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ECE532 Biomedical Optics

Absorption

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

A simple analogy for the absorption of light by molecules is placing two identical bells
side by side. When one bell is rung, the other will sympathetically ring at the same
frequency due to transfer of energy from the struck bell. The resonance of the second
bell matches the frequency of the first ringing bell and hence the second bell accepts
energy from the struck bell.
Photons are electromagnetic waves with a particular frequency. Molecules are a system
with charge separation (negative electron field and positive nucleus). The state of the
molecular charge separation can change in a quantized fashion by "absorbing" the
energy of a photon. The photon frequency must match the "frequency" associated with
the molecule's energy transition in order for energy transfer to occur. The relation
between frequency and energy is
Energy = h(frequency) = hc/(wavelength)
where Energy is in [J], photon frequency is in [cycles per s] or [s-1], photon wavelength
is in [m], c is the speed of light in vacuo (c = 3.0x108 [m/s]), and h is Planck's constant
(h = 6.62618x10-34 [J s]). Unlike the bell analogy, photon absorption occurs as a
quantum event, an all or none phenomenon. Example: absorption of 514 nm photon
from an argon ion laser by a hemoglobin molecule.
In biomedical optics, absorption of photons is a most important event:

Absorption is the primary event that allows a laser or other light source to cause
a potentially therapeutic (or damaging) effect on a tissue. Without absorption,
there is no energy transfer to the tissue and the tissue is left unaffected by the
light.

Absorption of light provides a diagnostic role such as the spectroscopy of a


tissue. Absorption can provide a clue as to the chemical composition of a tissue,
and serve as a mechanism of optical contrast during imaging. Absorption is used
for both spectroscopic and imaging applications.

ECE532 Biomedical

1998

Some biological chromophores

Steven L. Jacques, S
Oregon Graduate In

Molecules that absorb light are called chromophores. There are two major types of
choromphores:

electronic transitions

vibrational transitions
1

Electronic transitions
There are many biological molecules which can absorb light via electronic transitions.
Such transitions are relatively energetic and hence are associated with absorption of
ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared wavelengths. The molecules generally have a string
of double bonds whose pi-orbital electrons act similar to the electrons in a metal in that
they collectively behave as a small antenna which can "receive" the electromagnetic
wave of a passing photon. If the resonance of the pi-orbital structure matches the
photon's wavelength then photon absorption is possible.
In early biological evolution, the pyrrole molecule was a chromphore which could
absorb sunlight which enabled subsequent synthetic reactions that produced biological
polymers and other proto-metabolic products. Combining four pyrroles into a
tetrapyrrole ring (porphyrin) yielded an efficient chromophore for collecting solar
photons. Chlorophyll is such a porphyrin. Hemoglobin, vitamin B12, cytochrome C,
and P450 are also examples of porphyrins in biology. The figure lists some common
biological chromophores and shows some of their structures. Also see the website
spectra which is a compilation of chromophores, most absorbing in the ultraviolet and
visible.

Vibrational transitions
The field of infrared spectroscopy studies the variety of bonds which can resonantly
vibrate or twist in response to infrared wavelengths and thereby absorb such photons.
Perhaps the most dominant chromophore in biology which absorbs via vibrational
transitions is water. In the infrared, the absorption of water is the strongest contributor
to tissue absorption.
2

Some vibrational frequencies


bond

cycles/cm,

wavelength,

C-H stretch

2850-2960 [cm-1]

3.378-3.509 [m]

C-H bend

1340-1465

6.826-7.462

C-C stretch,bend

700-1250

8.000-14.29

C=C stretch

1620-1680

5.952-6.173

C=C stretch

2100-2260

4.425-4.762

CO32-

1410-1450

6.897-7.092

NO3-

1350-1420

7.042-7.407

NO2-

1230-1250

8.000-8.130

SO42-

1080-1130

8.850-9.259

O-H stretch

3590-3650

2.740-2.786

C=O stretch

1640-1780

5.618-6.098

N-H

3200-3500

2.857-3.125

= 1/

ref: PW Atkins, "Physical Chemistry," p. 576, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1978.

Definition and units of absorption


coefficient a [cm-1]
3

ECE532 Bi

1998

Steven L. Ja
Prahl
Oregon Gra

Consider a chromophore idealized as a sphere with a particular geometrical size.


Consider that this sphere blocks incident light and casts a shadow, which constitutes
absorption. This description is of course an incorrect and schematicized version of the
real situation. However, it does provide a simple concept which captures the essence of
the absorption coefficient, the parameter we use to describe the effectiveness of
absorption.
The size of the absorption shadow is called the effective cross-section ( a [cm2]) and
can be smaller or larger than the geometrical size of the chromophore (A [cm2]), related
by the proportionality constant called the absorption efficiency Qa [dimensionless]:

The absorption coefficient a [cm-1] describes a medium containing many


chromophores at a concentration described as a volume density a [cm3]. The
absorption coefficient is essentially the cross-sectional area per unit volume of medium.

Experimentally, the units [cm-1] for a are inverse length, such that the product aL is
dimensionless, where L [cm] is a photon's pathlength of travel through the medium. The
probability of survival (or transmission T) of the photon after a pathlength L is:

This expression for survival holds true regardless of whether the photon path is a
straight line or a highly tortuous path due to multiple scattering in an optically turbid
medium.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics

Example: Bilirubin

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

The bilirubin molecule is a chromophore encountered when a newborn infant suffers


from "jaundice", a syndrome in which the skin presents a yellow color. Bilirubin is a
breakdown product of hemoglobin. Often there is significant hemolysis of red blood
cells during child birth contributing to a transient bilirubin load. Normally, bilirubin
binds to the serum protein albumin and is carried to the liver where enzymes convert it
into a water-soluble form which is removed from the blood into the bile. But in
newborns who have not yet developed sufficient enzymes to accomplish this task, the
bilirubin accumulates in the blood, exceeds the holding capacity of the albumin, and
spills into the skin to give the yellow skin color, and into the brain to cause irreversible
brain damage (kernicterus). See article on optically monitoring bilirubinemia.
Let's approximate the values of A, a, a, Qa, and

for bilirubin.

The structure of bilirubin is


shown. The diameter is
approximately 1 nm. So the
geometrical area is A = 4.5x10-15
cm2.

