07 - Domestic Water Heating Design Manual PDF

Domestic
Water
Heating
Design
Published by
American
Society of
Plumbing
Engineers
Manual
Second Edition
ii
Domestic W
ater Heating Design Manual, Second Edition
Water
The Domestic Water Heating Design Manual, Second Edition, is designed to provide accurate
and authoritative information for the design and specification of domestic water heating
systems. The publisher makes no guarantees or warranties, expressed or implied, regarding
the data and information contained in this publication. All data and information are provided
with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, consulting,
engineering, or other professional services. If legal, consulting, or engineering advice or other
expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be engaged.
American Society of Plumbing Engineers

2980 S. River Rd
Des Plaines, IL 600018
(847) 296-0002
E-mail: aspehq@aol.com Internet: www.aspe.org
Copyright 2003 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers

First Edition published in 1998 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying and recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher.
ISBN 978-1-891255-18-2
Printed in the United States of America
10
Contents
xiii
ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure 2.1 Weekday vs. Weekend Consumption . . . . . 20
Figure 2.2 Seasonal Variations, Weekend
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Figure 2.3 Seasonal Variations, Weekend
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Figure 2.4 Consumption curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Figure 2.5 Comparison of DHW Peak Consumption . . 29
Figure 2.6 Parts of 3-Hour DHW Peak Consumption . . 29
Figure 2.7 Parts of Peak 60 Minutes DHW
Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Figure 2.8 Peak Demand Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Fixture 14.1 Upfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Figure 14.2 Downfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Top of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 14.3 Upfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Figure 14.4 Downfeed Hot Water System with
Heater at Top of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 14.5 Combination Upfeed and Downfeed
Hot Water System with Heater at
Bottom of System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Figure 14.6 Combination Downfeed and Upfeed
Hot Water System with Heater at Top of System. . 242
Figure 14.7 Instantaneous Point-of-Use Water
Heater Piping Diagram. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Figure 14.8 Fixed Orifices and Venturi Flow Meters. 246
Figure 14.9 Preset Self-Limiting Flow Control
Cartridge. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Figure 14.10 Adjustable Orifice Flow Control Valve. . 248
Figure 14.11 Adjustable Balancing Valve with
Memory Stop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Figure 15.1 Construction of a Typical Heating Cable
for Hot Water Temperature Maintenance. . . . . . . 268
Figure 15.2 Components of a Hot Water Temperature
Maintenance System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Figure 15.3 Symbols Used to Indicate Components
of a Heat Traced Hot Water Supply System. . . . . . 273
Figure 15.4 Partial Simplified System Typical of
Hospitals, Correctional Facilities, and Hotels. . . . 276
xiv
Domestic W
Water
Figure 15.5 Typical Layout for 2 to 4-Story

Hospitals, Research Labs, Correctional Facilities,
and Dormitories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 17.1 Indirect Water Heater Designs. . . . . . . .
Figure 17.2 Purdue Bulletin 74 Chart, Showing
the Relationship Between Lime Deposits and
Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.1 A Typical Electric Water Heater. . . . . . . .
Figure 18.2 Electric Water Heater Element Types. . .
Figure 18.3 Electric Water Heater Element
Construction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.4 Location of ControlsResidential and
Light-Duty, Commercial Electric Water Heaters . .
Figure 18.5 Location of ControlsCommercial
Electric Water Heaters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 18.6 Location of ControlsBooster Type,
Commercial Electric Water Heaters. . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 20.1 Location and Types of Flue. . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 20.2 Sacrificial Anode Installation in a
Residential Gas Water Heater Tank. . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 20.3 Example of Water Heater Fittings. . . . . .
Figure 20.4 The Principle of Operation of the
Dip Tube. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 20.5 Types of Gas Burner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 20.6 Commonly Used Draft Hoods. . . . . . . . .
Figure 20.7 Downdraft Conditions in a Vertical
Draft Hood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 20.8 Vent Connection to a Chimney . . . . . . . .
Figure 22.1 Recirculation System Piping and
Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 23.1 A Closed Hot Water System Showing
the Effects as Water and Pressure Increase
from (a) P1 and T1 to (b) P2 and T2. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Figure 23.2 Effects of an Expansion Tank in a
Closed System as Pressure and Temperature
Increase from (a) P1 and T1 to (b) P2 and T2. . . . . .
Figure 23.3 Sizing the Expansion Tank. . . . . . . . . . .
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Contents
xv
TABLES
Table 1.1 Hot Water Multiplier, P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1.1(M) Hot Water Multiplier, P . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 1.2 Typical Delivered Hot Water Temperatures
for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment . . . . . . . . .
Table 1.2(M) Typical Delivered Hot Water
Temperatures for Plumbing Fixtures and
Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
.. 7
. 10
. 12
. 13
Table 1.3 Time/Water Temperature Combinations

Producing Skin Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Table 2.1 Occupant Demographic Characteristics . . . . 24
Table 2.2 Low, Medium, and High Guidelines:
Hot Water Demands and Use for Multifamily
Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Table 4.1 School Grade Divisions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Table 4.2 Potential Areas of Hot Water Usage . . . . . . . 46
Table 4.3 Hot Water Demand per Fixture for Schools . 49
Table 4.4 General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements of Kitchen Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Table 4.5 Rinse Water (180195F)
Requirements of Commercial Dishmachines . . . . . 50
Table 4.5(M) Rinse Water (8291C)
Requirements of Commercial Dishmachines . . . . . 51
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . . . . . . . 87
Table 6.2 Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . . . . . . . 88
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . . . . . . 151
Table 8.2 Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . . . . . . 152
Table 10.1 Tank Size Selection Chart . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Table 10.1(M) Tank Size Selection Chart . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 10.2 Hot Water Requirements after
Initial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Table 10.2(M) Hot Water Requirements after
Initial Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Table 11.1 Fixture/Equipment Table . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Table 14.1 Water Contents and Weight of Tube
or Piping per Linear Foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Table 14.1(M) Water Contents and Weight of Tube
or Piping per Meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Table 14.2 Approximate Fixture and Appliance
Water Flow Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
xvi
Domestic W
Water
Table 14.3 Approximate Time Required to Get

Hot Water to a Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 14.3(M) Approximate Time Required to Get
Hot Water to a Fixture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 14.4 Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness . . .
Table 14.4(M) Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness .
Table 14.5 Approximate Insulated Piping Heat
Loss and Surface Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 14.5(M) Approximate Insulated Piping Heat
Loss and Surface Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 14.6 Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks
with Various Insulation Thicknesses . . . . . . . . .
Table 14.6(M) Heat Loss from Various Size Tanks
with Various Insulation Thicknesses . . . . . . . . .
Table 15.1 Time for Hot Water to Reach Fixture . . .
Table 15.1(M) Time for Hot Water
to Reach Fixture (sec) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 15.2 Water Wasted While Waiting for
Hot Water to Reach Fixture (oz) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 15.2(M) Water Wasted While Waiting for
Hot Water to Reach Fixture (mL) . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 15.3 Nominal Maintenance
Temperatures, F (C) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 18.1 Resistance of Element . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 23.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Water
at a Saturated Liquid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Table 23.2 Nominal Volume of Piping . . . . . . . . . . .
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Contents
xxi
ACRONYMS
ACEEE American Council for Energy Efficient Economy

ADA Americans with Disabilities Act
AGA American Gas Association
ASHRAE American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers
ASME American Society of Mechanical Engineers
ASPE American Society of Plumbing Engineers
CCU Critical care unit
DHW Domestic hot water
EPDM Ethylene propylene diene monomer
ER Emergency room
HBV Hepatitis B virus
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
HVAC Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
ICU Intensive care unit
LMH Low, medium, and high
LPG Liquid petroleum gas
NEC National Electric Code
NFPA National Fire Protection Association
NR Nitrile rubber
NSF National Sanitation Foundation
OB Obstetrics
OHRD Ontario Hydro Research Division
PSIG Pounds per square inch gauge
SMACNA Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors
National Association
TEMA Tubular Exchange Manufacturers Association
UL Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
Contents
iii
CONTENTS
FOREWORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xix
ACRONYMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxi
SECTION I SYSTEM SIZING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.
FUNDAMENTALS OF DOMESTIC WATER

HEATING
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Basic Relationships and Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Heat RecoveryElectric Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Mixed Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Delivered Hot Water Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Safety and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Scalding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Legionella Pneumophila (Legionnaires Disease) . . . 14
Relief Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Thermal Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Storage and Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
System Alternative Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.
MULTIFAMILY BUILDINGS
Introduction
Background
Weekday
Seasonal
.........................
.........................
Vs. Weekend Demand Patterns .
Demand Patterns . . . . . . . . . . .
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Domestic W
Water
Demand Flow Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Identification of Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Demand Determination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Application of LMH Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Peak Demand Vs. Average Demand . . . . . . . . . . .
Potential of Generating Storage . . . . . . . . . . .
Time of Day of Peak Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Peak Demand and Average Demand . . . . . . .
Retrofit to Existing Systems (Customized Sizing) .
Research on Generation Rate and Storage
Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 2.1 Traditional Multifamily Building
Example 2.2 Special Use Housing Facility . . .
Possible Traps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of School . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Information Gathering . . . . . . . . . .
General Considerations . . . . . . . . . .
Kitchen and Food Service . . . . . . . .
Showers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
School Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculating the Hot Water Demand .
General Purpose Demand . . . . .
Kitchen Demand . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shower Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 4.1 Elementary School
Example 4.2 High School . . . . .
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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DORMITORIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Student Dormitories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 3.1 Student Dormitory . . . .
Institutional Dormitories . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 2.2 Institutional Dormitory .
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HOTELS AND MOTELS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Contents
Hotel and Motel Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Convention Hotel or Motel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Business Travelers Hotel or Motel . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Resort Hotel or Motel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Occupancy Hotel or Motel . . . . . . . . . . . .
Guest Room Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Questions and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 5.1 Guest Room Demand . . . . . . . . . . . .
Food Service Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Guide to Estimating Hourly Demand . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 5.2 Food Service Demand . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laundry Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 5.3 Laundry Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
System Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Criteria Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.
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HOSPITALS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Group Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheets and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 6.AUser Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 6.BUser Group Totals . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 6.AUser GroupExample 6.1 . . . . . .
Table 6.1General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . . . .
Table 6.2Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . . . .
Questions for Owner or Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Patient Areas and Nurses Stations . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hydrotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dietary and Food Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surgical Suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laundry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Central Sterile Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Obstetrics/Nursery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous Areas (e.g., Lab, Administration,
Maintenance, Autopsy, the Morgue) . . . . . . . . .
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vi
Domestic W
Water
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Example 6.232-Bed Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Example 6.3300-Bed Hospital . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
7.
SPAS, POOLS, HEALTH CLUBS, AND

ATHLETIC CENTERS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Information Gathering . . . . . . . . . .
Hot Water Requirements . . . . . . . . .
Therapies/Special Needs . . . . . .
Shower Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Demands . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculating the Hot Water Demand .
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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety and Health Concerns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Group Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheets and Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 8.AUser Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 8.BUser Group Totals . . . . . . . . . .
Worksheet 8.AUser GroupExample . . . . . . .
Table 8.1General Purpose Hot Water
Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses . . . .
Table 8.2Usage Factors for User Groups . . . . .
Questions for Owner or Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nursing/Intermediate Care Facility . . . . . . . . . .
Retirement Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example: 48-Bed Nursing/Intermediate Care and
Retirement Home . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Description of User Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Questions for Owner or Client . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
User Group Worksheets, 48-Bed Nursing/
Intermediate Care and Retirement Home . . .
User Group Totals Worksheet, 48-Bed Nursing/
Intermediate Care and Retirement Home . . .
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133
134
134
134
134
135
140
140
144
147
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151
152
156
156
157
NURSING/INTERMEDIATE CARE AND

RETIREMENT HOMES
. 158
. 158
. 161
. 165
. 176
JAIL AND PRISON HOUSING UNITS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Contents
vii
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hot Water Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jail Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculations for Jail Housing Units . . .
Auxiliary Equipment Demand . . . . . . .
Recommendation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Prison Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Criteria and Assumptions . . . .
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Calculations for Inmate Housing Units
Storage Tank Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kitchen Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laundry Considerations . . . . . . . . . . .
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179
180
181
181
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185
186
186
187
188
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189
189
190
191
191
191
192
192
192
194
194
194
194
195
196
196
196
196
197
197
197
198
198
198
198
10. INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Examples of Industrials . . . . . . . . . . . . .
General Design Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Areas within Industrial Facilities . . . . . . .
Washrooms and Toilets . . . . . . . . . . .
Wash Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Showers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selection of Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Heater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Storage Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Facility-Specific Design Issues . . . . . . . . .
Meat and Food Processing Facilities .
Manufacturing Facilities . . . . . . . . . .
Pharmaceutical Facilities . . . . . . . . . .
Food Product Facilities . . . . . . . . . . .
Chemical Processing Facilities . . . . . .
Facilities that Process Raw Materials .
Printing and Publishing Facilities . . .
Central Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Laboratories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Warehouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fluid Treatment Facilities . . . . . . . . .
Miscellaneous Uses of Hot Water . . . . . . .
Photo Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ready-Mix Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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viii
Domestic W
Water
11. SPORTS ARENAS AND STADIUMS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Gathering Information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
System Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Heating System Temperature . . . . . . . . .
Design Traps to Avoid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Considerations: Commercial Laundries
Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
System Sizing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sizing Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 11.1 Football Stadium . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 11.2 Baseball Stadium . . . . . . . . . . .
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203
204
205
205
206
206
207
208
208
210
210
211
214
12. LAUNDRIES
Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
System Design Questions
Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recovery . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 12.1 . . . . . . . . .
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221
221
222
222
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225
225
225
226
226
226
227
227
228
228
229
229
13. MISCELLANEOUS FACILITIES

