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Absorption
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
A simple analogy for the absorption of light by molecules is placing two identical bells
side by side. When one bell is rung, the other will sympathetically ring at the same
frequency due to transfer of energy from the struck bell. The resonance of the second
bell matches the frequency of the first ringing bell and hence the second bell accepts
energy from the struck bell.
Photons are electromagnetic waves with a particular frequency. Molecules are a system
with charge separation (negative electron field and positive nucleus). The state of the
molecular charge separation can change in a quantized fashion by "absorbing" the
energy of a photon. The photon frequency must match the "frequency" associated with
the molecule's energy transition in order for energy transfer to occur. The relation
between frequency and energy is
Energy = h(frequency) = hc/(wavelength)
where Energy is in [J], photon frequency is in [cycles per s] or [s-1], photon wavelength
is in [m], c is the speed of light in vacuo (c = 3.0x108 [m/s]), and h is Planck's constant
(h = 6.62618x10-34 [J s]). Unlike the bell analogy, photon absorption occurs as a
quantum event, an all or none phenomenon. Example: absorption of 514 nm photon
from an argon ion laser by a hemoglobin molecule.
In biomedical optics, absorption of photons is a most important event:
Absorption is the primary event that allows a laser or other light source to cause
a potentially therapeutic (or damaging) effect on a tissue. Without absorption,
there is no energy transfer to the tissue and the tissue is left unaffected by the
light.
ECE532 Biomedical
1998
Steven L. Jacques, S
Oregon Graduate In
Molecules that absorb light are called chromophores. There are two major types of
choromphores:
electronic transitions
vibrational transitions
1
Electronic transitions
There are many biological molecules which can absorb light via electronic transitions.
Such transitions are relatively energetic and hence are associated with absorption of
ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared wavelengths. The molecules generally have a string
of double bonds whose pi-orbital electrons act similar to the electrons in a metal in that
they collectively behave as a small antenna which can "receive" the electromagnetic
wave of a passing photon. If the resonance of the pi-orbital structure matches the
photon's wavelength then photon absorption is possible.
In early biological evolution, the pyrrole molecule was a chromphore which could
absorb sunlight which enabled subsequent synthetic reactions that produced biological
polymers and other proto-metabolic products. Combining four pyrroles into a
tetrapyrrole ring (porphyrin) yielded an efficient chromophore for collecting solar
photons. Chlorophyll is such a porphyrin. Hemoglobin, vitamin B12, cytochrome C,
and P450 are also examples of porphyrins in biology. The figure lists some common
biological chromophores and shows some of their structures. Also see the website
spectra which is a compilation of chromophores, most absorbing in the ultraviolet and
visible.
Vibrational transitions
The field of infrared spectroscopy studies the variety of bonds which can resonantly
vibrate or twist in response to infrared wavelengths and thereby absorb such photons.
Perhaps the most dominant chromophore in biology which absorbs via vibrational
transitions is water. In the infrared, the absorption of water is the strongest contributor
to tissue absorption.
2
cycles/cm,
wavelength,
C-H stretch
2850-2960 [cm-1]
3.378-3.509 [m]
C-H bend
1340-1465
6.826-7.462
C-C stretch,bend
700-1250
8.000-14.29
C=C stretch
1620-1680
5.952-6.173
C=C stretch
2100-2260
4.425-4.762
CO32-
1410-1450
6.897-7.092
NO3-
1350-1420
7.042-7.407
NO2-
1230-1250
8.000-8.130
SO42-
1080-1130
8.850-9.259
O-H stretch
3590-3650
2.740-2.786
C=O stretch
1640-1780
5.618-6.098
N-H
3200-3500
2.857-3.125
= 1/
ref: PW Atkins, "Physical Chemistry," p. 576, W.H. Freeman and Co., 1978.
ECE532 Bi
1998
Steven L. Ja
Prahl
Oregon Gra
Experimentally, the units [cm-1] for a are inverse length, such that the product aL is
dimensionless, where L [cm] is a photon's pathlength of travel through the medium. The
probability of survival (or transmission T) of the photon after a pathlength L is:
This expression for survival holds true regardless of whether the photon path is a
straight line or a highly tortuous path due to multiple scattering in an optically turbid
medium.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics
Example: Bilirubin
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
for bilirubin.