At 460 nm, the extinction


coefficient of bilirubin is =
53,846 [cm-1M-1] (see bilirubin
spectrum).
The extinction coefficient [cm1
M-1] quoted in the literature is
based on spectrometer
measurements reported as T =
10- CL where C is concentration
[M] and L is pathlength [cm].
Therefore,
a = C ln(10)
A typical jaundiced neonate
might have a bilirubin
concentration of 10 mg/dL, or
(0.100 g/liter)/(574.65 g/mole) =
0.17x10-3 M. In such a case, the
bilirubin absorption coefficient
at 460 nm is roughly

a = C ln(10) = (53846 [cm-1M1


])(0.17x10-3 M)(2.3) = 21 cm-1.

The concentration C is
equivalent to
=
(0.17x10-3 [moles/liter])(6x1023
[mole-1])/(1000 cm3/liter] =
1.02x1017 [cm-3]
a

The efficiency of absorption is


estimated:
Qa = a/( aA) = (21 [cm-1])/
((1.02x1017 [cm-3])(A = 4.5x10-15
[cm2])) = 0.046
The effective cross-section is a
= QaA = (0.046)(4.5x10-15 [cm2])
= 2.1x10-16 [cm2]. Bilirubin's
effective cross-sectional
diameter is sqrt(.046) or 21% the
size of its geometrical diameter.
Keep in mind that the wavelength of blue light (460 nm) is about 460-fold greater than
the diameter of the bilirubin chromophore. So collection of the electromagnetic wave of
a photon by the "antenna" of bilirubin is analogous to a how small radio antenna
collects the electromagnetic wave from a radio station (a 1000 MHz radio frequency ->
300 m wavelength). The concept of a "shadow" cast by an opaque chromophore is
merely a memory device to remember the definitions.

Absorption spectra for biological tissues


The figure below shows the primary absorption spectra of biological tissues. Also
shown are the absorption coefficients at some typical laser wavelengths.

ECE532 Biomedi

1998

Steven L. Jacques
Oregon Graduate

There are several major contributors to the absorption spectrum:

In the ultraviolet, the absorption increases with shorter wavelength due to


protein, DNA and other molecules.

In the infrared, the absorption increases with longer wavelengths due to tissue
water content. Scaling the pure water absorption by 75% mimics a typical tissue
with 75% water content.

In the red to near-infrared (NIR), absorption is miminal. This region is called the
diagnostic and therapeutic window (originally by John Parrish and Rox Anderson).

Whole blood is a strong absorber in the red-NIR regime, but because the
volume fraction of blood is a few percent in tissues, the average absorption
coefficient that affects light transport is moderate. However, when photons strike
a blood vessel they encounter the full strong absorption of whole blood. Hence,
local absorption properties govern light-tissue interactions, and average
absorption properties govern light transport.

Melanosomes are also strong absorbers. However, their volume fraction in the
epidermis may be quite low, perhaps several percent. So again, the local
interaction of light with the melanosomes is strong, but the melanosome
contribution to the average absorption coefficient may modestly affect light
transport.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics

Scattering

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

Scattering of light occurs in media which contains fluctuations in the refractive index n,
whether such fluctuations are discrete particles or more continuous variations in n.
7

In biomedical optics, scattering of photons is an important event:

Scattering provides feedback during therapy. For example, during laser


coagulation of tissues, the onset of scattering is an observable endpoint that
correlates with a desired therapeutic goal. Scattering also strongly affects the
dosimetry of light during therapeutic procedures that depend on absorption. The
scattering affects "where" the absorption will occur.

Scattering has diagnostic value. Scattering depends on the ultrastructure of a


tissue, eg., the density of lipid membranes in the cells, the size of nuclei, the
presence of collagen fibers, the status of hydration in the tissue, etc. Whether
one measures the wavelength dependence of scattering, the polarization
dependence of scattering, the angular dependence of scattering, the scattering of
coherent light, scattering measurements are an important diagnostic tool.
Scattering is used for both spectroscopic and imaging applications

ECE532 Biomedical Opt

Some biological scatterers

The light scattered by a tissue has interacted with the ultrastructure of the tissue. Tissue
ultrastructure extends from membranes to membrane aggregates to collagen fibers to
nuclei to cells. Photons are most strongly scattered by those structures whose size
matches the photon wavelength.

Scattering of light by structures on the same size scale as the photon wavelength is
described by Mie theory. Scattering of light by structures much smaller than the photon
wavelength is called the Rayleigh limit of Mie scattering, or simply Rayleigh scattering.
The figure designates the size range of tissue ultrastructure which affects visible and
infrared light by Mie and Rayleigh scattering.
8

1998

Steven L. Jacques, Scot


Oregon Graduate Institu

Here are some examples of structures which scatter light (click on figure to expand):

Mitochondria
Mitochondria are intracellular
organelles about 1 m in length
(variable) which are composed of
many folded internal lipid
membranes called cristae, as
shown in the electron micrograph
at left. The basic lipid bilayer
membrane is about 9 nm in
width. The refractive index
mismatch between lipid and the
surrounding aqueous medium
causes strong scattering of light.
Folding of lipid membranes
presents larger size lipid
structures which affect longer
wavelengths of light. The density
of lipid/water interfaces within
the mitochondria make them
especially strong scatterers of
light.
(Drawing and micrographs from A. L. Lehninger,
"Biochemistry", Worth Publishers, 1970.)

Collagen fibers, fibrils,


and fibril periodicity
Collagen fibers (about 2-3 m
in diameter) are composed of
bundles of smaller collagen
fibrils about 0.3 m in diameter
(variable), as shown in the
electron micrograph at left. Mie
scattering from collagen fibers
dominates scattering in the
infrared wavelength range.

On the ultrastructural level,


fibrils are composed of entwined
tropocollagen molecules. The

fibrils present a banded pattern


of striations with 70-nm
periodicity due to the staggered
alignment of the tropocollagen
molecules which each have an
electron-dense head group that
appears dark in the electron
micrograph. The periodic
fluctuations in refractive index on
this ultrastructureal level appear
to contribute a Rayleigh
scattering component that
dominates the visible and
ultraviolet wavelength ranges.