Religious Facilities . . . . . . . . . . .
Kitchen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Baptistries . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Toilet Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Considerations . . . . . .
Grocery and Convenience Stores .
Toilet Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Considerations . . . . . .
Retail Centers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fast Food Restaurants . . . . . . . .
Toilet Rooms . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Office Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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SECTION II EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

14. RECIRCULATING DOMESTIC HOT WATER
SYSTEMS
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Length and Time Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Contents
ix
Results of Delays in Delivering Hot Water

to Fixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Methods of Delivering Reasonably Prompt Hot
Water Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Circulation Systems for Commercial, Industrial,
and Large Residential Projects . . . . . . . . . . .
Self-Regulating Heat Trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Point-of-Use Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Potential Problems in Circulated Hot Water
Maintenance Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Water Velocities in Hot Water Piping Systems . .
Balancing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Isolating Portions of Hot Water Systems . . . . . .
Maintaining the Balance of Hot Water Systems .
Providing Check Valves at the Ends of
Hot Water Loops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Delay in Obtaining Hot Water at
Dead-End Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flow Balancing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fixed Orifices and Venturis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Factory Preset Automatic Flow Control Valves . .
Flow Regulating Valves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Balancing Valves with Memory Stops . . . . . . . . .
Sizing Hot Water Return Piping Systems and
Recirculating Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 14.1Calculation to Determine Required
Circulation Rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recalculation of Hot Water System Losses . . . . .
Establishing the Head Capacity of the Hot Water
Circulating Pump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hot Water Circulating Pumps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Control for Hot Water Circulating Pumps . . . . . . . .
Air Elimination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 238
. 238
. 239
. 242
. 242
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243
244
244
244
245
. 245
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245
245
245
247
248
248
. 249
. 254
. 255
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257
258
258
259
259
261
261
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265
266
267
269
270
15. SELF-REGULATING HEAT TRACE SYSTEMS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
System Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Product Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Identifying the Piping Requiring Heat Tracing
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Domestic W
Water
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multiple Temperature Systems . . . . . . . . . . .
Remodels and Additions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Coordinating Design Information . . . . . . . . . . . .
Determining the Temperature to Maintain . . . . . .
Choosing the Right Cable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Thermal Insulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat Tracing Hot Water Piping . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Combining Horizontal Mains with Supply Risers .
Hot Water Heat Tracing Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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272
272
272
273
274
274
275
275
276
278
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Codes and Standards . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plumbing Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heating Medium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Countercurrent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Temperature Cross . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shell and Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Plate Type Heat Exchanger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Selecting Heat Exchangers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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279
279
279
280
280
280
280
280
281
281
281
282
284
288
16. HEAT EXCHANGERS
17. INDIRECT FIRED WATER HEATERS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Product Description . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Storage Tank Type Indirect Water Heaters .
Instantaneous Indirect Water Heaters . . . .
Water Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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291
291
291
293
295
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297
297
298
298
298
300
300
18. ELECTRIC WATER HEATERSSTORAGE

AND BOOSTER
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principal Types of Electric Water Heater
Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
The Tank . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tank Fittings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dip Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Contents
xi
Controls for Residential and Light-Duty,

Commercial Electric Water Heaters . . . . . . .
Thermostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
High Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Controls for Medium-Duty, Commercial Electric
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Surface-Mounted Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Immersion Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Controls for Heavy-Duty, Commercial Electric
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Immersion Thermostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Immersion High Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wiring Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Controls for Booster Type, Commercial Electric
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Immersion Thermostat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Immersion High Limit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wiring Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 303
. . . . 303
. . . . 303
. . . . 305
. . . . 305
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308
308
308
308
308
19. GAS WATER HEATERSINSTANTANEOUS

WITH SEPARATE TANK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
20. GAS WATER HEATERSSTORAGE
Types of Gas Water Heaters
Flues and Heat Exchangers .
Tanks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Tank Fittings . . . . . . . . . . .
Dip Tubes . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Venting Systems . . . . . . . . .
Draft Hoods. . . . . . . . . .
Vent Connections . . . . .
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313
313
314
314
315
319
321
321
323
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Heat Pump Water Heater . . . . .
Integral Heat Pump Water Heaters .
Remote Heat Pump Water Heaters . .
Energy Sources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Benefits of the Heat Pump Water Heater
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325
326
326
327
327
328
21. HEAT PUMP WATER HEATERS
xii
Domestic W
Water
Drawbacks of the Heat Pump Water Heater .

Heat Recovery Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Criteria for Selecting Heat Pump
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Special Requirements for Heat Pump
Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Incoming Water Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Safety Controls and Devices . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . 328
. . . . . . . 329
. . . . . . . 330
. . . . . . . 331
. . . . . . . 331
. . . . . . . 332
. . . . . . . 332
22. STEAM WATER HEATERS

Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Instantaneous Water Heaters . . . . . . . .
Storage Water Heaters . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Feedback Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Feed-Forward Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Recirculation System Piping and Operation .
Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example 22.1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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333
333
333
334
336
338
340
341
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343
346
348
348
349
351
353
354
23. EXPANSION TANKS

Introduction . . . . . . . .
Expansion of Water . . .
Example 23.1 . . . .
Expansion of Materials
Example 23.2 . . . .
Boyles Law . . . . . . . . .
Example 23.3 . . . .
Summary . . . . . . . . . .
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INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Section
SYSTEM
SIZING
Every effort has been made to include all segments of the water
heating industrydesigners and manufacturersin the writing
and reviewing of this manual. The writers, coordinators and reviewers of this book made every attempt to include new
technologies when known and applicable. However, this manual
is designed to be a work in progress. As engineers and designers use and apply the material in this design manual, it will be
revised and updated so that future editions will represent an
ever expanding base of knowledge and experience.
Two important water heating system components, safety equipment and controls, have been intentionally omitted from this
manual. Because specific safety equipment and controls may vary
significantly according to water heater types and manufacturers
and applicable code requirements, this manual includes a general synopsis of the relevant data. This approach inherently limits
the scope of the information covered. Therefore, it is recommended
that information concerning safety equipment and controls be
closely coordinated with water heater manufacturers and checked
against local code requirements.
Fundamentals of Domestic W
ater Heating
Water
FUNDAMENTALS
OF DOMESTIC
WATER HEATING
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the information needed to size a domestic
hot water system. Some of the information presented here is
referred to throughout the Manual; other information will be
helpful at various stages of the design process, such as selecting
a type of water heater and calculating energy usage.
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS AND UNITS

The equations used throughout the Manual are based on the
principle of energy conservation. The fundamental formula for
this expresses a steady-state heat balance for the heat input and
output of the system:
(1.1)
q = rwcT
where
q =
r =
w =
c =
T1 =
i
time rate of heat transfer, Btu/h (kJ/h)

flow rate, gph (L/h)
weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/m3)
specific heat of water, Btu/lb/F (kJ/kg/K)
change in heated water temperature (temperature
of leaving water minus temperature of incomn
g
water, represented in this manual as Th Tc, F [K])
Note: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
the metric conversions shown in the text may vary slightly from the answers
shown in the metric equations.
1 Be sure that the minimum supply water temperature in the equation represents the actual time of year that peak load occurs.
Domestic W
Water
For the purposes of this manual, the specific heat of water

shall be considered a constant, c = 1 Btu/lb/F (c =
4.19 kJ/kg/K), and the weight of water shall be constant at
8.33 lb/gal (999.6 kg/m3). (The specific heat and the weight of
water will actually vary with temperature and altitude.)
(1.2)
[( )(
q = gph
1 Btu
lb/F
[(
m3
h
q=
)]
8.33 lb (T)
gal
)(
4.188 kJ
kg/K
) ]}
999.6 kg
m3
( T)
Example 1.1 Calculate the heat output rate required to heat

600 gph from 50 to 140F (2.27 m3/h from
283.15 to 333.15K).
Solution
From Equation 1.2,
q = (600 gph)(8.33 Btu/gal/F)(140 50F)
= 449,820 Btu/h
[q = (2.27 m3/h)(4188.32 kJ/m3/K)(333.15 283.15K)
= 475 374 kJ/h]
Note: The designer should be aware that water heaters installed in high elevations must be derated based on the elevation.
The water heaters manufacturers data should be consulted for
information on required modifications.
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
When inefficiencies of the water heating process are considered,
the actual input energy is higher than the usable, or output, energy. Direct fired water heaters (i.e., gas, oil, etc.) lose
part of their total energy capability to such things as heated flue
gases, inefficiencies of combustion, and radiation at heated surfaces. Their thermal efficiency, Et, is defined as the heat actually
transferred to the domestic water divided by the total heat input
to the water heater. Expressed as a percentage, this is:
(1.3)
Et =
q
100%
q+B
where
B
= heat loss of the water heater, Btu/h (kJ/h)
ater Heating
Water
Refer to Equations 1.1 and 1.2 to determine q. Many water

heaters and boilers provide input and output energy information.
Example 1.2 Calculate the heat input rate required for the water
heater in Example 1.1 if this is a direct, gas fired
water heater with a thermal efficiency of 80%.
From Example 1.1, q = 449,820 Btu/h
(475 374 kJ/h). Heat input =
Solution
449,820 Btu/h
q
=
= 562,275 Btu/h
Et
0.80
q
475 374 kJ/h
=
Et
0.80
= 594 217.5 kJ/h
HEAT RECOVERYELECTRIC WATER HEATERS

Assume that 1 kilowatt-hour of electrical energy will raise 410
gal (1552.02 L) of water 1F (C). This can expressed in a series
of formulas, as follows:
410 gal
= gal of water per kWh at T
T
1552.02 L
= L of water per kWh at T
T
(1.4)
gph T
= kWh required
410 gal
(1.5)
L/h T
= kWh required
1552.02 L
(1.6)
gph
= kW required
gal of water per kWh at T
L/h
= kW required
L of water per kWh at T
where
T = temperature rise (temperature differential), F (C)
gph = gallons per hour of hot water required
L/h = liters per hour of hot water required
Equation 1.4 can be used to establish a simple table based
on the required temperature rise.
Domestic W
Water
Temperature Rise, T, F (C)

110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Gal (L) of Water per kWh
(43)
(38)
(32)
(27)
(21)
(16)
(10)
(4)
3.73
4.10
4.55
5.13
5.86
6.83
8.20
10.25
(14.12)
(15.52)
(17.22)
(19.42)
(22.18)
(25.85)
(31.04)
(38.8)
This table can be used with Equation 1.6 to solve for the kW
electric element needed to heat the required recovery volume of
water.
Example 1.3 An electric water heater must be sized to provide a
continuous flow of 40 gph (151.42 L/h) of hot water at a temperature of 140F (43C). The incoming
water supply during winter is 40F (4C).
Solution
Using Equation 1.6 and the above table, we find

the following:
40 gph
= 9.8 kW required
4.1 gal/kWh (100F)
151.42 L/h
= 9.8 kW required
15.52 L/kWh (38C)
MIXED WATER TEMPERATURE

Mixing water at different temperatures to make a desired mixed
water temperature is the main purpose of domestic hot water
systems. The design of systems that effectively do that is
the purpose of this manual.
(1.7)
P =
(Tm Tc)
(Th Tc)
where
Th = supply hot water temperature
Tc = inlet cold water temperature
Tm = desired mixed water temperature
ater Heating
Water
P is a hot water multiplier and can be used to determine the

percentage of supply hot water that will blend the hot and cold
water to produce a desired mixed water temperature. Values of P
for a range of hot and cold water temperatures are given in Table
1.1.
Example 1.4
A group of showers requires 25 gpm (1.58 L/sec) of 105F (41C)
mixed water temperature. Determine how much 140F (60C) hot
water must be supplied to the showers when the cold water temperature is 50F (10C).
Solution
P = (105 50F)/(140 50F) = 0.61. [P = (41 10C)/(60 10C)
= 0.61]. Therefore, 0.61 (25 gpm) = 15.25 gpm of 140F water
required. [0.61 (1.58 L/sec) = 0.96 L/sec of 60C water required.]
Table 1.1 may also be used to determine P.
Table 1.1 Hot Water Multiplier, P

Th =110F Hot Water System Temperature
Tc, CW
Temp. (F)
T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)

110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
50
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
55
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
60
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
65
1.00
0.89
0.78
0.67
Th = 120F Hot Water System Temperature

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

120
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
50
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
55
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
60
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
65
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
0.64
0.55
(Continued)
Domestic W
Water
(Table 1.1 continued)

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
50
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
55
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
60
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
65
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.54
0.46

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
50
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
55
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
60
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
0.50
0.44
65
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
0.47
0.40

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
45
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
50
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
55
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
60
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
0.44
65
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
0.41
(Continued)
ater Heating
Water

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

160
155
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
45
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
50
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.86
0.82
0.77
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.59
0.55
55
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
60
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
65
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

180
175
170
165
160
155
150
145
140
135
130
45
1.00
0.96
0.93
0.89
0.85
0.81
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.67
0.63
50
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.85
0.81
0.77
0.73
0.69
0.65
0.62
55
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.84
0.80
0.76
0.72
0.68
0.64
0.60
60
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.83
0.79
0.75
0.71
0.67
0.63
0.58
65
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
110
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
0.43
0.36
0.29
120
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
0.50
0.42
0.33
0.25
0.17
130
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
140
1.00
0.88
0.75
0.63
0.50
0.38
0.25
0.13
150
1.00
0.83
0.67
0.50
0.33
0.17
160
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
10
Domestic W
Water
Table 1.1 (M) Hot Water Multiplier, P