The concentration C is
equivalent to
=
(0.17x10-3 [moles/liter])(6x1023
[mole-1])/(1000 cm3/liter] =
1.02x1017 [cm-3]
a
ECE532 Biomedi
1998
Steven L. Jacques
Oregon Graduate
In the infrared, the absorption increases with longer wavelengths due to tissue
water content. Scaling the pure water absorption by 75% mimics a typical tissue
with 75% water content.
In the red to near-infrared (NIR), absorption is miminal. This region is called the
diagnostic and therapeutic window (originally by John Parrish and Rox Anderson).
Whole blood is a strong absorber in the red-NIR regime, but because the
volume fraction of blood is a few percent in tissues, the average absorption
coefficient that affects light transport is moderate. However, when photons strike
a blood vessel they encounter the full strong absorption of whole blood. Hence,
local absorption properties govern light-tissue interactions, and average
absorption properties govern light transport.
Melanosomes are also strong absorbers. However, their volume fraction in the
epidermis may be quite low, perhaps several percent. So again, the local
interaction of light with the melanosomes is strong, but the melanosome
contribution to the average absorption coefficient may modestly affect light
transport.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics
Scattering
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
Scattering of light occurs in media which contains fluctuations in the refractive index n,
whether such fluctuations are discrete particles or more continuous variations in n.
7
The light scattered by a tissue has interacted with the ultrastructure of the tissue. Tissue
ultrastructure extends from membranes to membrane aggregates to collagen fibers to
nuclei to cells. Photons are most strongly scattered by those structures whose size
matches the photon wavelength.
Scattering of light by structures on the same size scale as the photon wavelength is
described by Mie theory. Scattering of light by structures much smaller than the photon
wavelength is called the Rayleigh limit of Mie scattering, or simply Rayleigh scattering.
The figure designates the size range of tissue ultrastructure which affects visible and
infrared light by Mie and Rayleigh scattering.
8
1998
Here are some examples of structures which scatter light (click on figure to expand):
Mitochondria
Mitochondria are intracellular
organelles about 1 m in length
(variable) which are composed of
many folded internal lipid
membranes called cristae, as
shown in the electron micrograph
at left. The basic lipid bilayer
membrane is about 9 nm in
width. The refractive index
mismatch between lipid and the
surrounding aqueous medium
causes strong scattering of light.
Folding of lipid membranes
presents larger size lipid
structures which affect longer
wavelengths of light. The density
of lipid/water interfaces within
the mitochondria make them
especially strong scatterers of
light.
(Drawing and micrographs from A. L. Lehninger,
"Biochemistry", Worth Publishers, 1970.)
10
ECE532 Biome
1998
Steven L. Jacqu
Prahl
Oregon Graduat
Experimentally, the units [cm-1] for s are inverse length, such that the product sL is
dimensionless, where L [cm] is a photon's pathlength of travel through the medium. The
probability of transmission T of the photon without redirection by scattering after a
pathlength L is:
Definition of anisotropy
g [dimensionless]
1998
11
Scattering functions p( )
12
Scattering functions
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
The angular dependence of scattering is called the scattering function, p( ) which has
units of [sr-1] and describes the probability of a photon scattering into a unit solid angle
oriented at an angle relative to the photons original trajectory. Note that the function
depends on only on the deflection angle and not on the azimuthal angle . Such
azimuthally symmetric scattering is a special case, but is usually adopted when
discussing scattering. However, it is possible to consider scattering which does not
exhibit azimuthal symmetry. The p( ) has historically been also called the scattering
phase function.
The scattering can be described in two ways:
observer plane,
and p( )2 sin which integrates over all possible azimuthal angles .
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A.
Oregon Graduate Institute
Henyey-Greenstein scattering
function
ECE532 Biomedical
Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott
A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
Henyey and Greenstein (1941) devised an expression which mimics the angular
dependence of light scattering by small particles, which they used to describe scattering
of light by interstellar dust clouds. The Henyey-Greenstein scattering function has
proven to be useful in approximating the angular scattering dependence of single
scattering events in biological tissues.