Definition and units of scattering


coefficient
s [cm-1]
Consider a scattering particle idealized as a sphere with a particular geometrical size.
Consider that this sphere redirects incident photons into new directions and so prevents
the forward on-axis transmission of photons, thereby casting a shadow. This process
constitutes scattering. This description is of course an oversimplified and schematicized
version of the real situation. However, it does provide a simple concept which captures
the essence of the scattering coefficient, a parameter analogous to the absorption
coefficient discussed previously.
The size of the scattering shadow is called the effective cross-section ( s [cm2]) and can
be smaller or larger than the geometrical size of the scattering particle (A [cm2]), related
by the proportionality constant called the scattering efficiency Qs [dimensionless]:

The scattering coefficient s [cm-1] describes a medium containing many scattering


particles at a concentration described as a volume density s [cm3]. The scattering
coefficient is essentially the cross-sectional area per unit volume of medium.

10

ECE532 Biome

1998

Steven L. Jacqu
Prahl
Oregon Graduat

Experimentally, the units [cm-1] for s are inverse length, such that the product sL is
dimensionless, where L [cm] is a photon's pathlength of travel through the medium. The
probability of transmission T of the photon without redirection by scattering after a
pathlength L is:

Definition of anisotropy

ECE532 Biomedical Optics

g [dimensionless]

13 Steven L. Jacques, Scott A


Oregon Graduate Institute

1998

The anistoropy, g [dimensionless], is a measure of the amount of forward direction


retained after a single scattering event. Imagine that a photon is scattered by a particle
so that its trajectory is deflected by a deflection angle , as shown in the figure below.
Then the component of the new trajectory which is aligned in the forward direction is
shown in red as cos( ). On average, there is an average deflection angle and the mean
value of cos( ) is defined as the anisotropy. 13

11

A scattering event causes a deflection at angle from the original forward


trajectory. There is also an azimuthal angle of scattering, .
But it is the deflection angle which affects the amount of forward direction,
cos( ), retained by the photon.

Consider an experiment in which a laser beam strikes a target such as a cylindrical


cuvette containing a dilute solution of scattering particles. The scattering pattern p( ) is
measured by a detector that is moved in a circle around the target while always facing
the target. Hence the detector collects light scattered at various deflection angles in a
horizontal plane parallel to the table top on which the apparatus sits. The proper
definition of anisotropy is the expectation value for cos( ):

It is common to express the definition of anisotropy in an equivalent way:

More to read on anisotropy:

Scattering functions p( )

12

Scattering functions

ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

The angular dependence of scattering is called the scattering function, p( ) which has
units of [sr-1] and describes the probability of a photon scattering into a unit solid angle
oriented at an angle relative to the photons original trajectory. Note that the function
depends on only on the deflection angle and not on the azimuthal angle . Such
azimuthally symmetric scattering is a special case, but is usually adopted when
discussing scattering. However, it is possible to consider scattering which does not
exhibit azimuthal symmetry. The p( ) has historically been also called the scattering
phase function.
The scattering can be described in two ways:

Plotting p( ) indicates how photons will scatter as a function of in a single


plane of observation (source-scatterer-observer plane). This pattern is similar to
the type of goniometric scattering experiments commonly conducted.

Plotting p( )2 sin indicates how photons will scatter as a function of the


deflection angle regardless of the azimuthal angle , in other words integrating
over all possible in an azimuthal ring of width d and perimeter 2 sin at some
given . The p( )2 sin goes to zero at 0 because the azimuthal ring becomes
vanishingly small at 0. This plot is related to the total energy scattered at a
given deflection angle and hence is more pertinent to the value of anisotropy.

Figure depicts a typical forward-directed scattering pattern p( )


corresponding to an experimental goniometric measurement in a single source-scatterer13

observer plane,
and p( )2 sin which integrates over all possible azimuthal angles .

ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A.
Oregon Graduate Institute

Isotropic scattering function


An isotropic scattering function would scatter light with equal efficiency into all
possible directions. Such a scattering function would have the form:

Henyey-Greenstein scattering
function

ECE532 Biomedical
Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott
A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

Henyey and Greenstein (1941) devised an expression which mimics the angular
dependence of light scattering by small particles, which they used to describe scattering
of light by interstellar dust clouds. The Henyey-Greenstein scattering function has
proven to be useful in approximating the angular scattering dependence of single
scattering events in biological tissues.
The Henyey-Greenstein function allows the anisotropy factor g to specify p( ) such that
calculation of the expectation value for cos( ) returns exactly the same value g. In other
words, Henyey and Greenstein devised a useful identity function. The HenyeyGreenstein function is:

It is common practice to express the Henyey-Greenstein function as the function p(cos


);

14

A series of Henyey-Greenstein functions are shown in the following figure. The forward
direction along the original photon trajectory is 0. Scattering in the backward direction
is 180. The curve for g = 0 has a constant value of 1/4 .

Reduced scattering coefficient

ECE532 Biomedical

s' = s(1 - g) [cm-1]

Steven L. Jacques, S
Oregon Graduate In

1998

The reduced scattering coefficient is a lumped property incorporating the scattering


coefficient s and the anisotropy g:

s' = s(1 - g) [cm-1]


The purpose of s' is to describe the diffusion of photons in a random walk of step size
of 1/s' [cm] where each step involves isotropic scattering. Such a description is
equivalent to description of photon movement using many small steps 1/s that each
involve only a partial deflection angle if there are many scattering events before an
absorption event, i.e., a << s'. This situation of scattering-dominated light transport is
called the diffusion regime and s'is useful in the diffusion regime which is commonly
encountered when treating how visible and near-infrared light propagates through
biological tissues.
15

The following figure shows the equivalence of taking 10 smaller steps of "mean free
path" mfp = 1/s with anisotropic deflection angles and one big step with a "reduced
mean free path" mfp' = 1/s'.