Th = 43C Hot Water System Temperature
Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)
Tc, CW
Temp. (C)
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
10
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
13
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
16
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
18
1.00
0.89
0.78
0.67

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
10
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
13
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
16
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
18
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
0.64
0.55

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)

54
52
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
10
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
13
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
16
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
18
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.54
0.46
(Continued)
ater Heating
Water
11
[Table 1.1 (M) continued]

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)

60
58
54
52
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
10
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
13
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
16
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
0.50
0.44
18
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
0.47
0.40

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)

66
63
60
58
54
52
49
46
43
41
38
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
10
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
13
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
16
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
0.44
18
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
0.41

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)

71
68
66
63
60
58
54
52
49
46
43
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
10
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.86
0.82
0.77
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.59
0.55
13
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
16
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
18
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
(Continued)
12
Domestic W
Water

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)
7
10
13
16
18
43
49
54
60
66
71

82
79
77
74
71
68
66
63
60
58
54
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.93
0.92
0.90
0.88
0.83
0.75
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.91
0.86
0.83
0.80
0.75
0.67
0.50
0.89
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.87
0.79
0.75
0.70
0.63
0.50
0.25
0.85
0.85
0.84
0.83
0.83
0.71
0.67
0.60
0.50
0.33
0.81
0.81
0.80
0.79
0.78
0.64
0.58
0.50
0.38
0.17
0.78
0.77
0.76
0.75
0.74
0.57
0.50
0.40
0.25
0.74
0.73
0.72
0.71
0.70
0.50
0.42
0.30
0.13
0.70
0.69
0.68
0.67
0.65
0.43
0.33
0.20
0.67
0.65
0.64
0.63
0.61
0.36
0.25
0.10
0.63
0.62
0.60
0.58
0.57
0.29
0.17
DELIVERED HOT WATER TEMPERATURE

The generally accepted delivered hot water temperatures for various
plumbing fixtures and equipment are given in Table 1.2. Both
temperature and pressure should be verified with the client and
checked against local codes and the manuals of equipment used.

for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Use
Lavatory
Showers and tubs
Commercial and institutional laundry
Residential dishwashing and laundry
Commercial spray type dishwashing (as required by the NSF):
Single or multiple tank hood or rack type: Wash
Final rinse
Single tank conveyor type: Wash
Final rinse
Single tank rack or door type:
Single temperature wash and rinse
Chemical sanitizing glassware: Wash
Rinse
Temp. (F)
105
110
140180
140
150
180195
160
180195
165
140
75
Note: Be aware that temperatures, as dictated by codes, owners, equipment manufacturers, or regulatory agencies, will occasionally differ from those shown.
ater Heating
Water
13
Table 1.2 (M) Typical Delivered Hot Water

Temperatures for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Use
Lavatory
Showers and tubs
Final rinse
Final rinse
Rinse
Temp. (C)
41
43
6082
60
66
8291
71
8291
74
60
24
SAFETY AND HEALTH CONCERNS

Scalding2
A research project by Moritz and Henriques at Harvard Medical
College3 looked at the relationship between time and water temperature necessary to produce a first-degree burn. A first-degree
burn, the least serious type, results in no irreversible damage.
The results of the research show that it takes a 3-sec exposure to
140F (60C) water to produce a first-degree burn. At 130F (54C),
it takes approximately 20 sec, and at 120F (49C), it takes 8 min
to produce a first-degree burn.
The normal threshold of pain is approximately 118F (48C).
A person exposed to 120F (49C) water would immediately experience discomfort; it is unlikely then that the person would be
exposed for the 8 min required to produce a first-degree burn.
People in some occupancies (e. g., hospitals) as well as those over
2For more information regarding Scalding, refer to ASPE Research Foundation.

1989. Temperature limits in service hot water systems. Journal of Environmental
Health. (June): 3848.
3Moritz, A. R., and Henriques, F. C., Jr. 1947. The relative importance of time and
surface temperature in the causation of cutaneous burns. American Journal of
Pathology. 23: 695720.
14
Domestic W
Water
the age of 65 and under the age of 1 may not sense pain or move
quickly enough to avoid a burn once pain is sensed. If such a
possibility exists, scalding protection should be considered. It is
often required by code. (For more information on skin damage
caused by exposure to hot water, see Table 1.3.)

Producing Skin Damage
Water Temperature
F
Over 140
140
135
130
125
120
C
Over 60
60
58
54
52
49
Time (sec)
Less than 1
2.6
5.5
15
50
290
Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Contractor Magazine.
(September). First published in American Journal of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evidence of skin damage in adult males.
Legionella Pneumophila (Legionnaires Disease)

Legionnaires disease is a potentially fatal respiratory illness. The
disease gained notoriety when a number of American Legionnaires contracted it during a convention. That outbreak was
attributed to the water vapor from the buildings cooling tower(s).
The bacteria that cause Legionnaires disease are widespread in
natural sources of water, including rivers, lakes, streams, and
ponds. In warm water, the bacteria can grow and multiply to
high concentrations. Drinking water containing the Legionella
bacteria has no known effects. However, inhalation of the bacteria into the lungs, e.g., while showering, can cause Legionnaires
disease. Much has been published about this problem, and yet
there is still controversy over the exact temperatures that foster
the growth of the bacteria. Further research is required, for there
is still much to be learned. It is incumbent upon designers to
familiarize themselves with the latest information on the subject
and to take it into account when designing their systems. Designers also must be familiar with and abide by the rules of all
regulating agencies with jurisdiction.
ater Heating
Water
15
RELIEF VALVES
Water heating systems should be protected from excessive temperatures and pressures by relief valves. Temperature and
pressure relief valves are available either separately or combined.
Typically they are tested to comply with the standards of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American Gas Association (AGA), or the National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) and are so labeled. The designer should verify which agencys standards are applicable to
the water heating system being designed and follow those standards for the sizes, types, and locations of required relief valves.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Water expands as it is heated, and some way to allow for this
expansion should be provided in a domestic hot water system.
Use of a thermal expansion tank in the cold water piping to the
water heater will do this. It is recommended that the designer
contact the manufacturer of the thermal expansion tank for information on installation and sizing. The plumbing code requires
some type of thermal expansion compensationexpecially when
there is either a backflow prevention device on the cold water
service to the building or a check valve in the system.
CONTROLS
The control components for water heaters differ depending on the
type of heater and the manufacturer. Generally, water heater controls should be checked with the equipment manufacturer. Also,
the various regulatory and testing agencies have requirements for
controls that depend on the size and type of equipment used.
STORAGE AND RECOVERY

The design of a domestic water heating system begins with estimating the facilitys load profile and identifying the peak demand
times. To accomplish these steps, the designer must conduct
discussions with the users of the space, determine the building
type, and learn of any owner requirements. The information thus
gathered will establish the required capacity of the water heating
equipment and the general type of system to be used. With fuel
16
Domestic W
Water
fired equipment, to avoid condensation, the equipment and the

operating temperature should be selected to ensure that the
heaters operating temperature is not lower than the dewpoint
temperature of the flue gas.
Stratification
There is a natural tendency of warm water to rise to the top of a
storage tank. The result of this rising action, known as stratification, occurs in all unrecirculated tanks. It has been found
that the percent useable storage volume in stratified horizontal
and vertical tanks has a range of 6575% to 8090%, respectively. Not all tanks are created equal; the percent usable storage
volume can be affected by such items as the flow rates, the points
of connection, tank capacity and by tank recirculation systems.
Stratification during recovery periods can be reduced significantly by mechanical circulation of the water in the tank. During
periods of demand, however, it is useful to have good stratification since this increases the availability of water at a usable
temperature. If, for example, a tank were stratified with the top
half at 140F (60C) and the bottom half at 40F (4C), this tank,
in theory, could still deliver half its volume at 140F (60C). But,
if the two layers were completely mixed, the tank temperature
would drop to 90F (32C), which, in most cases, is an unusable
temperature.
CODES AND STANDARDS

The need to conform to various codes and standards determines
many aspects of the design of a domestic hot water system as
well as the selection of components and equipment.
Some of the most often used codes and standards are:
1. Regional, state, and local plumbing codes.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)/IES 90.1.
3. ASME code for fired and unfired pressure vessels.
4. ASME and AGA codes for relief valves.
5. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) listing for electrical components.
6. National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) listing.
7. AGA approval for gas burning components.
ater Heating
Water
17
8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards.

9. National Electrical Code (NEC).
In addition, the federal government, the agencies with jurisdiction over public schools and public housing, and many other
agencies have specific requirements that must be observed when
designing projects and selecting equipment for them.
SYSTEM ALTERNATIVE CONSIDERATIONS

The design and selection of water heating systems are part of a
process that involves assumptions, decisions, and trade-offs.
The general organization of this manual separates application
considerations and load determinations (Section I) from the selection of equipment (Section II). While this is possible for most
conventional water heating systems, it does not yield the optimum
solution for many advanced, high-efficiency water heating systems.
These systems include refrigerant-based systems like heat pump
water heaters; refrigeration heat reclaim systems; and multifunction, full-condensing equipment. These and other systems like solar
water heaters have a higher cost per unit of heating capacity than
most conventional systems. Often the most cost-effective configuration for these systems tends to use higher storage volumes and
lower heating rates than those recommended in the following chapters. These systems are frequently configured as hybrid systems,
combining both an advanced high-efficiency system as the primary,
base-loaded water heater and a conventional water heater for peaking or supplemental water heating.
Advanced, high-efficiency systems may offer significant benefits; however, their design and selection is necessarily more
detailed. The seasonal and instantaneous efficiency and output
of these systems vary greatly with operating conditions. Because
they are not selected to meet the peak water heating load, load
calculations must address not simply the peak but the water
heating load shape. Their higher cost per unit of heating capacity
as compared to most conventional systems places a higher premium on accurate load determination since oversizing has a more
marked effect on system cost. Other considerations such as a
buildings cooling load or waste heat availability may also come
into play. The capacities of these systems and any related supplemental water heating equipment should be selected to achieve
high average daily run time and the lowest combination of operating and equipment cost.
Section
SYSTEM
SIZING
Every effort has been made to include all segments of the water
heating industrydesigners and manufacturersin the writing
and reviewing of this manual. The writers, coordinators and reviewers of this book made every attempt to include new
technologies when known and applicable. However, this manual
is designed to be a work in progress. As engineers and designers use and apply the material in this design manual, it will be
revised and updated so that future editions will represent an
ever expanding base of knowledge and experience.
Two important water heating system components, safety equipment and controls, have been intentionally omitted from this
manual. Because specific safety equipment and controls may vary
significantly according to water heater types and manufacturers
and applicable code requirements, this manual includes a general synopsis of the relevant data. This approach inherently limits
the scope of the information covered. Therefore, it is recommended
that information concerning safety equipment and controls be
closely coordinated with water heater manufacturers and checked
against local code requirements.
ater Heating
Water
FUNDAMENTALS
OF DOMESTIC
WATER HEATING
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the information needed to size a domestic
hot water system. Some of the information presented here is
referred to throughout the Manual; other information will be
helpful at various stages of the design process, such as selecting
a type of water heater and calculating energy usage.
BASIC RELATIONSHIPS AND UNITS

The equations used throughout the Manual are based on the
principle of energy conservation. The fundamental formula for
this expresses a steady-state heat balance for the heat input and
output of the system:
(1.1)
q = rwcT
where
q =
r =
w =
c =
T1 =
i
time rate of heat transfer, Btu/h (kJ/h)

flow rate, gph (L/h)
weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/m3)
change in heated water temperature (temperature
of leaving water minus temperature of incomn
g
water, represented in this manual as Th Tc, F [K])
1 Be sure that the minimum supply water temperature in the equation represents the actual time of year that peak load occurs.
Domestic W
Water
For the purposes of this manual, the specific heat of water

shall be considered a constant, c = 1 Btu/lb/F (c =
4.19 kJ/kg/K), and the weight of water shall be constant at
8.33 lb/gal (999.6 kg/m3). (The specific heat and the weight of
water will actually vary with temperature and altitude.)
(1.2)
[( )(
q = gph
1 Btu
lb/F
[(
m3
h
q=
)]
8.33 lb (T)
gal
)(
4.188 kJ
kg/K
) ]}
999.6 kg
m3
( T)
Example 1.1 Calculate the heat output rate required to heat

600 gph from 50 to 140F (2.27 m3/h from
283.15 to 333.15K).
Solution
From Equation 1.2,
q = (600 gph)(8.33 Btu/gal/F)(140 50F)
= 449,820 Btu/h
[q = (2.27 m3/h)(4188.32 kJ/m3/K)(333.15 283.15K)
= 475 374 kJ/h]
Note: The designer should be aware that water heaters installed in high elevations must be derated based on the elevation.
The water heaters manufacturers data should be consulted for
information on required modifications.
THERMAL EFFICIENCY
When inefficiencies of the water heating process are considered,
the actual input energy is higher than the usable, or output, energy. Direct fired water heaters (i.e., gas, oil, etc.) lose
part of their total energy capability to such things as heated flue
gases, inefficiencies of combustion, and radiation at heated surfaces. Their thermal efficiency, Et, is defined as the heat actually
transferred to the domestic water divided by the total heat input
to the water heater. Expressed as a percentage, this is:
(1.3)
Et =
q
100%
q+B
where
B
= heat loss of the water heater, Btu/h (kJ/h)
ater Heating
Water
Refer to Equations 1.1 and 1.2 to determine q. Many water

heaters and boilers provide input and output energy information.
Example 1.2 Calculate the heat input rate required for the water
heater in Example 1.1 if this is a direct, gas fired
water heater with a thermal efficiency of 80%.
From Example 1.1, q = 449,820 Btu/h
(475 374 kJ/h). Heat input =
Solution
449,820 Btu/h
q
=
= 562,275 Btu/h
Et
0.80
q
475 374 kJ/h
=
Et
0.80
= 594 217.5 kJ/h
HEAT RECOVERYELECTRIC WATER HEATERS