The Henyey-Greenstein function allows the anisotropy factor g to specify p( ) such that
calculation of the expectation value for cos( ) returns exactly the same value g. In other
words, Henyey and Greenstein devised a useful identity function. The HenyeyGreenstein function is:
14
A series of Henyey-Greenstein functions are shown in the following figure. The forward
direction along the original photon trajectory is 0. Scattering in the backward direction
is 180. The curve for g = 0 has a constant value of 1/4 .
ECE532 Biomedical
Steven L. Jacques, S
Oregon Graduate In
1998
The following figure shows the equivalence of taking 10 smaller steps of "mean free
path" mfp = 1/s with anisotropic deflection angles and one big step with a "reduced
mean free path" mfp' = 1/s'.
The following figure shows how many such big steps involving isotropic scattering are
equivalent to many small anisotropic steps:
16
ECE532 Biom
1998
Steven L. Jacq
Prahl
Oregon Gradua
Mie theory describes the scattering of light by particles. "Particles" here means an
aggregation of material that constitutes a region with refractive index (np) that differs
from the refractive index of its surroundings (nmed). The dipole reradiation pattern from
oscillating electrons in the molecules of such particles superimpose to yield a strong net
source of scattered radiation. Also, the reradiation patterns from all the dipoles do not
cancel in all but the forward direction of the incident light as is true for homogneous
medium, but rather interfere both constructively and destructively in a radiation pattern.
Hence, particles "scatter" light in various directions with varying efficiency.
Gustav Mie in 1908 published a solution to the problem of light scattering by
homogeneous spherical particles of any size. Mie's classical solution is described in
terms of two parameters, nr and x:
the size of the surface of refractive index mismatch which is the "antenna" for
reradiation of electromagnetic energy, expressed as a size parameter (x) which is
the ratio of the meridional circumference of the sphere (2 a, where radius = a) to
the wavelength ( /nmed) of light in the medium,
x = 2 a/( /nmed)
A Mie theory calculation will yield the efficiency of scattering which relates the crosssectional area of scattering, s [cm2], to the true geometrical cross-sectional area of the
particle, A = a2 [cm2]:
s
= QsA
Finally, the scattering coefficient is related to the product of scatterer number density,
[cm-3], and the cross-sectional area of scattering, s [cm2], (see definition of scattering
coefficient):
s =
17
s s
Before using Mie theory to approximate the scattering behavior of biological tissues,
let's
illustrate the behavior of Mie scattering with some example calculations and
figures
ECE532 Biomedical Op
1998
Consider a source, a spherical scattering particle, and an observer whose three positions
define a plane called the scattering plane. Incident light and scattered light can be
reduced to their components which are parallel or perpendicular to the scattering plane.
As shown in the following figure, the parallel and perpendicular components can be
experimentally selected by a linear polarization filter oriented parallel or perpendicular
to the scattering plane.
The Scattering matrix describes the relationship between incident and scattered electric
field components perpendicular and parallel to the scattering plane as observed in the
"far-field" (ref: Bohren and Huffman):
The total field (Etot) depends on the incident field (Ei), the scattered
field (Es) , and the interaction of these fields (E int). If one observes the
scattering from a position which avoids E i, then both Ei and Eint are
zero and only Es is observed.
Hence for practical scattering measurements, the above equation simplifies to the
following:
ECE532 Biomedic
1998
Steven L. Jacque
Prahl
Oregon Graduate
particle refractive
index
nmed = 1.3316
medium refractive
index
a = 0.152 m,
particle radius
= 0.6328 m
wavelength in vacuo
As calculated before:
nr = np/nmed = 1.5721/1.3316 = 1.1806
relative refractive
index
The following figures describe the experimental measurements that illustrate the angular
dependence of the scattered intensities Ipar and Iper:
20
Iper
Irradiate dilute solution of
spheres in water with laser
beam polarization oriented
perpendicular to the table.
Collect scattered light as a
function of angle in plane
parallel to table. Place
linear polarization filter in
front of detector
perpendicular to the table.