The following figure shows how many such big steps involving isotropic scattering are
equivalent to many small anisotropic steps:

16

Mie theory model for tissue optical


properties

ECE532 Biom

1998

Steven L. Jacq
Prahl
Oregon Gradua

Mie theory describes the scattering of light by particles. "Particles" here means an
aggregation of material that constitutes a region with refractive index (np) that differs
from the refractive index of its surroundings (nmed). The dipole reradiation pattern from
oscillating electrons in the molecules of such particles superimpose to yield a strong net
source of scattered radiation. Also, the reradiation patterns from all the dipoles do not
cancel in all but the forward direction of the incident light as is true for homogneous
medium, but rather interfere both constructively and destructively in a radiation pattern.
Hence, particles "scatter" light in various directions with varying efficiency.
Gustav Mie in 1908 published a solution to the problem of light scattering by
homogeneous spherical particles of any size. Mie's classical solution is described in
terms of two parameters, nr and x:

the magnitude of refractive index mismatch between particle and medium


expressed as the ratio of the n for particle and medium,
nr = np/nmed

the size of the surface of refractive index mismatch which is the "antenna" for
reradiation of electromagnetic energy, expressed as a size parameter (x) which is
the ratio of the meridional circumference of the sphere (2 a, where radius = a) to
the wavelength ( /nmed) of light in the medium,
x = 2 a/( /nmed)

A Mie theory calculation will yield the efficiency of scattering which relates the crosssectional area of scattering, s [cm2], to the true geometrical cross-sectional area of the
particle, A = a2 [cm2]:
s

= QsA

Finally, the scattering coefficient is related to the product of scatterer number density,
[cm-3], and the cross-sectional area of scattering, s [cm2], (see definition of scattering
coefficient):
s =

17

s s

Before using Mie theory to approximate the scattering behavior of biological tissues,
let's

briefly examine the Mie calculation

illustrate the behavior of Mie scattering with some example calculations and
figures

ECE532 Biomedical Op

1998

The math of Mie scattering

Steven L. Jacques, Sco


Oregon Graduate Insti

Consider a source, a spherical scattering particle, and an observer whose three positions
define a plane called the scattering plane. Incident light and scattered light can be
reduced to their components which are parallel or perpendicular to the scattering plane.
As shown in the following figure, the parallel and perpendicular components can be
experimentally selected by a linear polarization filter oriented parallel or perpendicular
to the scattering plane.

The Scattering matrix describes the relationship between incident and scattered electric
field components perpendicular and parallel to the scattering plane as observed in the
"far-field" (ref: Bohren and Huffman):

The above expression simplifies in practical experiments:


18

The exponential term, -exp(-ik(r-z))/ikr, is a transport factor that


depends on the distance between scatterer and observer. If one
measures scattered light at a contant distance r from the scatterer,
eg., as a function of angle or orientation of polarization, then the
transport factor becomes a constant.

The total field (Etot) depends on the incident field (Ei), the scattered
field (Es) , and the interaction of these fields (E int). If one observes the
scattering from a position which avoids E i, then both Ei and Eint are
zero and only Es is observed.

For "far-field" observation of Es at a distance r from a particle of


diameter d such that kr >> nc2, k = 2 / , nc = d/ , the scattering
elements S3 and S4 equal zero (see Eq. 4.75, Bohren and Huffman).

Practical experiments measure intensity, I = <E E*> = (1/2)a 2, where


E = a exp(-i ), and a is amplitude and is phase of the electric field.

Hence for practical scattering measurements, the above equation simplifies to the
following:

Mie theory yields two sets of descriptors of scattering:

ANGULAR SCATTERING PATTERN OF POLARIZED LIGHT Mie theory


calculates the angular dependence of the two elements, S1( ) and S2( ), of the Scattering
matrix, from which the scattered intensities of polarized light are computed (see
example). The scattering pattern is also used to calculate the anisotropy, g, of scattering
by the particle.

Example of angular scattering calculation

Example of anistoropy calculation

EFFICIENCIES OF SCATTERING AND ABSORPTION Mie theory calculates the


efficiencies Qs and Qa of scattering and absorption, respectively, such that a = QaA and
s = QsA, where A is the geometrical cross-sectional area a2 for a sphere of radius a.
19

Example of Qs and s calculation

ECE532 Biomedic

1998

Angular patterns of Mie scattering

Steven L. Jacque
Prahl
Oregon Graduate

Consider the scattering pattern from a 0.304-m-dia. nonabsorbing polystyrene sphere


in water irradiated by HeNe laser beam:
np = 1.5721

particle refractive
index

nmed = 1.3316

medium refractive
index

a = 0.152 m,

particle radius

= 0.6328 m

wavelength in vacuo

As calculated before:
nr = np/nmed = 1.5721/1.3316 = 1.1806

relative refractive
index

x = 2 a/( /nmed) = (2)(3.1415)(0.152)/(0.6328/1.3316)


size parameter
= 2.0097
Run the Mie theory algorithm:

Mie(nr, x) ---> S1( ), S1( ) as complex numbers


Mie(1.1806, 2.0097) ---> S1.re + jS1.im, S2.re + jS2.im as functions of
To view the results, calculate the intensities of scattering for parallel
and perpendicular orientations of polarized source/detector pairs:
Ipar = S2S2* = Re{(S2.re + jS2.im)(S2.re - jS2.im)}
Iper = S1S1* = Re{(S1.re + jS1.im)(S1.re - jS1.im)}
which are shown in the following figures, and can be experimentally
measured as described below.

The following figures describe the experimental measurements that illustrate the angular
dependence of the scattered intensities Ipar and Iper:
20

Iper
Irradiate dilute solution of
spheres in water with laser
beam polarization oriented
perpendicular to the table.
Collect scattered light as a
function of angle in plane
parallel to table. Place
linear polarization filter in
front of detector
perpendicular to the table.

Ipar
Irradiate dilute solution of
spheres in water with laser
beam polarization oriented
parallel to the table. Collect
scattered light as a function
of angle in plane parallel
to table. Place linear
polarization filter in front of
detector parallel to the
table.