Assume that 1 kilowatt-hour of electrical energy will raise 410
gal (1552.02 L) of water 1F (C). This can expressed in a series
of formulas, as follows:
410 gal
= gal of water per kWh at T
T
1552.02 L
= L of water per kWh at T
T
(1.4)
gph T
= kWh required
410 gal
(1.5)
L/h T
= kWh required
1552.02 L
(1.6)
gph
= kW required
gal of water per kWh at T
L/h
= kW required
L of water per kWh at T
where
T = temperature rise (temperature differential), F (C)
gph = gallons per hour of hot water required
L/h = liters per hour of hot water required
Equation 1.4 can be used to establish a simple table based
on the required temperature rise.
Domestic W
Water
Temperature Rise, T, F (C)

110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
Gal (L) of Water per kWh
(43)
(38)
(32)
(27)
(21)
(16)
(10)
(4)
3.73
4.10
4.55
5.13
5.86
6.83
8.20
10.25
(14.12)
(15.52)
(17.22)
(19.42)
(22.18)
(25.85)
(31.04)
(38.8)
This table can be used with Equation 1.6 to solve for the kW
electric element needed to heat the required recovery volume of
water.
Example 1.3 An electric water heater must be sized to provide a
continuous flow of 40 gph (151.42 L/h) of hot water at a temperature of 140F (43C). The incoming
water supply during winter is 40F (4C).
Solution
Using Equation 1.6 and the above table, we find

the following:
40 gph
= 9.8 kW required
4.1 gal/kWh (100F)
151.42 L/h
= 9.8 kW required
15.52 L/kWh (38C)
MIXED WATER TEMPERATURE

Mixing water at different temperatures to make a desired mixed
water temperature is the main purpose of domestic hot water
systems. The design of systems that effectively do that is
the purpose of this manual.
(1.7)
P =
(Tm Tc)
(Th Tc)
where
Th = supply hot water temperature
Tc = inlet cold water temperature
Tm = desired mixed water temperature
ater Heating
Water
P is a hot water multiplier and can be used to determine the

percentage of supply hot water that will blend the hot and cold
water to produce a desired mixed water temperature. Values of P
for a range of hot and cold water temperatures are given in Table
1.1.
Example 1.4
A group of showers requires 25 gpm (1.58 L/sec) of 105F (41C)
mixed water temperature. Determine how much 140F (60C) hot
water must be supplied to the showers when the cold water temperature is 50F (10C).
Solution
P = (105 50F)/(140 50F) = 0.61. [P = (41 10C)/(60 10C)
= 0.61]. Therefore, 0.61 (25 gpm) = 15.25 gpm of 140F water
required. [0.61 (1.58 L/sec) = 0.96 L/sec of 60C water required.]
Table 1.1 may also be used to determine P.
Table 1.1 Hot Water Multiplier, P

Th =110F Hot Water System Temperature
Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
50
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
55
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
60
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
65
1.00
0.89
0.78
0.67

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

120
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
50
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
55
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
60
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
65
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
0.64
0.55
(Continued)
Domestic W
Water

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
50
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
55
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
60
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
65
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.54
0.46

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
95
45
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
50
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
55
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
60
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
0.50
0.44
65
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
0.47
0.40

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
105
100
45
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
50
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
55
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
60
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
0.44
65
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
0.41
(Continued)
ater Heating
Water

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

160
155
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
45
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
50
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.86
0.82
0.77
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.59
0.55
55
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
60
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
65
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47

Tc, CW
Temp. (F)

180
175
170
165
160
155
150
145
140
135
130
45
1.00
0.96
0.93
0.89
0.85
0.81
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.67
0.63
50
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.85
0.81
0.77
0.73
0.69
0.65
0.62
55
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.84
0.80
0.76
0.72
0.68
0.64
0.60
60
1.00
0.96
0.92
0.88
0.83
0.79
0.75
0.71
0.67
0.63
0.58
65
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
110
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
0.43
0.36
0.29
120
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
0.50
0.42
0.33
0.25
0.17
130
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
0.60
0.50
0.40
0.30
0.20
0.10
140
1.00
0.88
0.75
0.63
0.50
0.38
0.25
0.13
150
1.00
0.83
0.67
0.50
0.33
0.17
160
1.00
0.75
0.50
0.25
10
Domestic W
Water
Table 1.1 (M) Hot Water Multiplier, P

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
10
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
13
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
16
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.70
18
1.00
0.89
0.78
0.67

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
10
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
13
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
16
1.00
0.92
0.83
0.75
0.67
0.58
18
1.00
0.91
0.82
0.73
0.64
0.55

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)

54
52
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
10
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
13
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
16
1.00
0.93
0.86
0.79
0.71
0.64
0.57
0.50
18
1.00
0.92
0.85
0.77
0.69
0.62
0.54
0.46
(Continued)
ater Heating
Water
11

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)

60
58
54
52
49
46
43
41
38
35
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
10
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
13
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
16
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.81
0.75
0.69
0.63
0.56
0.50
0.44
18
1.00
0.93
0.87
0.80
0.73
0.67
0.60
0.53
0.47
0.40

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)

66
63
60
58
54
52
49
46
43
41
38
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
10
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
13
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
16
1.00
0.94
0.89
0.83
0.78
0.72
0.67
0.61
0.56
0.50
0.44
18
1.00
0.94
0.88
0.82
0.76
0.71
0.65
0.59
0.53
0.47
0.41

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)

71
68
66
63
60
58
54
52
49
46
43
1.00
0.96
0.91
0.87
0.83
0.78
0.74
0.70
0.65
0.61
0.57
10
1.00
0.95
0.91
0.86
0.82
0.77
0.73
0.68
0.64
0.59
0.55
13
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.86
0.81
0.76
0.71
0.67
0.62
0.57
0.52
16
1.00
0.95
0.90
0.85
0.80
0.75
0.70
0.65
0.60
0.55
0.50
18
1.00
0.95
0.89
0.84
0.79
0.74
0.68
0.63
0.58
0.53
0.47
(Continued)
12
Domestic W
Water

Tc, CW
Temp. (C)
7
10
13
16
18
43
49
54
60
66
71

82
79
77
74
71
68
66
63
60
58
54
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.96
0.93
0.92
0.90
0.88
0.83
0.75
0.93
0.92
0.92
0.92
0.91
0.86
0.83
0.80
0.75
0.67
0.50
0.89
0.88
0.88
0.88
0.87
0.79
0.75
0.70
0.63
0.50
0.25
0.85
0.85
0.84
0.83
0.83
0.71
0.67
0.60
0.50
0.33
0.81
0.81
0.80
0.79
0.78
0.64
0.58
0.50
0.38
0.17
0.78
0.77
0.76
0.75
0.74
0.57
0.50
0.40
0.25
0.74
0.73
0.72
0.71
0.70
0.50
0.42
0.30
0.13
0.70
0.69
0.68
0.67
0.65
0.43
0.33
0.20
0.67
0.65
0.64
0.63
0.61
0.36
0.25
0.10
0.63
0.62
0.60
0.58
0.57
0.29
0.17
DELIVERED HOT WATER TEMPERATURE

The generally accepted delivered hot water temperatures for various
plumbing fixtures and equipment are given in Table 1.2. Both
temperature and pressure should be verified with the client and
checked against local codes and the manuals of equipment used.

for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Use
Lavatory
Showers and tubs
Final rinse
Final rinse
Rinse
Temp. (F)
105
110
140180
140
150
180195
160
180195
165
140
75
ater Heating
Water
13
Table 1.2 (M) Typical Delivered Hot Water

Temperatures for Plumbing Fixtures and Equipment
Use
Lavatory
Showers and tubs
Final rinse
Final rinse
Rinse
Temp. (C)
41
43
6082
60
66
8291
71
8291
74
60
24
SAFETY AND HEALTH CONCERNS

Scalding2
A research project by Moritz and Henriques at Harvard Medical
College3 looked at the relationship between time and water temperature necessary to produce a first-degree burn. A first-degree
burn, the least serious type, results in no irreversible damage.
The results of the research show that it takes a 3-sec exposure to
140F (60C) water to produce a first-degree burn. At 130F (54C),
it takes approximately 20 sec, and at 120F (49C), it takes 8 min
to produce a first-degree burn.
The normal threshold of pain is approximately 118F (48C).
A person exposed to 120F (49C) water would immediately experience discomfort; it is unlikely then that the person would be
exposed for the 8 min required to produce a first-degree burn.
People in some occupancies (e. g., hospitals) as well as those over
2For more information regarding Scalding, refer to ASPE Research Foundation.

1989. Temperature limits in service hot water systems. Journal of Environmental
Health. (June): 3848.
3Moritz, A. R., and Henriques, F. C., Jr. 1947. The relative importance of time and
surface temperature in the causation of cutaneous burns. American Journal of
Pathology. 23: 695720.
14
Domestic W
Water
the age of 65 and under the age of 1 may not sense pain or move
quickly enough to avoid a burn once pain is sensed. If such a
possibility exists, scalding protection should be considered. It is
often required by code. (For more information on skin damage
caused by exposure to hot water, see Table 1.3.)

Producing Skin Damage
Water Temperature
F
Over 140
140
135
130
125
120
C
Over 60
60
58
54
52
49
Time (sec)
Less than 1
2.6
5.5
15
50
290
Source: Tom Byrley. 1979. 130 degrees F or 140 degrees F. Contractor Magazine.
(September). First published in American Journal of Pathology.
Note: The above data indicate conditions producing the first evidence of skin damage in adult males.

Legionnaires disease is a potentially fatal respiratory illness. The
disease gained notoriety when a number of American Legionnaires contracted it during a convention. That outbreak was
attributed to the water vapor from the buildings cooling tower(s).
The bacteria that cause Legionnaires disease are widespread in
natural sources of water, including rivers, lakes, streams, and
ponds. In warm water, the bacteria can grow and multiply to
high concentrations. Drinking water containing the Legionella
bacteria has no known effects. However, inhalation of the bacteria into the lungs, e.g., while showering, can cause Legionnaires
disease. Much has been published about this problem, and yet
there is still controversy over the exact temperatures that foster
the growth of the bacteria. Further research is required, for there
is still much to be learned. It is incumbent upon designers to
familiarize themselves with the latest information on the subject
and to take it into account when designing their systems. Designers also must be familiar with and abide by the rules of all
regulating agencies with jurisdiction.
ater Heating
Water
15
RELIEF VALVES
Water heating systems should be protected from excessive temperatures and pressures by relief valves. Temperature and
pressure relief valves are available either separately or combined.
Typically they are tested to comply with the standards of the
American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), the American Gas Association (AGA), or the National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Inspectors (NBBPVI) and are so labeled. The designer should verify which agencys standards are applicable to
the water heating system being designed and follow those standards for the sizes, types, and locations of required relief valves.
THERMAL EXPANSION
Water expands as it is heated, and some way to allow for this
expansion should be provided in a domestic hot water system.
Use of a thermal expansion tank in the cold water piping to the
water heater will do this. It is recommended that the designer
contact the manufacturer of the thermal expansion tank for information on installation and sizing. The plumbing code requires
some type of thermal expansion compensationexpecially when
there is either a backflow prevention device on the cold water
service to the building or a check valve in the system.
CONTROLS
The control components for water heaters differ depending on the
type of heater and the manufacturer. Generally, water heater controls should be checked with the equipment manufacturer. Also,
the various regulatory and testing agencies have requirements for
controls that depend on the size and type of equipment used.
STORAGE AND RECOVERY

The design of a domestic water heating system begins with estimating the facilitys load profile and identifying the peak demand
times. To accomplish these steps, the designer must conduct
discussions with the users of the space, determine the building
type, and learn of any owner requirements. The information thus
gathered will establish the required capacity of the water heating
equipment and the general type of system to be used. With fuel
16
Domestic W
Water
fired equipment, to avoid condensation, the equipment and the

operating temperature should be selected to ensure that the
heaters operating temperature is not lower than the dewpoint
temperature of the flue gas.
Stratification
There is a natural tendency of warm water to rise to the top of a
storage tank. The result of this rising action, known as stratification, occurs in all unrecirculated tanks. It has been found
that the percent useable storage volume in stratified horizontal
and vertical tanks has a range of 6575% to 8090%, respectively. Not all tanks are created equal; the percent usable storage
volume can be affected by such items as the flow rates, the points
of connection, tank capacity and by tank recirculation systems.
Stratification during recovery periods can be reduced significantly by mechanical circulation of the water in the tank. During
periods of demand, however, it is useful to have good stratification since this increases the availability of water at a usable
temperature. If, for example, a tank were stratified with the top
half at 140F (60C) and the bottom half at 40F (4C), this tank,
in theory, could still deliver half its volume at 140F (60C). But,
if the two layers were completely mixed, the tank temperature
would drop to 90F (32C), which, in most cases, is an unusable
temperature.
CODES AND STANDARDS

The need to conform to various codes and standards determines
many aspects of the design of a domestic hot water system as
well as the selection of components and equipment.
Some of the most often used codes and standards are:
1. Regional, state, and local plumbing codes.
2. American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE)/IES 90.1.
3. ASME code for fired and unfired pressure vessels.
4. ASME and AGA codes for relief valves.
5. Underwriters Laboratories (UL) listing for electrical components.
6. National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) listing.
7. AGA approval for gas burning components.
ater Heating
Water
17
8. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards.