Ipar
Irradiate dilute solution of
spheres in water with laser
beam polarization oriented
parallel to the table. Collect
scattered light as a function
of angle in plane parallel
to table. Place linear
polarization filter in front of
detector parallel to the
table.
Example results: Polar and xy plots of scattering pattern for Ipar and
Iper
Polar plot
I( ) plot
For a randomly polarized light source, the total scattered light intensity is given by the
term S11:
21
S11 is the first element of the so-called Mueller Matrix, a 4x4 matrix which relates an
input vector of Stokes parameters (Ii, Qi, Ui, Vi) describing a complex light source and
the output vector (Is, Qs, Us, Vs) describing the nature of the transmitted light. For
randomly polarized light, S11 describes the transport of total intensity:
Is = S11Ii
ECE532 Biomedical
Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott
A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
Let's use the scattering pattern calculated previously for a 0.304-m-dia. nonabsorbing
polystyrene sphere in water irradiated by HeNe laser beam to calculate the anisotropy
(g) of scattering.
The definition of anisotropy guides the calculation of g using the function S11( ) which
describes the scattered intensity for randomly polarized light:
When numerically evaluating the above expression for g, a large number of angles need
to be calculated, typically about 200 angles, in order to achieve a value of g with
precision to at least 4 significant digits. For our example 0.304-m sphere, the
calculation of g based on S11( ) yields g = 0.6608.
Note that the definition of g as cited in these notes assumes azimuthal symmetry, hence
we have calculated the g for randomly polarized light. Due to the symmetry presented
by a spherical particle, the g refers to scattering into all azimuthal angles regardless of
the linear polarization of the incident light.
Example: Mie calculation of Qs and s
ECE532 Biome
1998
22
Steven L. Jacqu
Prahl
Oregon Gradua
nmed = 1.3316
a = 0.152 m,
particle radius
= 0.6328 m
fv = 0.001
wavelength in vacuo
volume fraction of particles in medium
refractive index mismatch ratio, size parameter, geometrical cross-sectional area, and
number density
A = a2 = (3.1415)(0.152)2 = 0.0726 m2
Mie(nr, x) ---> Qs
Mie(1.1806, 2.0097) ---> 0.1971
s =
s s
ECE532
Biomedical Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques,
Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate
Institute
Consider the three optical scattering properties, s, g, and s(1 - g), as functions of
wavelength for a spherical particle with np 23
= 1.5721 in a medium with nmed = 1.3316 at a
concentration of 0.1% volume fraction (fv = 0.001). Assume that np and nmed are constant
versus wavelength for this example calculation.
Let the sphere be one of three sizes: 0.100 m, 0.300 m, and 1.00 m.
The Mie theory calculation yields:
s
Click figure to enlarge
g
Click figure to enlarge
s(1 - g)
Click figure to enlarge
Note: The true np and nmed for polysytrene spheres and water are slightly wavelength
dependent and would deviate slightly from the above example.
ECE532 Biomedical
Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques,
Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate
Institute
Soft tissue optics are dominated by the lipid content of the tissues. Such lipid constitutes
the cellular membranes, membrane folds, and membranous structures such as the
mitochondria (about 0.5 m). While other objects such as protein aggregates and the
nucleus are also sources of scattering, the lipid/water interface of membranes presents a
strong refractive index mismatch and so plays a major role is scattering. The following
graph summarizes the lipid contents of various
24 tissues:
[ref. 1]
Mie theory provides a simple first approximation to the scattering of soft tissues [ref. 2].
The approximation involves a few assumptions:
Assume the lipid content of soft tissue is about 1-10% (f v = 0.020.10). Let's choose fv = 0.02 for this example to match the value for
several typical soft tissues such as lungs, spleen, prostate, ovary,
intestine, liver, arteries, to name a few.