Example results: Polar and xy plots of scattering pattern for Ipar and
Iper
Polar plot
I( ) plot

Click figure to enlarge


Click figure to enlarge

For a randomly polarized light source, the total scattered light intensity is given by the
term S11:
21

S11 is the first element of the so-called Mueller Matrix, a 4x4 matrix which relates an
input vector of Stokes parameters (Ii, Qi, Ui, Vi) describing a complex light source and
the output vector (Is, Qs, Us, Vs) describing the nature of the transmitted light. For
randomly polarized light, S11 describes the transport of total intensity:
Is = S11Ii

Mie theory calculation of


anisotropy (g)

ECE532 Biomedical
Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott
A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

Let's use the scattering pattern calculated previously for a 0.304-m-dia. nonabsorbing
polystyrene sphere in water irradiated by HeNe laser beam to calculate the anisotropy
(g) of scattering.
The definition of anisotropy guides the calculation of g using the function S11( ) which
describes the scattered intensity for randomly polarized light:

The denominator in the above equation assures proper normalization of p( ):

When numerically evaluating the above expression for g, a large number of angles need
to be calculated, typically about 200 angles, in order to achieve a value of g with
precision to at least 4 significant digits. For our example 0.304-m sphere, the
calculation of g based on S11( ) yields g = 0.6608.
Note that the definition of g as cited in these notes assumes azimuthal symmetry, hence
we have calculated the g for randomly polarized light. Due to the symmetry presented
by a spherical particle, the g refers to scattering into all azimuthal angles regardless of
the linear polarization of the incident light.
Example: Mie calculation of Qs and s

ECE532 Biome

1998
22

Steven L. Jacqu
Prahl

Oregon Gradua

Consider the scattering of a HeNe laser beam by 0.304-m-dia. nonabsorbing


polystyrene spheres in water at a concentration of 0.1% volume fraction:
np = 1.5721

particle refractive index

nmed = 1.3316

medium refractive index

a = 0.152 m,

particle radius

= 0.6328 m
fv = 0.001

wavelength in vacuo
volume fraction of particles in medium

Calculate the following parameters:

refractive index mismatch ratio, size parameter, geometrical cross-sectional area, and
number density

nr = np/nmed = 1.5721/1.3316 = 1.1806

x = 2 a/( /nmed) = (2)(3.1415)(0.152)/(0.6328/1.3316) = 2.0097

A = a2 = (3.1415)(0.152)2 = 0.0726 m2

= fv/((4/3) a3) = (0.001)/((4/3)(3.1415)(0.152)3) = 0.0608 m-3

Run the Mie theory algorithm:

Mie(nr, x) ---> Qs
Mie(1.1806, 2.0097) ---> 0.1971

Calculate the scattering coefficient:

= QsA = (0.1971)(0.0726) = 0.01431 m2


= (0.0608)(0.01431) = 0.0009723 m-1

s =

s [cm-1] = (s [m-1])(104 [m/cm]) = 9.723 cm-1

s s

ECE532
Biomedical Optics

Scattering versus wavelength for 3 particle sizes

1998
Steven L. Jacques,
Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate
Institute

Consider the three optical scattering properties, s, g, and s(1 - g), as functions of
wavelength for a spherical particle with np 23
= 1.5721 in a medium with nmed = 1.3316 at a

concentration of 0.1% volume fraction (fv = 0.001). Assume that np and nmed are constant
versus wavelength for this example calculation.
Let the sphere be one of three sizes: 0.100 m, 0.300 m, and 1.00 m.
The Mie theory calculation yields:

s
Click figure to enlarge

g
Click figure to enlarge

s(1 - g)
Click figure to enlarge

Note: The true np and nmed for polysytrene spheres and water are slightly wavelength
dependent and would deviate slightly from the above example.
ECE532 Biomedical
Optics

Mie scattering from cellular structures

1998
Steven L. Jacques,
Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate
Institute

Soft tissue optics are dominated by the lipid content of the tissues. Such lipid constitutes
the cellular membranes, membrane folds, and membranous structures such as the
mitochondria (about 0.5 m). While other objects such as protein aggregates and the
nucleus are also sources of scattering, the lipid/water interface of membranes presents a
strong refractive index mismatch and so plays a major role is scattering. The following
graph summarizes the lipid contents of various
24 tissues:

Lipid contents of tissues

[ref. 1]

Click figure to enlarge

Mie theory provides a simple first approximation to the scattering of soft tissues [ref. 2].
The approximation involves a few assumptions:

Assume the refractive index of the lipid membranes of cells is 1.46,


based on the reported 1.43-1.49 range for hydrogenated fats [ref. 3].

Assume the refractive index of the cytosol of cells is 1.35, based on


the reported value for cellular cytoplasms [ref. 1].

Assume the lipid content of soft tissue is about 1-10% (f v = 0.020.10). Let's choose fv = 0.02 for this example to match the value for
several typical soft tissues such as lungs, spleen, prostate, ovary,
intestine, liver, arteries, to name a few.

Assume all the lipid is packaged as small spheres of various sizes


whose number density maintains a constant volume fraction f v.

Ignore the interference of scattered fields from particles which can


alter the apparent scattering properties based on isolated particles.

In the following graphs, a 2% volume fraction of lipid is packaged as spheres of one


size, for a series of choices of sphere diameter (radius a), adjusting the number density
to maintain a constant volume fraction:
s

= fv/((4/3) a3)

s
Click on figure to enlarge

25

g
Click on figure to enlarge

s(1 - g)

Click on figure to enlarge

This picture includes the experimental


values of s(1 - g) for dog prostate,
illustrating that the prostate is mimiced by
a 2% volume fraction of lipid spheres in
the 0.200-0.600 m diameter range. Other
soft tissues vary only a little from this
general pattern for prostate tissue.

In summary

The wavelength dependence of light scattering in soft tissues such as the prostate
suggests that cellular structures equivalent to spheres with diameters in the range of
0.200-0.600 m contribute most of the scattering. The magnitude of the scattering
suggests that a volume fraction of 0.02 or 2%, which is roughly the reported lipid
content of prostate and many other soft tissues, yields a magnitude for s(1 - g) which
matches the magnitude of s(1 - g) for prostate. Deviations from our assumed values for
np based on lipid and nmed based on cytosol and from our assumed value for fv will affect
the magnitude of s(1 - g). But in general,soft tissues with higher (or lower) lipid
content will show increased (or decreased) scattering, while the wavelength dependence
of s(1 - g) should not change greatly.
ECE532 Biomedical
Optics

1998

Mie scattering from collagen fibers

Steven L. Jacques,
Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate
Institute

Collagen fibers are strongly scattering. For example, the dermis of skin or the sclera of
the eye are tissues with high collagen fiber content. Mie theory can be used to
approximate the scattering properties of collagen on two levels:

on the macroscopic level of collagen fiber bundles.

on the ultrastructural level of periodic striations in collagen fibrils.