9. National Electrical Code (NEC).
In addition, the federal government, the agencies with jurisdiction over public schools and public housing, and many other
agencies have specific requirements that must be observed when
designing projects and selecting equipment for them.
SYSTEM ALTERNATIVE CONSIDERATIONS

The design and selection of water heating systems are part of a
process that involves assumptions, decisions, and trade-offs.
The general organization of this manual separates application
considerations and load determinations (Section I) from the selection of equipment (Section II). While this is possible for most
conventional water heating systems, it does not yield the optimum
solution for many advanced, high-efficiency water heating systems.
These systems include refrigerant-based systems like heat pump
water heaters; refrigeration heat reclaim systems; and multifunction, full-condensing equipment. These and other systems like solar
water heaters have a higher cost per unit of heating capacity than
most conventional systems. Often the most cost-effective configuration for these systems tends to use higher storage volumes and
lower heating rates than those recommended in the following chapters. These systems are frequently configured as hybrid systems,
combining both an advanced high-efficiency system as the primary,
base-loaded water heater and a conventional water heater for peaking or supplemental water heating.
Advanced, high-efficiency systems may offer significant benefits; however, their design and selection is necessarily more
detailed. The seasonal and instantaneous efficiency and output
of these systems vary greatly with operating conditions. Because
they are not selected to meet the peak water heating load, load
calculations must address not simply the peak but the water
heating load shape. Their higher cost per unit of heating capacity
as compared to most conventional systems places a higher premium on accurate load determination since oversizing has a more
marked effect on system cost. Other considerations such as a
buildings cooling load or waste heat availability may also come
into play. The capacities of these systems and any related supplemental water heating equipment should be selected to achieve
high average daily run time and the lowest combination of operating and equipment cost.
Multifamily Buildings
19
MULTIFAMILY
BUILDINGS
INTRODUCTION
When selecting and sizing domestic water heaters for multifamily buildings, the designer must take into consideration the
variables affecting hot water demand that are unique to each
particular project. (Note: Certain government agencies have their
own design criteria, which must be strictly followed.)
Demand is a function of the anticipated hot water usage of
the occupants of a particular building during the period being
considered. It is affected by the population of a project as well as
the behavioral patterns of those occupants and the amenities
offered them.
Note that the design guidelines in this chapter are based on a
large amount of monitored data from occupied buildings, which
was collected during recent research efforts.
BACKGROUND
In order to design a domestic hot water (DHW) system for multifamily buildings properly it is useful to understand the
consumption and demand patterns of this type of occupancy.
Weekday Vs. Weekend Demand Patterns

The weekday vs. weekend comparison of DHW, in gallons (liters),
consumed in buildings reveals that there are generally a slightly
higher total consumption and a greater peak demand on weekNote: All decimal equivalencies in the metric calculations are rounded. Therefore,
20
Domestic W
Water
ends (Saturday and Sunday) than on weekdays (Monday through

Friday). This phenomenon is true in all seasons. The average
weekend day consumption is 7.5% greater than the average weekday level. (Refer to Figure 2.1.) Peak demand times are also found
to vary from weekdays to weekends. This is a function of the
standard nine-to-five workday. Therefore, the weekend will be
used as the highest demand period.
Weekday vs. Weekend Consumption

Gallons (Liters) per Capita, Composite
Figure 2.1
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project, pp. 46.
Seasonal Demand Patterns

Multifamily buildings have distinct seasonal variations in DHW
demand levels. Since demand must be calculated using a worstcase scenario, and weekend consumption is known to be greater
for multifamily buildings than weekday consumption, the effect
of the seasonal influence is best seen in terms of weekend consumption. Figure 2.2 indicates that DHW demand is greater in
winter than in any other season, the obvious explanations being
that people take warmer showers in the winter and cooler ones
21
Seasonal Variations, Weekend Consumption

Gallons (Liters) per Capita
Figure 2.2
Source: Goldner and Price 1994, p. 2.107.
in the summer and that (particularly in colder climates) the cold

water to be mixed down is considerably cooler in winter and requires greater volumes of DHW. The variance can account for as
much as a 45% reduction in demand from winter to summer.
Using summer as the base consumption, daily average consumption rises by 10% in the fall then goes up 13% more
(compounded) during the winter period. Consumption then falls
by 1% (compounded) in the spring and falls another 19% (compounded) during the summer period (e.g., 100 gal 1.10 1.13
0.99 0.81 = 99.7 gal). (The spring consumption is comparably higher than fall consumption, due in large part to considerably
colder inlet water temperatures in spring.)
Demand Flow Patterns

There is a distinct difference between weekday and weekend DHW
demand patterns. Weekdays have minimal overnight usage, then
a morning peak, followed by lower afternoon demand and then
22
Domestic W
Water
an evening or nighttime peak. Weekend days have just one major

peak, which begins later in the morning and continues until
around 1:00 to 2:00 P.M. Usage then tapers off for the rest of the
day. Examination of the composite weekday and weekend graphs
illustrates that the weekend day peak is greater than any of the
weekday peaks.
In the composite weekday curve (Figure 2.1), two morning
peaks can be observed, the first between 6:00 and 8:00 A.M. and
the second between 9:30 A.M. and noon. It is possible to observe, by studying individual buildings, that particular sites fall
into one or the other of these two peaks. Some general knowledge of the tenant populations may serve to explain this difference.
Buildings occupied by large numbers of working tenants and
middle-income populations appear to have the early morning peak;
buildings with large percentages of children fall into the later
morning peak (especially so during the summer period). Figures
2.2 and 2.3 clearly illustrate the seasonal variation in both the
Seasonal Variations, Weekend Consumption

Gallons (Liters) per Capita
Figure 2.3
Source: Goldner and Price 1994.
23
usage patterns and consumption levels for summer, fall, winter,

and spring. Note that the highest-peaking level occurs during
winter weekends.
IDENTIFICATION OF DEMAND
The first step the designer must take in calculating demand is to
determine the demographic profile of the project and building
occupants. Different types of building occupants have been found
to have fairly predictable patterns of hot water consumption. Users can be divided into three categorieslow, medium, and
high-volume water consumers (LMH)as a function of the building and occupant demographics. Table 2.1 shows a variety of
occupant characteristics. One or some combination of these
should closely describe any particular multifamily building. For
example, a luxury condominium in an area inhabited predominantly by young couples will tend to fall into the all occupants
work category of low anticipated water consumption. By contrast, a low-income housing project will generally fall somewhere
between the low-income and no occupants work categories of
high-volume water consumption. Keep in mind that the presence
of an abundance of hot water consuming appliances, such as
washing machines or dishwashers, tends to increase hot water
consumption. Therefore, if the condominium in the above example intended or allowed for the future installation of a washing
machine in each unit, its demographic category should be raised
from low to medium. It is up to the designer to ask the necessary
questions of the developer, architect, or building manager in order to determine this category. Remember, in the face of
uncertainty, be conservative.
It is important to note that Table 2.1 represents a graduated
scale of residents use of DHW. Quite often a building is occupied
by people from more than one of the demographic categories given
in this table. In such a case, the designer should weight the
demographic breakdown to select a low, medium, or high factor.
After some experience with this methodology, the designer may
decide that some buildings fall between groupings and select a medium-high or low-medium category. In such instances, the
designer can extrapolate from the values in Table 2.2.
The characteristic high population density in Table 2.1 is
sometimes overlookedand it shouldnt be. This characteristic
is important in the selection of the LMH factor and, thus, in system sizing. Even though a buildings other demographic factors
24
Domestic W
Water
might place it in a higher LMH factor category, the existence of a

high population density means a relatively lower factor (see Table
2.1). This factor must be weighted along with the other building
characteristics when choosing the sites other LMH factor. High
population density is a low factor because the number of end use
appliances (e.g., showers and faucets) are unaffected by the number of occupants in an apartment. A higher population density
will also result in a diversity effect.
Table 2.1 Occupant Demographic Characteristics

Demographic Characteristics
No occupants work (stay at home)
Public assistance and low income (mix)
Family and single-parent households (mix)
High percentage of children
Low income
Families
Public assistance
Singles
Single-parent households
Couples
High population density
Middle income
Seniors
One person works, 1 stays home
All occupants work
LMH Factor
High
Medium
Low
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project.
DEMAND DETERMINATION
Once the LMH factor has been determined, values for hot water
demand and consumption can be selected from Table 2.2. Thus,
anticipated consumption values can be determined using the
known building population for intervals of 5 min, 15 min, 30
min, 1 h, 2 h, and 3 h. These values will be used later in selecting
and sizing domestic hot water equipment.
25
Table 2.2 Low, Medium, and High Guidelines:

Hot Water Demands and Use for
Peak 5 Min,
gal (L)/person
Peak 15 Min,
gal (L)/person
Peak 30 Min,
gal (L)/person
Maximum H,
gal (L)/person
Low
0.4 (1.5 )
1.0 (4.0)
1.7 (6.5)
2.8 (10.5)
Medium
0.7 (2.6)
1.7 (6.4)
2.9 (11.0)
4.8 (18.0)
High
1.2 (4.5)
3.0 (11.5)
5.1(19.5)
8.5 (32.5)
Maximum 2 H,
gal (L)/person
Maximum 3 H,
gal (L)/person
Low
4.5 (17.0)
6.1 (23.0)
20.0 (76.0)
14.0 (54.0)
Medium
8.0 (31.0)
11.0 (41.0)
49.0 (185.0)
30.0 (113.6)
14.5 (55.0)
19.0 (72.0)
90.0 (340.0)
54.0 (205.0)
High
Maximum Day,
gal (L)/person
Average Day,
gal (L)/person
Source: Goldner and Price 1994.

Note: These volumes are for DHW delivered to the tap at 120F (49C).
Both research and practical experience in different areas of

North America indicate that there are geographical variances in
DHW use. There is, however, no distinct pattern that can be identified with the available data.
Note that the figures presented (in Table 2.2) are for central
systems. Individual apartment water heater systems are likely to
have lower levels of consumption. This is because individual apartment units generally are set up as pay-as-you-go systems (with
the occupant paying directly for the energy used by the heater).
While there are no hard data on DHW systems on this issue,
there are numerous well-documented studies of other energy uses
that demonstrate that, once an apartment occupant has to pay
for what he or she uses, consumption decreases. In fact, studies
of conversions from electrical master metering to submetering in
multifamily buildings have shown that consumption decreases
between 20 and 30% when people must pay for what they use.1
The practice of defensive oversizing applied to the guidelines
given in Table 2.2 will only exaggerate the capital and energy
inefficiencies experienced in the past. It is therefore important
for the designer to recognize the inherent safety nets in the LMH
approach. First, and most important, we are using a buildings
1Hirschfeld, H.E., et al. 1996. Facilitating submetering implementation. Report
No. 96-7. Prepared for New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.
26
Domestic W
Water
maximum probable occupancy, which may never actually occur.

Second, we are designing a system with the capabilities to satisfy
the higher volume, short duration (near instantaneous) peaks
(as delineated in Table 2.2), which in reality only occur a limited
number of times during the year. Even if the system were not
able to satisfy those loads, the result would be occupants experiencing slightly lower-temperature hot water at their taps for some
short duration of time.
APPLICATION OF LMH VALUES

Once a portion of the range has been selected, the figures should
be converted into per apartment or per building gallonage (liter
usage) by multiplying them with maximum probable occupancy
levels, based on persons per apartment size/type. For example,
studios = 2 persons, 1-bedroom apartments = 3 persons, and 2bedroom apartments = 35 persons. These populations may be
dependent on local standards or regulations. Additionally, in order to calculate building energy consumption for DHW or to
prepare energy budgets, the average daily figures can be converted into per apartment or per building gallonage (liter usage)
by multiplying them with existing building occupancies.
PEAK DEMAND VS. AVERAGE DEMAND

Potential of Generating Storage
Figure 2.4 illustrates the actual consumption curve of a sample
building. The bottom line, 0.75 gal (2.84 L) represents average
consumption (for a 15-min period, the period for which all data
are taken). This is equivalent to leveling the buildings DHW consumption across the entire day. Under one possible scenario, the
buildings DHW needs would be met by generating storage during low-consumption periods (represented by the white areas
under the line), which would be used during peak times. The
other two lines illustrate levels of 10 and 25% excess capacity,
respectively.
Time of Day of Peak Flows

While flow curves show the general usage patterns of a building,
peak times and flows are used to identify demands on the boiler
or hot water heater more closely. Maximum 5, 15, 60, 120, and
27
Storage Potential Bldg 7 (Fall)

Gallons (Liters) per Occupied Apt. Weekday
Figure 2.4 Consumption curve.
180-min demand times occur essentially coincidentally during

both the weekend and weekday peaks. The concurrence of these
peaks justifies the use of the longer duration peak consumption
levels for storage models. The most frequent minimum 60-min
consumption periods occur at 4:00 A.M. on both weekdays and
weekend days. This demand period data should be used when
evaluating DHW system sizing and storage options.
Peak Demand and Average Demand