= fv/((4/3) a3)
s
Click on figure to enlarge
25
g
Click on figure to enlarge
s(1 - g)
In summary
The wavelength dependence of light scattering in soft tissues such as the prostate
suggests that cellular structures equivalent to spheres with diameters in the range of
0.200-0.600 m contribute most of the scattering. The magnitude of the scattering
suggests that a volume fraction of 0.02 or 2%, which is roughly the reported lipid
content of prostate and many other soft tissues, yields a magnitude for s(1 - g) which
matches the magnitude of s(1 - g) for prostate. Deviations from our assumed values for
np based on lipid and nmed based on cytosol and from our assumed value for fv will affect
the magnitude of s(1 - g). But in general,soft tissues with higher (or lower) lipid
content will show increased (or decreased) scattering, while the wavelength dependence
of s(1 - g) should not change greatly.
ECE532 Biomedical
Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques,
Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate
Institute
Collagen fibers are strongly scattering. For example, the dermis of skin or the sclera of
the eye are tissues with high collagen fiber content. Mie theory can be used to
approximate the scattering properties of collagen on two levels:
The fiber diameter (d) was 2.80 0.08 m (n = 9), i.e., (mean SD
for n specimens), with an intraspecimen variation SD/mean = 0.43
0.05.
The fiber concentration was s = 3 x106 0.5 x106 cm-3. The volume
fraction was fv = d2(1 cm) s/4 = 0.21 0.10 (n = 9).
Mie theory can approximate collagen fiber scattering in dermis using the following
assumptions:
Assume one can use the cylindrical Mie theory calculation of Bohren
and Huffman [appendix C in ref.6], which assumes that the incident
light is oriented perpendicular to the long axis of the fiber cylinders.
The above assumptions allow calculation of s(1 - g) versus wavelength for dermal
collagen fiber bundles. (see "Mie" in figure below).
The following figure compares Mie theory for various size spheres withthe "Rayleigh"
component of skin scattering seen experimentally. The "Rayleigh" behavior of skin
scattering is mimiced by 50-nm-dia. spheres, np = 1.5, nmed = 1.35, at the volume fraction
of collagen in dermis, fv = 0.21. This assignment of the "Rayleigh" scattering to the
collagen ultrastructure should be regarded as only a working hypothesis, but there is no
other material in large quantity in the dermis to offer a strong source of scattering.
28
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
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Diffusion theory is the modeling of photon transport due to photon movement down
concentration gradients. Diffusion theory is appropriate in medium dominated by
scattering rather than absorption so that each photon undergoes many scattering events
before being terminated by an absorption event. The photon has a relatively long
residence time which allows the photon to engage in a random walk within the medium.
Diffusion theory = Photonsfallingdownagradientof photon concentration.
The instantaneous fluence rate, F(r,t) [J s-1 cm-2] or [W cm-2], is proportional to the
concentration of optical energy, C(r,t) [J cm-3] and the speed of light, c [cm/s], in the
medium:
F(r,t) = cC(r,t)
The units of energy concentration [J cm-3] times the units of velocity [cm/s] yield the
units of fluence rate [J s-1 cm-2]. This relationship between F and C allows us to discuss
the time-resolved spatial distribution of photon concentration, C(r,t), in a light-scattering
medium using the same math of diffusion which applies to many things such as solutes
in a solution or heat in a material.
29
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
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in which the flux J [cm-2 s-1] is proportional to the diffusivity [cm2/s] and the negative
gradient of concentration,
[cm-3 cm-1] or [cm-4]. The negative sign indicates that J is
positive when movement is down the gradient, i.e., the negative sign cancels the
negative gradient along the direction of positive flux.
30
Consider a local concentration of 106 units per cm3 which drops by 10%
Exampl over a distance of 1 cm. Then the gradient is -105 [units cm-4]. Assume the
e
diffusivity is 103 [cm2/s]. Then the flux J equals:
arbitrary
units
For light, the diffusivity is proportional to the diffusion length D [cm] and the speed of
light c:
= cD
where D = 1/(3 s(1-g)). The units of velocity [cm/s] times the units of length [cm] yield
the units of diffusivity [cm2/s]. The following example describes the local diffusion of
red light in milk.
Consider a local fluence rate F of 1 W/cm2 in milk (n = 1.33, s(1-g) = 10
cm-1).