26

macroscopic level of collagen fiber bundles


Collagen fibers vary from 0.1 m-dia. fibrils to 8 m-dia. fiber bundles. A study
reported the distribution and concentration of collagen fiber bundle diameters in 9 postmortem neonatal skin specimens [ref.4, Saidi et al. 1995].

The fiber diameter (d) was 2.80 0.08 m (n = 9), i.e., (mean SD
for n specimens), with an intraspecimen variation SD/mean = 0.43
0.05.

The fiber concentration was s = 3 x106 0.5 x106 cm-3. The volume
fraction was fv = d2(1 cm) s/4 = 0.21 0.10 (n = 9).

Mie theory can approximate collagen fiber scattering in dermis using the following
assumptions:

Assume nmed of the dermal ground substance is 1.350, based on a


reported value for the n of corneal ground substance [ref.5].

Assume the np of the collagen fiber bundles is 1.389, based on a


mean dermal water content of 65.3%, W = 0.653, (see table 9.1 of
ref.1): approximately, n = 1.50 - (1.50 - 1.33)W = 1.389.

Assume one can use the cylindrical Mie theory calculation of Bohren
and Huffman [appendix C in ref.6], which assumes that the incident
light is oriented perpendicular to the long axis of the fiber cylinders.

Assume that each fiber cylinder scatters light independently, ignoring


any interference effects from closely spaced fibers.

The above assumptions allow calculation of s(1 - g) versus wavelength for dermal
collagen fiber bundles. (see "Mie" in figure below).

ultrastructural level of periodic striations in collagen


fibrils
The ultrastructure of collagen fibrils presents periodic striations as was shown in the
figures in our introduction to scattering. Fibrils are composed of entwined tropocollagen
molecules, presenting a banded pattern of periodic striations (70-nm spacing) due to the
staggered alignment of the tropocollagen molecules which each have an electron-dense
head group that appears dark in the electron micrograph. The periodic fluctuations in
refractive index on this ultrastructureal level appear to contribute a Mie scattering
component that dominates the visible and ultraviolet wavelength ranges. Such scattering
from very small structures is called the Rayleigh limit of Mie scattering, or simply
"Rayleigh" scattering.
27

The following figure compares Mie theory for various size spheres withthe "Rayleigh"
component of skin scattering seen experimentally. The "Rayleigh" behavior of skin
scattering is mimiced by 50-nm-dia. spheres, np = 1.5, nmed = 1.35, at the volume fraction
of collagen in dermis, fv = 0.21. This assignment of the "Rayleigh" scattering to the
collagen ultrastructure should be regarded as only a working hypothesis, but there is no
other material in large quantity in the dermis to offer a strong source of scattering.

Click on figure to enlarge

Combining the Mie and Rayleigh contributions for skin


The combination of the "Mie" and "Rayleigh" contributions to scattering are shown in
the following graph, along with measured skin data:
"Mie" contribution is Mie scattering from
2.8-m-dia. cylindrical collagen fiber bundles,
np = 1.46, nmed = 1.35, fv = 0.21.
"Rayleigh" contribution is Mie scattering from
50-nm-dia. spheres mimicing the ultrastructure
associated with the periodic striations of collagen
fibrils,
np = 1.50, nmed = 1.35, fv = 0.21.
Click on figure to enlarge.

28

ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

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Diffusion Theory: Introduction

Diffusion theory is the modeling of photon transport due to photon movement down
concentration gradients. Diffusion theory is appropriate in medium dominated by
scattering rather than absorption so that each photon undergoes many scattering events
before being terminated by an absorption event. The photon has a relatively long
residence time which allows the photon to engage in a random walk within the medium.
Diffusion theory = Photonsfallingdownagradientof photon concentration.

The instantaneous fluence rate, F(r,t) [J s-1 cm-2] or [W cm-2], is proportional to the
concentration of optical energy, C(r,t) [J cm-3] and the speed of light, c [cm/s], in the
medium:

F(r,t) = cC(r,t)
The units of energy concentration [J cm-3] times the units of velocity [cm/s] yield the
units of fluence rate [J s-1 cm-2]. This relationship between F and C allows us to discuss
the time-resolved spatial distribution of photon concentration, C(r,t), in a light-scattering
medium using the same math of diffusion which applies to many things such as solutes
in a solution or heat in a material.
29

ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

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Chapter 5
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Fick's 1st law of diffusion

Diffusion occurs in response to a concentration gradient expressed as the change in


concentration due to a change in position,
. The local rule for movement or flux J is
given by Fick's 1st law of diffusion:

in which the flux J [cm-2 s-1] is proportional to the diffusivity [cm2/s] and the negative
gradient of concentration,
[cm-3 cm-1] or [cm-4]. The negative sign indicates that J is
positive when movement is down the gradient, i.e., the negative sign cancels the
negative gradient along the direction of positive flux.

The flux J is driven by the negative gradient


x.

30

in the direction of increasing

Consider a local concentration of 106 units per cm3 which drops by 10%
Exampl over a distance of 1 cm. Then the gradient is -105 [units cm-4]. Assume the
e
diffusivity is 103 [cm2/s]. Then the flux J equals:
arbitrary
units

J = -(103 [cm2/s])(-105 [units cm-4]) = 108 units cm-2 s-1

For light, the diffusivity is proportional to the diffusion length D [cm] and the speed of
light c:

= cD
where D = 1/(3 s(1-g)). The units of velocity [cm/s] times the units of length [cm] yield
the units of diffusivity [cm2/s]. The following example describes the local diffusion of
red light in milk.
Consider a local fluence rate F of 1 W/cm2 in milk (n = 1.33, s(1-g) = 10
cm-1).

Example
optical
energy

The local concentration of optical energy is C = F/c = (1


W/cm2)/(2.2x1010 cm/s) = 4.4x10-11 J cm-3.

Assume the concentration drops by 10% over a distance of


3 mm. Then the gradient
is -(0.10)(4.4x10-11 cm-3)/(0.3
cm) = -1.5x10-11 J cm-4.

The diffusivity equals cD where D = 1/(3(10 cm-1)) =


0.033 cm. Therefore = (2.2x1010 cm/s)(0.033 cm) =
7.5x1010 cm2/s.

Then the flux J along the direction x equals =10


2
-11
-4
-2 -1
(7.5x10 cm /s)(-1.5x10 J cm ) = 0.11 J cm s = 0.11 W
cm-2.