Five, 15, 60, 120, and 180-min maximum demand and hourly
average consumption figures may be used to examine peak demand needs in contrast to total volume (average) consumption.
This type of analysis is useful in setting new system design and
sizing parameters and evaluating a mix of instantaneous generation and storage options. Monitored studies have revealed that,
in comparison to use in a maximum 60-min period, average hourly
28
Domestic W
Water
consumption is only 42% of peak consumption. This suggests

the possibility of generating storage capacity to meet peak demand during the hours of the day with below average demand.
Comparison of the 5 and 15-min peak periods demonstrates that
the highest (5-min) peak requires 40% of the DHW consumed
within the peak 15 min. Review of the 15 and 60-min peak periods reveals that the highest (15-min) peak is equal to one third of
the DHW consumed in the peak hour. Finally, there is slightly
(27%) more DHW consumed in the average hour than in the highest 15-min period of the day; this again makes a case for some
type of off-peak generation and storage strategy.2
Figure 2.5 illustrates that consumption during the peak
60-min period is 61% of consumption during the maximum
120-min period and that the volume of DHW used to satisfy the
120-min maximum demand is 75% of what is needed during
the peak 180-min span. In Figures 2.6 and 2.7 we can see how
all of the peak volumes contribute to the 1-h and 3-h peak demand on the DHW generation and/or storage system. These
relationships can be used to model various configurations of hot
water supply system. As noted earlier, all these peak consumption demands occur concurrently and must be considered in the
context of overall consumption patterns to further evaluate generation and storage options.
RETROFIT TO EXISTING SYSTEMS

(CUSTOMIZED SIZING)
If customizing is desired for an existing building, to select the
most appropriate system sizing levels it would be ideal to monitor the current consumption for a short period. Research suggests
that the best time to conduct this monitoring in multifamily housing applications is during a series of anticipated winter weekend
peak periods. The design engineer should focus on and identify
the 2 to 3-h peak periods that generally occur between 10:00
A.M. and 2:00 P.M. A system designed to meet these demands
should satisfy all other year-round requirements. If this is not
possible or practical, use the guidelines in Table 2.2. The designer should consult with the owner to determine if there have
been problems with the current system.
2Goldner and Price 1994.
29
Comparison of DHW Peak Consumption

Gallons (Liters) per Capita, Winter
Figure 2.5
Source: Goldner 1994, DHW system sizing criteria for multifamily buildings.
Parts of 3-Hour DHW Peak Consumption

Figure 2.6
Source: Goldner 1994, Energy use and DHW consumption research project, pp. 420.
30
Domestic W
Water
Parts of Peak 60 Minutes DHW Consumption

Figure 2.7
Source: Goldner and Price 1994, p. 2.110.
Research on Generation Rate and Storage Capacity

Recent research3 reveals that the most cost-efficient designs for
conventional water heating equipment in multifamily buildings
are based on either the 30/3 guideline (systems with generators and storage tanks) or the 5-min peak demand (instantaneous
systems). (If other advanced technologies that were not included
in the investigation are utilized, the 30/3 or 5-min peak demand
guidelines may not be appropriate. For example, hybrid systems,
combining both a conventional peaking water heating capability with a baseload advanced high-efficency system, would tend
to use more storage and have lower heating rates.) According to
the 30/3 guideline, generator size is based on the peak 30-min
demand and storage tank volume is based on the maximum 3-h
demand. The research indicates that selection of either an instantaneous hot water heater or a separate DHW boiler and
unfired storage tank configuration will produce the optimum mix
of low life cycle costs and high energy efficiencies.
The optimum configurations were found to be as follows:
1. For small to midsized buildings (up to 80 apartments), either a
separate DHW boiler with tank system sized to the 30/3 guideline, or an instantaneous system (based on the peak 5-min
demand).
3Goldner and Price 1996.
31
2. For mid to large-sized buildings (>75 apartments) and large

buildings (100+ apartments), which fall toward the upper end
of the LMH classification scale (i.e., toward the high category), an instantaneous system.
3. For buildings with more than 125 apartments, a diversification factor that lowers the probability of coincident demand
should also be employed.
EXAMPLES
Example 2.1 Traditional Multifamily Building
Consider a 58-unit apartment building where occupants are a
mix of families, singles, and middle-income couples and most of
the adults work. There is a public laundry in the basement with
a few washers, and the leases prohibit both washing machines
and dishwashers in the apartments (although conversations with
the owner confirm that a moderate number of people have such
appliances).
Step 1
Compute the maximum probable occupancy based on local
standards/expectations and conversations with the building
owner, manager, or architect.
For example, multiply the number of 3-bedroom apartments (4) by the maximum number of persons in each
apartment (5) to determine the total number of persons (20).
This is then added to the resultant sum from all the other
apartment sizes, as follows.
Apt. Size
Maximum No.
Persons/Apt.
No. of Apts.
3-bedroom apts.
2-bedroom apts.
1-bedroom apts.
Studios
Building total (rounded)
4
14
25
15
5
4
3.5
2.25
=
=
=
=
20
56
87.5
33.75
198
persons
Note: The designer needs to determine the optimum usage and occupancy of
the facility. For example, in some facilities, the demographic profile may require using 3, 4, or 7 occupants per 3-bedroom apartment.
32
Domestic W
Water
Step 2
Determine the low, medium, or high usage factor (demographic
profile) of the project and building occupants from Table 2.1,
based on knowledge of the building, conversations with the
building owner, and observations. Consider the effect of either currently installed or possible future additions of
appliances (e.g., washers), which might move a building to a
higher usage category.
Based on the information above, the medium usage factor is selected.
Step 3
Estimate the DHW consumption. To estimate how much hot
water is used in a building for energy consumption or savings calculations, use the LMH factor and the average day
hot water value in Table 2.2 (LMH guidelines). If the building
is existing, substitute the maximum probable occupancy from
Step 1 with the actual current (or estimated) occupancy level.
Current
LMH
No. of
Demand
System
Factor
People
Category
Load
Medium
153
Average day:
30.0 gal/capita = 4590 gal/day
(113.55 L/capita)
(17 373.15
L/day)
Step 4
Size the equipment. Follow Steps A and B, below, for either
Instantaneous Systems or Generation and Storage Systems, depending on the equipment used.
Instantaneous systems
For either an instantaneous, DHW-only system or a tankless coil
in a combination heating DHW boiler, follow the two steps below.
First find the system load in gallons per hour (gph) (liters per
hour [L/h]) based on the peak 5-min demand. Next, convert this
to a Btu/h (kJ/h) rating. This can then be used to select equipment.
33
Step A
Compute the system load using the LMH factor and the 5-min
peak demand values in Table 2.2 (LMH guidelines).
LMH
Factor
Peak No.
of People
No.
Periods/
H
Demand
Category
Peak 5 min:
198 0.7 gal/capita
12 =
(2.65 L/capita)
Medium
System
Load
1663 gph
or 27 gpm
(6294.46 L/h
or 1.75 L/sec)
Step B
Convert the system load to a Btu/h (kJ/h) rating.
System Conversion
Load
1663
gph
(6.30
m3/h)
8.33
lb/gal
(4188.32
kJ/m3)
Temp.
Rise
1/Boiler
Efficiencya
90F
(50K)
1 =
0.8
Heater
Input
1,558,439
Btu/h
(1 649 151
kJ/h)
aThe efficiency can be represented as either a decimal (as shown) or a

percentage, e.g., 80%.
Instantaneous DHW-only heater

If sizing an instantaneous DHW-only heater, the 1,558,439
Btu/h (1 649 151 kJ/h) should be the size of the DHW heater.
(Note: A higher efficiency should be used for sizing an instantaneous heater; use 85% or the efficiency specified in the
equipment documentation.)
Combination heating/DHW boiler
When sizing the tankless coil of a combination heating/DHW
boiler, the calculated recovery rate is used to size the coil.
The additional load capacity for the DHW system must be
added to the space heating load to select the size of the combination space heating/domestic hot water boiler.
34
Domestic W
Water
Generation and storage systems

For a system with a mix of generation and storage, use the following two steps: Calculate the generator size based on twice the
peak 30-min period to get a Btu/h (kJ/h) rating, then calculate
the storage tank volume based on the maximum 3-h demand.
Step A
Compute the system load using the peak 30-min and maximum 3-h hot water values in Table 2.2.
LMH
Factor
No.
People
Medium 198
LMH
Factor
Medium
Peak 30 min:
2.9 gal/capita
(10.98 L/capita)
No.
People
198
No.
Periods/
H
Demand
Category
1148 gph
(4348.08 L/h)
Demand
Category
Maximum 3 h:
11.0 gal/capita =
(41.64 L/capita)
System
Load
Storage
Volume
2178 gal
(8244.73 L)
Step B
Convert the load into equipment ratings.
System
Load Conversion
1148 8.33
gph
lb/gal
(4.35
(4188.32
m3/h)
kJ/m3)
Temp.
Rise
90F
(50K)
1/Boiler
Efficiencya
1 =
0.80
Heater
Input
1,075,820
Btu/h
(1 017 362
kJ/h)
aThe efficiency can be represented as either a decimal (as shown) or a per-
centage, e.g., 80%.
The 1,075,820 Btu/h (1 017 362 kJ/h) is the size of the

hot water heater. This heater should then be used to supply
2100 gal (7948.50 L) in unfired storage tanks.
35
Example 2.2 Special Use Housing Facility

There is a residential building in New York City that houses the
families of children who have cancer and are receiving treatment
at area hospitals. There are 88 residential studios, each with a
single bath. There are 18 kitchen units, which are centrally located
for shared use by the families. Each unit has a sink and
dishwasher. There is a washing machine on each of the occupied
floors. The families who occupy this residence do so because they
cannot afford to stay in more expensive accommodations. Often,
a child is accompanied by a single parent and together they occupy
one studio for the duration of the treatment program.
Calculate the 5-min, 15-min, 30-min, 1-h, 2-h, and 3-h consumption. Plot the demand vs. time curve.
Solution
Since this demographic group includes occupants who presently
do not work (they are away from home) and has a high percentage
of children, it definitely falls into the high demand category
according to Table 2.1. There are 88 units with 2 occupants per
unit, so the total population is 176 people. According to Table
2.2 the 5-min peak, 15-min peak, 30-min peak, 1-h peak, 2-h
peak, and 3-h peak demand factors are 1.2, 3.0, 5.1, 8.5, 14.5,
and 19 gal (4.5, 11.4, 19.3, 32.2, 54.9, and 71.9 L), respectively.
Therefore, the anticipated demand is as follows:
Demand
Category
5-min peak
15-min peak
30-min peak
1-h peak
2-h peak
3-h peak
Demand
Category
5-min peak
15-min peak
30-min peak
1-h peak
2-h peak
3-h peak
No.
People
176
176
176
176
176
176
Demand
Factor (gal)
No.
People
176
176
176
176
176
176
1.2
3.0
5.1
8.5
14.5
19
Demand
(gal)
=
=
=
=
=
=
Demand
Factor (L)
4.5
11.4
19.3
32.2
54.9
71.9
211
528
898
1496
2552
3344
Demand
(L)
=
=
=
=
=
=
792
2 006.4
3 396.8
5 667.2
9 662.4
12 654.4
36
Domestic W
Water
The equipment selected must be capable of supplying this

peak load (see Figure 2.8) by means of either combined storage
(first draw) capacity and recovery or instantaneous generation.
POSSIBLE TRAPS
In order to avoid falling into a trap that leads to miscalculating
water demand, the designer must try to learn all of the unique
facets of a multifamily building. This is generally accomplished
by compiling a list of questions for the owner/manager/architect
during a project brainstorming session. Does the building have a
central laundry? If so, the designer should select the next higher
LMH value than otherwise would have been selected. Does the
building have retail spaces that might be used in the future for a
restaurant or other large water consuming application? If so, will
the building be obligated by lease to provide hot water for the
tenant? Would such a provision be a desirable selling point for
the retail space to the owner? The demand will then have to be
increased accordingly. For large restaurants or laundries, the
Peak Demand Curve
Figure 2.8
Source: Goldner and Price 1996, p. 8.
37
resulting flow should be added to the buildings demand. Do tenants pay for the utilities used to generate hot water? If so, hot
water consumption might decrease. Do water conserving laws
that restrict water flow exist in the area (as they do in New York)?
Or is there an abundance of water in the area (such as there is in
Chicago) with showers allowed to flow more water? (The designer
should review local codes concerning water conservation requirements that may impact the hot water demand.) Is this a building
with European occupants who tend to bathe rather than shower?
(Bathing is believed to consume considerably more water than
showering.) This is the sort of creative thinking required to accurately gauge water demand. Remember one thing especially: People
never complain about having too much hot water, but we do not
want to oversize the equipment as this saddles the owner/operator with both increased initial equipment costs (resulting from
larger-than-necessary equipment) and higher annual energy/operating costs (resulting from lower, seasonal efficiencies due to
increased cycling of equipment operating farther from full load).
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Carpenter, S. C., and J. P. Kokko. 1988. Estimating hot water use in
existing commercial buildings. ASHRAE Transactions. 94(2): 312.
Ciz, J. B. 1986. Performance of domestic hot water systems in five apartment buildings (Part IInstallation and commissioning). OHRD Rpt.
8677K.
Decioco, J., and G. Dutt. 1986. Domestic hot water service in Lumley
Homes: A comparison of energy audit diagnosis with instrumented
analysis. Proceedings of the 1986 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy
Efficiency in Buildings.
Goldner, F. S. 1994. DHW system sizing criteria for multifamily buildings. ASHRAE Transactions. 100(1): 147165.
Goldner, F. S. 1994. Energy use and DHW consumption research project:
Final reportPhase 1. Report no. 9419. Prepared for New York State
Energy Research and Development Authority.
Goldner, F. S., and D. C. Price. 1994. Domestic hot water loads, system sizing and selection for multifamily buildings. Proceedings of
the 1994 ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings.
Goldner, F. S., and D. C. Price. 1996. DHW modeling: System sizing
and selection criteria, Phase 2Interim project report no. 1. Prepared
for New York State Energy Research and Development Authority.
Milligan, N. H. 1987. Performance of domestic hot water systems in five
38
Domestic W
Water
apartment buildings, Part IIAnalysis and results. OHRD report