Example
optical
energy
For optical diffusion, Fick's 1st law is expressed as the energy flux J [W cm-2]
proportional to the diffusion constant D [cm] and the negative fluence gradient dF/dx:
which was obtained by substituting cD for and substituting F/c for C. The factors c and
1/c cancel to yield the above equation.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
31
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Consider diffusion at the front and rear surfaces of an incremental planar volume. Fick's
2nd law of diffusion describes the rate of accumulation (or depletion) of concentration
within the volume as proportional to the local curvature of the concentration gradient.
The local rule for accumulation is given by Fick's 2nd law of diffusion:
in which the accumulation, dC/dt [cm-3 s-1], is proportional to the diffusivity [cm2/s]
and the 2nd derivative (or curvature) of the concentration,
[cm-3 cm-2] or [cm-5].
The accumulation is positive when the curvature is positive, i.e., when the concentration
gradient is more negative on the front end of the planar volume and less negative on the
rear end so that more flux is driven into the volume at the front end than is driven out of
the volume at the rear end.
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
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Light scattered at position r passes through a small aperture with area A contributing to
the flux J+.
assume that the fluence rate F(r) at a position r near to the aperture is
approximated by
calculate the net flux through the small aperture with area A due to scattering
from all the surrounding volume:
o the scattered flux at r is sF(r) = s( F(0) + r(dF(r)/drat r=0) ) where r is the
distance from r to the origin.
33
o a similar integration for the scattering from the hemisphere below the
aperture yields a positive value J- for flux passing through A in the other
direction opposite to J+.
o the net flux J = J+ - J
The final expression for the net flux J has the form of Fick's 1st law of diffusion
if the diffusion constant D has the following value:
, where
For photon transport, the term s' = s(1 - g) is substituted the above s which described
isotropic scattering used in the above treatment.
In summary, the connection between transport theory and Fick's 1st law of diffusion is
based on the linearization of F(r) around the value F(0) and on the approximation of D
by the value 1/(3 s').
ECE532 Biomedical Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
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It is important to remember that diffusion theory simply attempts to mimic Fick's 1st
law of diffusion by a proper choice of D to relate J and -dF/dr. The approximation of
F(r) as simply a linear perturbation of the value F(0) neglects higher order terms that
depend on d2F/dr2. Sometimes the gradient has significant curvature within the spherical
regime from which exp(-s' r) allows photons to pass through the aperture. In such
regions, the linear approximation to F(r) is inadequate and diffusion theory is
inaccurate. Two cases of curvature deserve emphasis:
Near a source
The gradients are very steep near a point source or collection of point sources with both
the exponential term exp(-r/(4cDt)) and the term 1/r causing significant curvature in the
gradients. Distant from sources, gradients become gradual and diffusion theory is more
accurate.
Absorption
Strong absorption prevents photons from engaging in an extended random walk. The
approximation t = s' becomes inadequate. In common use is the approximation:
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
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The solution to Fick's 2nd Law of diffusion for the case of a point source of energy, Uo
[units], deposited at zero time (t = 0) at the origin (r = 0) is C(r,t) [units cm-3]:
35
where r [cm] is the distance from the source to the point of observation, t [s] is the time
of observation, and [cm2/s] is the diffusivity. In the denominator, the product t has
units of [cm2] which is taken to the 3/2 power to yield units of [cm3]. The exponential in
the numerator is dimensionless. The units of Uo can be the units of any extensive
variable which is able to diffuse throughout a volume. Hence, C(r,t) has the proper
dimensions for concentration, [units cm-3]. The above expression for C(r,t) is a solution
to Fick's 2nd law of diffusion and describes spherically symmetric diffusion from a
point impulse source in a homogeneous medium with no boundaries.
For the case of optical diffusion, let F = cC and = cD. Let the point source be an
impulse of energy Uo [J]. The expression for fluence rate F(r,t) [W cm-2] becomes:
The above equation is very useful and the student of tissue optics should know this
equation very well.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
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The following figures illustrate the time-resolved transport of light from an impulse
isotropic point source of energy within a homogeneous unbounded medium with
absorption and scattering properties.