For optical diffusion, Fick's 1st law is expressed as the energy flux J [W cm-2]
proportional to the diffusion constant D [cm] and the negative fluence gradient dF/dx:

which was obtained by substituting cD for and substituting F/c for C. The factors c and
1/c cancel to yield the above equation.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

31

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Fick's 2nd law of diffusion

Consider diffusion at the front and rear surfaces of an incremental planar volume. Fick's
2nd law of diffusion describes the rate of accumulation (or depletion) of concentration
within the volume as proportional to the local curvature of the concentration gradient.
The local rule for accumulation is given by Fick's 2nd law of diffusion:

in which the accumulation, dC/dt [cm-3 s-1], is proportional to the diffusivity [cm2/s]
and the 2nd derivative (or curvature) of the concentration,
[cm-3 cm-2] or [cm-5].
The accumulation is positive when the curvature is positive, i.e., when the concentration
gradient is more negative on the front end of the planar volume and less negative on the
rear end so that more flux is driven into the volume at the front end than is driven out of
the volume at the rear end.

Incremental planar volume accumulates concentration because the front gradient at x1


drives more flux J1 into the volume than the flux J2 driven out of the volume by the rear
gradient at x2.
The differential equation for optical diffusion is simply Fick's 2nd law with the
substitution of the product cD for the diffusivity and substitution of F/c for
concentration C, although the 1/c factors introduced on both sides of the equation
cancel:
32

ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

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page

Connecting optical transport theory


Chapter 5
Course and Fick's 1st law of diffusion.
Home
The early work on neutron scattering theory in nuclear reactors first developed the
connection between transport theory and Fick's 1st law of diffusion. The resulting
statement of diffusion is also applied to optical transport. Consider the following
problem:

Light scattered at position r passes through a small aperture with area A contributing to
the flux J+.

given a homogeneous isotropically scattering medium with scattering coefficient


s

given a small aperture with area A at the origin (r = 0)

given a fluence rate F(0) at the origin

assume that the fluence rate F(r) at a position r near to the aperture is
approximated by

calculate the net flux through the small aperture with area A due to scattering
from all the surrounding volume:
o the scattered flux at r is sF(r) = s( F(0) + r(dF(r)/drat r=0) ) where r is the
distance from r to the origin.
33

o the fraction of scattered flux from r that survives a pathlength r without


being scattered or absorbed is exp(-tr), where t = s + a. Consider the
case of negligible absorption compared to scattering so t = s.
o the fraction of surviving scattered flux from r that passes through A is
Acos /(4 r2).
o integrate the flux from r over all possible and r for the hemisphere
above the aperture:

o a similar integration for the scattering from the hemisphere below the
aperture yields a positive value J- for flux passing through A in the other
direction opposite to J+.
o the net flux J = J+ - J

The final expression for the net flux J has the form of Fick's 1st law of diffusion
if the diffusion constant D has the following value:

, where

For photon transport, the term s' = s(1 - g) is substituted the above s which described
isotropic scattering used in the above treatment.
In summary, the connection between transport theory and Fick's 1st law of diffusion is
based on the linearization of F(r) around the value F(0) and on the approximation of D
by the value 1/(3 s').
ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

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Chapter 5
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Limits of diffusion theory

There are limits to the applicability of diffusion theory.


34

It is important to remember that diffusion theory simply attempts to mimic Fick's 1st
law of diffusion by a proper choice of D to relate J and -dF/dr. The approximation of
F(r) as simply a linear perturbation of the value F(0) neglects higher order terms that
depend on d2F/dr2. Sometimes the gradient has significant curvature within the spherical
regime from which exp(-s' r) allows photons to pass through the aperture. In such
regions, the linear approximation to F(r) is inadequate and diffusion theory is
inaccurate. Two cases of curvature deserve emphasis:

Near a source
The gradients are very steep near a point source or collection of point sources with both
the exponential term exp(-r/(4cDt)) and the term 1/r causing significant curvature in the
gradients. Distant from sources, gradients become gradual and diffusion theory is more
accurate.

Absorption
Strong absorption prevents photons from engaging in an extended random walk. The
approximation t = s' becomes inadequate. In common use is the approximation:

However, we have conducted Monte Carlo simulations of light diffusion from an


isotropic point source to yield the spatial distribution for F(r) which suggests a different
value for D:

If a << 3s', the effect of absorption can be neglected.


ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

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Chapter 5
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Time-resolved Diffusion Theory

The solution to Fick's 2nd Law of diffusion for the case of a point source of energy, Uo
[units], deposited at zero time (t = 0) at the origin (r = 0) is C(r,t) [units cm-3]:

35

where r [cm] is the distance from the source to the point of observation, t [s] is the time
of observation, and [cm2/s] is the diffusivity. In the denominator, the product t has
units of [cm2] which is taken to the 3/2 power to yield units of [cm3]. The exponential in
the numerator is dimensionless. The units of Uo can be the units of any extensive
variable which is able to diffuse throughout a volume. Hence, C(r,t) has the proper
dimensions for concentration, [units cm-3]. The above expression for C(r,t) is a solution
to Fick's 2nd law of diffusion and describes spherically symmetric diffusion from a
point impulse source in a homogeneous medium with no boundaries.

For the case of optical diffusion, let F = cC and = cD. Let the point source be an
impulse of energy Uo [J]. The expression for fluence rate F(r,t) [W cm-2] becomes:

The above equation is very useful and the student of tissue optics should know this
equation very well.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

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Chapter 5
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Time-resolved diffusion Theory:


Examples

The following figures illustrate the time-resolved transport of light from an impulse
isotropic point source of energy within a homogeneous unbounded medium with
absorption and scattering properties.

36

The time-resolved fluence rate F(r,t) is


plotted versus r at three timepoints: t = 5,
100, and 1000 ps.
medium: a = 1.0 cm-1, s(1 - g) = 10.0
cm-1, nt = 1.33
impulse energy: Uo = 1 J
Click on figure to enlarge

The same data plotted as a semi-log plot.

Click on figure to enlarge

The C program that generated the data in the above figures is listed here.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

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Chapter 5
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Steady-state Diffusion Theory

The time-resolved fluence rate F(r,t) [W/cm2] in response to an impulse of energy Uo [J]
and the steady-state fluence rate Fss(r) [W/cm2] in response to an isotropic point source
of continuous power Po [W] are summarized:

where the transport factors T(r,t) [cm-2 s-1] and Tss(r) [cm-2] have been introduced to
37
more carefully distinguish the source, the transport,
and the fluence rate.