8753K.
Pearlman, M., and N. H. Milligan. 1988. Hot water and energy use in
apartment buildings. ASHRAE Transactions. Vol. 94, Pt. 1.
Taylor, H., and F. Force. 1986. Patterns of domestic hot water
consumption for a multifamily building. Proceedings of the 1986
ACEEE Summer Study on Energy Efficiency in Buildings.
Thrasher, W. H., and D. W. DeWerth. 1993. Comparison of collected
and compiled existing data on service hot water use patterns in
residential and commercial establishmentsPhase II final report.
American Gas Association Laboratories, ASHRAE research project
600RP.
Vine, E., R. Diamond, and R. Szydlowski. 1987. Domestic hot water
consumption in four low income apartment buildings. Energy. Vol.
12, No. 6.
Werden, R. G., and L. G. Spielvogel. 1969. Sizing of service water heating
equipment in commercial and institutional buildings. Report No. 2,
Project RP61. New York: Edison Electric Institute.
Dor
mitories
Dormitories
39
DORMITORIES
INTRODUCTION
This chapter covers two types of buildings classified as dormitories. The first type is a student dormitory or similar housing that
has a nonstructured use of hot water. The second type is an
institutional type dormitory, similar to that at a military school,
that has a structured hot water use.
STUDENT DORMITORIES
The peak demand for hot water for this type of building is more
spread out. Students tend to create schedules based upon when
their classes are held. Additional hot water demand that could
be anticipated is laundromat type clothes washers and possibly
a residential type kitchen. This type of building tends to have
multistory units.
Example 3.1 Student Dormitory

The dormitory consists of two buildings four stories high joined
by a high-ceiling commons, which encloses a basketball court
and a tennis court. The major sleeping areas are arranged around
156 three-bedroom suites with 60 double rooms and 12 single
bedrooms for resident advisers. Each room and suite has a bathroom and each suite has a kitchen alcove. There are kitchen
alcoves and coin-operated laundry facilities located on each floor.
On the ground floor there are food kiosks and a computer lab.
The buildings have a mirror configuration with half of the suites
40
Domestic W
Water
and rooms in each building. The laundry facility on each floor

consists of two washers and two dryers for a total of eight washers in each building.
Assumptions
1. The food kiosks provide their own water heating when the
spaces are leased out. These food venders are similar to those
found in airports and mall food courts.
2. There is a central mechanical space that serves both buildings where the water heaters and storage tanks are located.
3. A separate circulated hot water system is required for each
building.
4. A minimum of two water heaters are required, with each having 65% of both buildings required capacity. This allows the
building to operate with minimum disruptions if one heater
is down for repairs.
5. As the coin-operated laundry facilities are an integral part of
the building, the hot water required is calculated as part of
the central system.
6. The water distribution temperature used is 120F (49C). Pressure balance or thermostatic shower valves are used at each
bathroom group.
7. The suites have shower/bathtub combinations and the double
and single rooms have only showers. We will use the demand
for showers in our calculation.
8. Each building houses 300 students and advisors.
9. The flow from fixtures is as follows:
Showers = 2.5 gpm (0.158 L/s)
Kitchen sinks = 2.5 gpm (0.158 L/s)
Lavatories = 1.5 gpm (0.095 L/s)
10. An outside laundry service is available to students, and some
students will bring their laundry home. This will reduce the
demand on the coin-operated clothes washers. Laundry detergents today are designed to get clothes clean using only cold
water and many items are recommended to be washed in cold
water. This reduces the demand for hot water for clothes washing. For this application we calculate that each wash cycle will
use no more than 10 gal (37.9 L) for washing and 10 gal (37.9 L)
for rinsing for a total of 20 gal (75.7 L). Each machine is calculated to go through two cycles during the peak design hour.
Dor
mitories
Dormitories
41
11. Students tend to wash dirty dishes on an infrequent basis.

Therefore, the dishwasher load is lumped in with the kitchen
sink by increasing the demand from 10 gph (37.9 L/h) to 15
gph (56.8 L/h).
Fixtures each building
Showers
Suites = 78
Double rooms = 30
Single rooms = 6
Public restrooms
Floor kitchen areas = 4
78
30
6
114
Lavatories
78
30
6
4
118
Kitchen
Sinks
Dishwashers
78
82
78
82
Coin-operated
clothes washers = 8
Mop sinks = 4
Calculations1
Showers
Lavatories
Kitchen sinks
Mop sinks
114 30 gph = 3420 gph

118 2 gph =
236 gph
82 15 gph =
1230 gph
4 20 gph =
80 gph
Gross demand 4966 gph
Demand factor
0.30
1490 gph
Clothes washer: 8 20 gal 2 cycles/h = 320 gph

Heater sizing: 320 gph + 1490 gph = 1810 gph demand
Tank storage: Using a percent useable storage capacity of 80%,
the demand is, thus, 1810 gph 0.80 = 2263 gal.
(Showers
Lavatories
Kitchen sinks
Mop sinks
114 114 L/h = 12 996 L/h

118 7.6 L/h = 896.8 L/h
82 56.8 L/h = 4657.6 L/h
4 75.7 L/h =
302.8 L/h
Gross demand 18 853.2 L/h
Demand factor
0.30
5656 L/h
1 Calculations for showers, lavatories, and mop sinks are based on ASPE Data
Book, looseleaf Chap. 4, Service Hot Water Systems, Table 7.
42
Domestic W
Water
Clothes washer: 8 75.7 L 2 cycles/h = 1211.2 L/h

Heater sizing: 1211.2 L/h + 5656 L/h = 6867.2 L/h demand
Tank storage: Using a percent useable storage capacity of 80%,
the demand is, thus, 6867.2 L/h 0.80 = 8584 L.)
Student dormitory conclusions
1. Remember the calculated demand of 2130 gph is for only
half the building. The total building recovery demand is 4260
gph and 5330 gal storage.
2. The amount of the storage required indicates a separate
water heater and storage tank arrangement.
3. The water heaters should each have a 4260 gph 0.65 =
2970 gph (16 126 L/h 0.65 = 10 482 L/h) recovery.
4. The circulation system shall be arranged in a way that eliminates stratification in the storage tanks.
5. Piping arrangement and valving should be set up to isolate
water heaters for maintenance purposes.
6. The path of access to water heaters should be reviewed to
ensure that it allows replacement in the future.
INSTITUTIONAL DORMITORIES
The hot water requirements for this type of building are based
upon the shower and lavatory use occurring during a very short
period of time because of schedules. Any additional hot water
demand will be from kitchens, dining facilities, and possibly a
laundry. These specialized areas should have a separate water
heating system. (Refer to the chapter Laundries in this manual.)
Note that there will be a short time in the morning (2 h) and that
evening will be longer but less intense (4 to 5 h).
Example 2.2 Institutional Dormitory

The building selected is a two-story coeducational unit with housing for 272 students and advisors. The arrangement is for 68
four-person bedroom groups, each of which will have 1 shower
and 2 lavatories requiring hot water. There will be 30 one-person
advisor bedrooms, each with a shower and lavatory. A parlor
area is provided with a connected residential kitchen area with
separate public toilets. A central kitchen, dining area, and laun-
Dor
mitories
Dormitories
43
dry are provided in a separate building with a separate domestic

water heating system.
Assumptions
1. Shower use will tend to be quick, in and out, with large numbers of people using hot water at the same time.
2. The peak hour usage will be early in the morning and after
5:00 P.M. This allows a long recovery time. The time selected
for this example is 4 h (see note above).
3. The kitchen sink/dishwasher and mop sinks will not be used
during the peak hour.
4. Recovery capacity and 80% of storage will have to meet total
demand.
5. Recommend two water heaters with a capacity of 65% of the
demand calculation.
Calculations
Student showers:
Advisor showers:
Lavatories:
68 heads 7 min
4 persons 2.5 gpm =
4760 gph
30 heads 7 min
2.5 gpm =
525 gph
170 fixtures 2 gph

0.30 usage factor =
102 gph
Total peak hour demand
5285 gph
5285 gph
= 1321 gph minimum recovery
4h
Water heater sizing: 1321 gph 0.65 = 858 gph each heater
Storage tank sizing: 5285 gal 1321 gph = 3964 gal storage
required
(Student showers: 68 heads 7 min
4 persons 0.158 L/sec
60 =
18 050 L/h
Advisor showers:
Lavatories:
30 heads 7 min
0.158 L/sec 60 =
170 fixtures 7.57 L/h
0.30 usage factor =
Total peak hour demand
1991 L/h
386 L/h
20 427 L/h
44
Domestic W
Water
20 427 L/h
= 5107 L/h minimum recovery
4h
Water heater sizing: 5107 L/h 0.65 = 3320 L/h each heater
Storage tank sizing: 20 427 L 3320 L/h = 17 107 L storage
required)
Institutional dormitory conclusions
1. The amount of storage required indicates a separate water
heater and storage tank arrangement.
2. The circulation system shall be arranged in a way that eliminates stratification in the storage tanks.
3. The piping arrangement and valving should be set up to isolate water heaters for maintenance purposes.
4. The path of access to the water heaters should be reviewed to
ensure that it allows replacement in the future.
Elementar
y and Secondar
y Schools
Elementary
Secondary
45
ELEMENTARY
AND SECONDARY
SCHOOLS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for determining the hot water
requirements for elementary and secondary schools.
TYPES OF SCHOOL
The terms elementary and secondary schools cover grades K
through 12. School districts have different ways of grouping
students, especially in the middle years. This middle group may
be known as either junior high school or middle school (see
Table 4.1).
Table 4.1 School Grade Divisions

Grade Level
K
Elementary
Elementary
Elementary
Elementary
Junior high
Middle school
Junior high
10
11
12
Senior high
Senior high
Senior high
Senior high
The name is not important in itself but may be an initial

guide to the types of activity that affect hot water requirements.
46
Domestic W
Water
For example, elementary schools generally do not have showers.

Middle, junior, and senior high schools generally have showers
for gym classes as well as sports teams that use the showers
before and after regular school hours. High schools and middle
schools may also have swimming pools.
The designation of the school may also be a first indication of
the areas of the facility in which to expect hot water requirements. Rooms that usually get hot water, beside the kitchen and
laundry, are the health clinic, teachers workrooms, art room,
teachers lounge, principals toilet, janitors closets, and special
education rooms, which often have showers and washing machines. Science rooms, classrooms, and student toilets are areas
that may have hot water but often do not. Always check with the
user. (See Table 4.2.)
Table 4.2 Potential Areas of Hot Water Usage

Type of School
Area
Elementary
Jr./Middle
High
Classroom toilets
Kitchen
Laundry
Art room
Science room
Health clinic
Teachers lounge
Teachers workroom
Principals toilet
Student toilet rooms
Special ed. room
Showers
Car wash
Shop room
Elementar
y and Secondar
y Schools
Elementary
Secondary
47
INFORMATION GATHERING
The accuracy of the calculated hot water requirements will only
be as good as the accuracy of the information used to determine
the requirements. Therefore, a significant portion of the design
time should be allotted to information gathering and validation.
Sources of information include the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
The architects design documents.

The architect.
School staff.
School district construction personnel.
School district design criteria and manuals.
School district maintenance personnel.
Survey of existing and similar facilities.
Information will be needed to determine:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Which fixtures require hot water.

Kitchen/food service requirements.
Shower requirements.
School population.
After hours requirements.
Hot water temperature requirements.
GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS
The criteria for determining the hot water demand are presented
as if one central system were being designed. In fact, the best
choice may be to use multiple systems. This may be necessitated
by criteria calling for a dedicated kitchen water heater or by isolated small loads.
It is not the intent of this chapter to go into detail about the
selection of water heating equipment or the hot water delivery
system. An initial concept must be established for the purposes
of grouping the load and planning for the location of equipment.
KITCHEN AND FOOD SERVICE

Kitchen requirements, including dishwashers, generally are determined by the owner, the architect, and the kitchen design
48
Domestic W
Water
consultant. A basic consideration is whether the kitchen is a

full-service kitchen or merely a warming or holding kitchen. School
criteria may call for the kitchen to have a separate water heater.
The following should be determined for a full-service kitchen operation:
1. Dishwashing requirements. (Model number and hot water
requirement for the dishwasher.)
2. Rinse and sterilization requirements. If done with 180F (60C)
water, is the booster heater provided at the dishwasher or at
a remote location?
3. Sinks and other kitchen hot water users, such as a can wash,
steamers, and rinse sprays.
4. Hours of operation. Are breakfast and lunch both served?
Does the kitchen operate during evenings or weekends?
5. Is any disposable table service used? This will affect the duration of dishwashing. The dishwasher may be used only for
silverware and trays.
SHOWERS
The shower load is often the most significant hot water requirement in secondary schools and should be carefully evaluated.
The quantity of showers is usually determined by the schools
criteria, the architects design, and code requirements.
Beyond the number of showers, the hot water requirement
can be affected by such things as:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Gym class size and schedule.