36
The C program that generated the data in the above figures is listed here.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
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The time-resolved fluence rate F(r,t) [W/cm2] in response to an impulse of energy Uo [J]
and the steady-state fluence rate Fss(r) [W/cm2] in response to an isotropic point source
of continuous power Po [W] are summarized:
where the transport factors T(r,t) [cm-2 s-1] and Tss(r) [cm-2] have been introduced to
37
more carefully distinguish the source, the transport,
and the fluence rate.
Note on notation: In this class, we use Fss(r) rather than F(r) to especially emphasize the
steady-state fluence rate from the time-resolved fluence rate. However, F(r) should be
used outside this class.
The above expression for Tss(r) can be obtained by integrating T(r,t)exp(-act) over all
time to yield the total accumulated amount of photon transport to each position r. The
factor exp(-act) accounts for photon absorption (recall that ct = pathlength so this
expression is simply Beer's law for photon survival) and causes photon concentration to
approach zero as time goes to infinity. The expression for Tss(r) is derived:
Note that the final expression above has made the substitutions:
which removes the diffusion length D and introduces the optical penetration depth
which is the incremental distance from the source that causes Fss(r) to decrease to 1/e its
initial value. The penetration depth is a parameter which is very easily understood in
experimental measurements and consequently has more intuitive value to some people
than D which is important from the perspective of the local step size of the diffusion
process. In this class we will often use the following expression for Fss(r) when we
prefer to emphasize the roles of a and :
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
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The following figures illustrate the transport of light from a steady-state isotropic point
source of power within a homogeneous unbounded medium with absorption and
scattering properties.
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The C program that generated the data in the above figures is listed here.
ECE532 Biomedical Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
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Chapter 5
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Frequency-domain Diffusion
Theory:
Isotropic point source in infinite
medium
where Tss(r) is the steady-state transport, k" is the imaginary wavenumber that describes
the attenuation of the photon density wave, and k' is the real wavenumber that describes
the phase lag of the observed photon density wave.
The expressions for Tss(r), k" and k' are:
where
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The behavior of k' and k" are shown in the following figure which plots k' and k" as
functions of /(ac):
The above expressions are equivalent to the expressions published by Schmitt et al.
1992 which in turn are equivalent to the expressions published by Fishkin et al.
1991,1993. Link to references..
At the observation point, the persistence of the source modulation is called the
modulation, M, and is often described in the literature as (ACout/DCout)/(ACin/DCin)
which equals:
At the observation point, the phase of the signal lags the phase of the source by an angle
called the phase, [radians], which equals:
The ratio /(ac) describes the number of radians of modulation cycle that occur in one
mean photon lifetime. Only 1/e or 37% of photons survive after a time period of 1/(ac)
[s]. is an angle specified by the ratio /(ac), and approaches zero for low modulation
frequencies and approaches 90 at the highest modulation frequencies, >> ac.
At very low modulation frequencies, << ac, there is little modulation during
the lifetime of a photon. Consequently, photon migration has little impact on the
transport of the modulation. The value of k" approaches one so k" approaches
1/ , therefore M approaches unity. The value of k' approaches zero, therefore
approaches zero. The observed modulation of Fss(r,t) mimics the source
modulation with no loss of modulation and no phase lag. F(r,t) approaches the
behavior SoTss(r)(1 + Mosin( t)).
photon. Consequently, the photon can diffuse during its lifetime and thereby
smear the spatial resolution of the modulation. F(r,t) exhibits significant loss of
modulation (M < 1) and an increased phase lag ( > 0): F(r,t) = SoTss(r)(1 +
MoMsin( t - k'r))
ECE532 Biomedical Optics
1998
Steven L. Jacques, Scott A. Prahl
Oregon Graduate Institute
to next page
Chapter 5
Course
Home
Frequency-domain diffusion
theory:
Examples
The following figure illustrates the time-resolved signal F(r,t) in blue and the
source S(t) in red. Note the greatly decreased Fss, the slightly decreased
modulation M, and the phase lag at the observation point.
The C program that generated the data in the above figure is listed here.
The following figures illustrates the modulation of the photon density wave as it
propagates into the medium.
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The C program that generated the data in the above figures is listed here.
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