Note on notation: In this class, we use Fss(r) rather than F(r) to especially emphasize the
steady-state fluence rate from the time-resolved fluence rate. However, F(r) should be
used outside this class.
The above expression for Tss(r) can be obtained by integrating T(r,t)exp(-act) over all
time to yield the total accumulated amount of photon transport to each position r. The
factor exp(-act) accounts for photon absorption (recall that ct = pathlength so this
expression is simply Beer's law for photon survival) and causes photon concentration to
approach zero as time goes to infinity. The expression for Tss(r) is derived:

Note that the final expression above has made the substitutions:

which removes the diffusion length D and introduces the optical penetration depth
which is the incremental distance from the source that causes Fss(r) to decrease to 1/e its
initial value. The penetration depth is a parameter which is very easily understood in
experimental measurements and consequently has more intuitive value to some people
than D which is important from the perspective of the local step size of the diffusion
process. In this class we will often use the following expression for Fss(r) when we
prefer to emphasize the roles of a and :

ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

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Chapter 5
Course
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Steady-state diffusion Theory:


Examples

The following figures illustrate the transport of light from a steady-state isotropic point
source of power within a homogeneous unbounded medium with absorption and
scattering properties.

38

The steady-state fluence rate F(r) is


plotted versus r.
medium: a = 1.0 cm-1, s(1 - g) = 10.0
cm-1, nt = 1.33
impulse power: Po = 1 W
Click on figure to enlarge

The same data plotted as a semi-log plot.

Click on figure to enlarge

The C program that generated the data in the above figures is listed here.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

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Chapter 5
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Frequency-domain Diffusion
Theory:
Isotropic point source in infinite
medium

A light source may be modulated sinusoidally to yield a sinusoidally varying fluence


rate distribution at a distant observation point within a medium. Such a modulated
concentration will propagate in the medium and is often called a photon density wave.
Consider a modulated isotropic point source of light within a homogenous turbid
medium with no boundaries.
The point source S has a steady-state power So [W] which is modulated sinusoidally by
a modulation factor Mosin( t), where 0 < Mo < 1:
39

where = 2 f [radians/s] is the angular frequency of modulation, and the modulation


frequency f is in hertz [cycles/s]. The position of observation r is located a distance r
from the source. The above equation shows two ways to express S(t), one using a sine
function and the other using the equivalent and well-known convention of an
exponential with an imaginary exponent.
In response to this modulated source, the modulated fluence rate F(r,t) at r is described:

where Tss(r) is the steady-state transport, k" is the imaginary wavenumber that describes
the attenuation of the photon density wave, and k' is the real wavenumber that describes
the phase lag of the observed photon density wave.
The expressions for Tss(r), k" and k' are:

where
40

The behavior of k' and k" are shown in the following figure which plots k' and k" as
functions of /(ac):

Click figure to enlarge

The above expressions are equivalent to the expressions published by Schmitt et al.
1992 which in turn are equivalent to the expressions published by Fishkin et al.
1991,1993. Link to references..
At the observation point, the persistence of the source modulation is called the
modulation, M, and is often described in the literature as (ACout/DCout)/(ACin/DCin)
which equals:

At the observation point, the phase of the signal lags the phase of the source by an angle
called the phase, [radians], which equals:

The ratio /(ac) describes the number of radians of modulation cycle that occur in one
mean photon lifetime. Only 1/e or 37% of photons survive after a time period of 1/(ac)
[s]. is an angle specified by the ratio /(ac), and approaches zero for low modulation
frequencies and approaches 90 at the highest modulation frequencies, >> ac.

At very low modulation frequencies, << ac, there is little modulation during
the lifetime of a photon. Consequently, photon migration has little impact on the
transport of the modulation. The value of k" approaches one so k" approaches
1/ , therefore M approaches unity. The value of k' approaches zero, therefore
approaches zero. The observed modulation of Fss(r,t) mimics the source
modulation with no loss of modulation and no phase lag. F(r,t) approaches the
behavior SoTss(r)(1 + Mosin( t)).

At high modulation frequencies, as the modulation frequency approaches the


41
value of ac or greater, there is significant
modulation during the lifetime of the

photon. Consequently, the photon can diffuse during its lifetime and thereby
smear the spatial resolution of the modulation. F(r,t) exhibits significant loss of
modulation (M < 1) and an increased phase lag ( > 0): F(r,t) = SoTss(r)(1 +
MoMsin( t - k'r))
ECE532 Biomedical Optics

1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute

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Frequency-domain diffusion
theory:
Examples

The following figure illustrates the time-resolved signal F(r,t) in blue and the
source S(t) in red. Note the greatly decreased Fss, the slightly decreased
modulation M, and the phase lag at the observation point.

source: f = 400 MHz, So = 1 W, Mo = 1.0


medium: a = 1.0 cm-1, s(1 - g) = 10.0 cm-1,
nt = 1.33

Click on figure to enlarge

The C program that generated the data in the above figure is listed here.

The following figures illustrates the modulation of the photon density wave as it
propagates into the medium.

42

The factor Msin(- ) is plotted versus position


r. Two values of absorption coefficient a are
used in the calculations, illustrating that
lower absorption yields a longer photon
lifetime which allows smearing of the spatial
resolution of the modulation which attenuates
the modulation.
Note that very large distances are needed to
develop cyclic modulation due to phase lag.
Photon density waves do not present multiple
cycles in typical experiments. The period of
one cycle is rk'/ [s].
source: f = 400 MHz, Mo = 1.0
medium: a = 1.0 or 0.1 cm-1, s(1 - g) = 10.0
cm-1, nt = 1.33

Click on figure to enlarge

The fluence rate F(r,t) is plotted versus


position r for a specific time (t = 0 [s] or
multiples of rk'/ ). The value Tss(r) falls very
quickly causing F(r,t) to fall quickly which
makes the modulation difficult to see,
especially on a logarithmic scale. The
modulation is more apparent for the lower
absorption.
Click on figure to enlarge

The C program that generated the data in the above figures is listed here.

43

44

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