulded by what their culture consider appropriate.

Intercultural communication refers to communication between

people who belong to different cultures who thus have different
values, beliefs, behaviours and ways to communicating. Because
shared or common meaning is essential for communnication to
occur successfully, people from different cultures need to
establish some common ground and cultivate an open, positive
attitude towards one another. The importance of cultivating a
sensitivity towards different rules and expectations of people from
other cultural groups cannot be overemphasised. The culturally
aware person will benefit not only from improved communication
but also from bonds formed with people from a wide range of
backgrounds Openness to the differences existing among people
is a vital ingredient for successful intercultural communication. An
awareness of different values, attitudes and beliefs, must be
cultivated. Empathy by putting oneself in the other persons
shoes enables a communicator to see the world from another
perspective. Active listening and recognition that each person has
an important role to play in the interaction are important in all
communication, but especially so when people from different
cultures communicate.

The goal of communication is to convey meaning and information between

people. With that in mind, modeling this process has taken two forms over
the years as our knowledge and understanding of the field has changed, as
well as how technology has changed.
Linear Model of Communication
The linear model of communication is an early communication model
created by Shannon and Weaver which visualizes the transfer of
information as an act being done to the receiver by the sender.

Understanding several key terms is important in order to follow the model.

These terms are:
Sender: the message creator.
Encoding: the process of putting thoughts into messages through the
creation of content and symbols.
Decoding: the process of interpreting and assigning meaning to a
message.
Message: the transmitted information.
Channel: the medium through which the message passes.
Receiver: the target of the sender and collector of the message.
Noise: those distractions which interfere with the transmission of the
message.

This linear model is great for electronic media, such as radio and television,
because of its one way nature, but it encounters several problems when
looking at other channels.
As we all know, conversations with your friends and others are never one
way, but rather they are back-and-forth, which is a problem with the linear
model. A second problem is that encoding is typically done unconsciously.
And finally, a third problem is that other factors like culture, environment,
and relational history often come in play to affect the message.
Due to these problems, a better model was created: the transactional
model of communication.
Transactional Model of Communication
The transactional model, unlike the linear, recognizes that communication
is a simultaneous process and therefore switched both the terms sender
and receiver to communicator.
It also adds environment, which embraces not only physical location, but
also personal experiences and cultural backgrounds.
These changes can be seen in the model.

Another change you will notice in the transactional model is the overlap
between each communicator. This recognizes similarities between each
communicators environment. The model displays how communication
becomes more difficult when communicators have less in common.
In addition, the transactional model recognizes how the type of channel can
affect meaning. For example, the words I love you have a much different
meaning if they are said through a billboard than through a voicemail.
In the linear model, noise is solely external noise; for example, loud music
while trying to converse. The transactional model says that two other types
of noise exist:
Physiological Noise: biological factors that interfere with communication
(i.e. illness, fatigue, etc.)
Psychological Noise: the forces within that interfere with communication
(i.e. an unwillingness to listen)
Overall, the transactional model realizes that it is not what we do to each
other as senders and receivers, but it is what we do with each other as
communicators.