Whether students are required to take showers.
Time period available for showers.
What temperature(s) are required.
Maximum flow of shower heads.
Special fixtures in the space (e.g., those for hydrotherapy).
Types of extracurricular activity (sports, etc.).
SCHOOL POPULATION
For new schools, the populationthe total number of students and
staffis usually given in the design criteria for the school. Otherwise, it can be obtained from the school district or the architect or
Elementar
y and Secondar
y Schools
Elementary
Secondary
49
by totaling the number of students allotted to each classroom. If the

water heating system is also to serve the future expansion of the
school, then the future population should be estimated.
CALCULATING THE HOT WATER DEMAND

Hot water demand for schools can be divided into three categories: general purpose, kitchen, and shower. It is important to
determine which, if any, of these loads occur at the same time
and what the duration of the overlap is. As a general rule, if there
is a kitchen, a system sized for the kitchen demand may also
handle the general purpose demand. If there are also showers,
the system must be sized for any concurrent shower and kitchen
load. If there is no concurrent use, the system should be sized to
handle the larger of the two, in which case it will also take care of
the general purpose load.
General Purpose Demand

Tabulate the quantities of each type of fixture. Using Table 4.3,
multiply the number of fixtures by the gallons (liters) per hour
for each and total the loads. This total will be the demand in
gallons (liters) per hour.
Table 4.3 Hot Water Demand per Fixture for Schools

Demanda (at 140F [60C] Final Temp.)
Fixture
(gph/fixture)
Lavatory (private)
Lavatory (public)
Dishwasher (residential type)
Sink (classroom, workroom, science room)
Clothes washer (residential type)
Service sink/mop basinb
2
4
20
8
30
20
(L/h/fixture)
7.57
15.14
75.70
30.28
113.55
75.70
Source: Reprinted with permission of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers from the 1987 ASHRAE Handbook.
Modifications by the Washington, D.C., ASPE chapter.
a Demands shown represent the quantity of 140F (60C) water required to
produce the desired usable water temperature at the fixture.
bHot water demand for general purpose service sinks and mop basins in schools
is not included when supplied from the general purpose water heaters. This demand does not usually occur simultaneously with peak demands from toilets and
kitchens.
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Kitchen Demand
Using the data in Table 4.4, calculate the kitchen demand in the
same manner used for the general purpose demand. The dominant factor influencing the kitchen load will be the dishwasher
rinse requirement. If this is not available, the hot water requirement for the dishwasher can be estimated from Table 4.5.

Requirements of Kitchen Equipment
Demand, 140F (60C)
Type of Equipment
Vegetable sink
Single compartment
Double compartment
Triple-pot sink
Prescrapper (open type)
Prerinse (hand operated)
Prerinse (closed type)
Recirculating prerinse
Lavatory or hand sink
(gph)
45
30
60
90
180
45
240
40
5
(L/h)
170.33
113.55
227.10
340.65
681.30
170.33
908.40
151.40
18.93
Source: Dunn et al. 1959. American Gas Association.
Table 4.5 Rinse Water (180195F)

Requirements of Commercial Dishmachines
Dishmachine
Type
Dishmachine
Size
Flow Rate
(gpm)
Door type
16 x 16 in.
6.94
Inches rack
18 x 18 in. rack
8.67
20 x 20 in. rack
Conveyor type
10.4
Undercounter type
Single tank
6.94
Multiple tank
Consumption
(gph)
69
87
104
70
416
Dishes flat
5.78
347
Dishes inclined
4.62
277
Silverware washers
45
Utensil washers
75
Make-up water
requirements
180F on certain
conveyor types
2.31
139
Note: Based on water pressure of 20 psig at equipment. Based on operation at 100%

mechanical capacity. Seventy percent is normal operating capacity except for rackless
conveyor machines. Designer should contact equipment manufacturer for actual demand. Designer also should check local codes and regulations. Some agencies require
that domestic water heating systems be sized to provide 100% capacity for dishwashers.
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Table 4.5(M) Rinse Water (8291C)

Requirements of Commercial Dishmachines
Dishmachine
Type
Door type
Dishmachine
Size
406 406 mm
Millimeters rack
457 457 mm rack
0.55
329.3
508 508 mm rack
0.66
393.64
Conveyor type
Flow Rate Consumption

(L/sec)
(L/h)
0.44
261.17
Undercounter type
0.32
264.95
Single tank
0.44
1574.56
Dishes flat
0.36
1313.4
Dishes inclined
0.29
1048.45
Multiple tank
Silverware washers
0.44
170.33
Utensil washers
0.50
283.88
Make-up water
requirements
82C on certain
conveyor types
0.15
526.12
Note: Based on water pressure of 140 kPa at equipment. Based on operation at 100%
mechanical capacity. Seventy percent is normal operating capacity except for rackless
conveyor machines. Designer should contact equipment manufacturer for actual demand. Designer also should check local codes and regulations. Some agencies require
that domestic water heating systems be sized to provide 100% capacity for dishwashers.
Shower Load
The shower load is derived by multiplying the number of showerheads by the flow rate per shower by the amount of time the
showerheads are used per hour. The load is expressed in gallons
(liters) per hour. Generally, the water to showers is tempered by
mixing the hot water with cold water; therefore, the actual requirement for hot water will be only a portion of the total shower
flow. See Chapter 1, Equation 1.7, for the mixed water temperature formula.
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EXAMPLES
Example 4.1 Elementary School
This school is not equipped with showers but does have a small
(lunch only) cafeteria with a food preparation area. The general
purpose demand is created by the following fixtures:
Fixture
Lavatory (private)
No. of
Fixtures
Demanda
(gph/fixture)
10
Total
(gph)
20
Lavatory (public)
50
200
Sink (classroom)
20
160
380b
aFrom Table 4.3.

bMop sinks not included.
Fixture
Lavatory (private)
No. of
Fixtures
Demanda
(L/h/fixture)
10
7.57
Total
(L/h)
75.7
Lavatory (public)
50
15.14
757
Sink (classroom)
20
30.28
605.6
1438.3b
aFrom Table 4.3.

bMop sinks not included.
The kitchen demand is created by the following equipment:

Equipment
Vegetable sink
No. of
Pieces
Demanda
(gph)
45
Total
(gph)
45
Triple-compartment sink
90
90
Prerinse
45
45
Hand sink
10
Dishwasher (door type)
69
69
259
aFrom Table 4.4.
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No. of
Pieces
Demanda
(L/h)
Total
(L/h)
Vegetable sink
1
1
170.33
340.65
170.33
340.65
Prerinse
Hand sink
1
2
170.33
18.93
170.33
37.86
Dishwasher (door type)
261.17
Equipment
261.17
980.34
aFrom Table 4.4.
The designer has decided with this type of system to use one
or more water heater(s) to provide domestic hot water for the
school. Since the kitchen requires 140F (60C) water, the heater(s)
will raise the temperature of the water to this level and reduce it
to 110F (43C) for general usage. Using the mixed water temperature formula found in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7), we calculate
the amount of 140F (60C) water needed to meet the general
usage demand:
(110 40)
= 0.70
(140 40)
4)
= 0.70]
[ (43
(60 4)
0.70 380 gph = 266 gph of 140F water
(0.70 1483.3 L/h = 1038.31 L/h of 60C water)
Although the general demand is slightly higher than the
kitchen demand, the diversity of the general demand is such that
the kitchen demand should be the factor governing the sizing of
the water heater(s). For this example, the designer has selected a
heater that has a storage capacity of approximately half of the
kitchen demand with a recovery rate approximately equal to the
kitchen demand.
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Example 4.2 High School

This school is a fully equipped high school with locker rooms,
science rooms, lounges, shops, and a major kitchen. With all the
activities that occur at this school, concurrent loads can be expected and must be taken into consideration when designing a
system. The first step is to determine the domestic hot water
demands that are generated in each category.
General purpose demand
Fixture
Lavatory (private)
No. of
Fixtures
Demanda
(gph/fixture)
Total
(gph)
12
24
Lavatory (public)
60
240
Sink
25
200
Dishwasher (residential)
20
40
Clothes washer (residential)
30b
90
594c
60b
534
aFrom Table 4.3.

bOnly one of the clothes washers will be used during school hours; therefore, the
total demand can be reduced by 60 gph.
cMop sinks not included.
Fixture
No. of
Fixtures
Demanda
(L/h/fixture)
Total
(L/h)
Lavatory (private)
12
7.57
Lavatory (public)
60
15.14
908.4
Sink
25
Dishwasher (residential)
Clothes washer (residential)
90.84
30.28
757.00
75.7
151.4
113.55b
340.65
2248.29c
227.00b
2021.29
aFrom Table 4.3.

bOnly one of the clothes washers will be used during school hours; therefore, the
total demand can be reduced by 227.00 L/h.
cMop sinks not included.
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55
Kitchen demand
Normal operating hours, not serving hours, are from 10:00 A.M.
until 3:00 P.M.
Equipment
No. of
Pieces
Demanda
(gph)
Total
(gph)
Vegetable sink
45
90
Double-compartment sink
60
60
90
90
Prerinse
45
90
Hand sink
10
Bar sink
30
30
Dishwasher (conveyor type)
416
416
786
aFrom Tables 4.4 and 4.5.
Equipment
No. of
Pieces
Demanda
(L/h)
Total
(L/h)
Vegetable sink
170.33
340.66
Double compartment sink
227.1
227.1
Triple compartment sink
340.65
340.65
Prerinse
170.33
340.66
Hand sink
18.93
37.86
Bar sink
113.55
113.55
Dishwasher (conveyor type)
1574.56
1574.56
2975.04
aFrom Tables 4.4 and 4.5.
Shower demand
Showers are taken after gym classes and after athletic team practices.
The total number of showers is 23. Each shower head has a
flow rate of 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec). A worst-case scenario for usage
is estimated to be 5 showers per hour per head for 6 min each.
23 heads 2.5 gpm 6 min 5 showers/h = 1725 gph
(23 heads 0.16 L/sec 60 sec 6 min 5 showers/h
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= 6624 L/h)
(This scenario would happen only after school when the athletic
teams have completed their practices.)
Possibly a better and more normal scenario to look at is the
usage after gym classes. Since time is very limited, only a few
quick showers will be taken.
23 heads 2.5 gpm 3 min 2 showers/h = 345 gph
(23 heads 0.16 L/sec 60 sec 3 min 2 showers/h
= 1324.8 L/h)
System selection factors
At this point in the design, it must be determined how the domestic hot water is to be distributed. For this example, the designer
has decided to provide two separate systems, one for the kitchen
at 140F (60) and one for the general and shower demands at
110F (43C). Since 110F (43C) water will be supplied to the
showers and a normal shower is taken at an average of 102F
(39C), the designer can compute the actual hot water usage for
the showers using the mixed water temperature formula found
in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7).
(102 40)
= 0.89
(110 40)
1725 gph 0.89 = 1535 gph
345 gph 0.89 = 307 gph
4)
= 0.89
[ (39
(43 4)
6624 L/h 0.89 = 5895.36 L/h
1324.8 L/h 0.89 = 1179.07 L/h

As previously noted, the water heater(s) for the kitchen demand will serve only that demand. Therefore, there are no loads
concurrent with other demands. If the heater(s) served all demands, the kitchen demand and the normal shower demand
would have to be combined. The following shows how the equipment would be sized in this case:
Elementar
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57
Kitchen demand
Size the storage capacity of the water heater(s) for approximately half of the demand and the recovery rate for
approximately 100% of the demand.
General and shower demand
There are a few factors that must be taken into account when
sizing the equipment for this demand. One is the concurrence of the general demand and the normal shower demand.
Another is the large shower demand after athletic teams practice plus the use of two clothes washers concurrent with this
demand. (The length of time for heater recovery can be longer
in this case, since there is all night to recover the tank.) For
this example, the designer has decided to provide storage capacity of approximately 50% of the total of the general demand,
534 gph (2021.29 L/h), and normal shower demand, 307
gph (1179.07 L/h), and have recovery capacity of approximately 100% of this total demand.
REFERENCES
American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water systems. Chapter 4 in ASPE Data Book.
Thrasher, W. H., and D. W. DeWerth. 1993. Comparison of collected
and compiled existing data on service hot water use patterns in
residential and commercial establishments. ASHRAE Research
Project No. RP-600.
Hotels and Motels
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HOTELS AND
MOTELS
INTRODUCTION
The hot water demand for a hotel/motel depends on the facilitys
type of occupancy and the guest room, food service, and laundry
demands. Occasionally, there also will be a health club involved.
These variables are discussed below. It is the responsibility of
the designer to determine these variables through the application of engineering principles and by asking the appropriate
questions of the owners/operators of the hotel or motel.
HOTEL AND MOTEL CLASSIFICATION

A hotel or motel is classified according to its construction, its
location, and the intent of the owners. The designer must do the
required research to determine the appropriate classification.
The following classifications are given for clarification and
reference.
Convention Hotel or Motel

This type of facility has an adequate number of guest rooms,
meeting rooms, ballrooms, food service, etc., to support large
groups with common schedules making high shower demands
within a short period of time a real possibility.
This classification also applies to any hotel or motel in close
proximity to such a facility. If such is the case, the hotel or motel
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owners should be contacted and asked if they wish to have a

domestic water heating system capable of meeting convention
demand.
Business Travelers Hotel or Motel

It has been estimated that 45 to 50% of all hotel and motel business fits into this category, and the percentage increases each
year. Owners catering to this group select locations favorable to
business travelers, and the better ones select room furnishings
to meet their needs. The presence of desk phones and phones by
the bed is one indication of the hotel/motels intended primary
use. The owners should be asked to verify their intended occupancy.
Resort Hotel or Motel

This type of facility is found in or adjacent to locations that attract large numbers of people for the purposes of enjoyment. Some
typical attractions are theme parks, mountains, beaches, and
racetracks. Although most resort facilities have in common a reasonably long period of peak demand because their guests lack
common time tables, you have to be careful. Facilities near race
tracks and theme parks, for instance, are subject to short demand periods. If there is any doubt about this, the designer should
ask the owners.
General Occupancy Hotel or Motel

This type of facility is usually a mix of the other three
classifications, the effect of which is the lengthening of the peak
demand. An example of this type of facility is a hotel or motel in a
reasonably large town that draws people for many reasons. It
does not, however, have the number of meeting rooms necessary
to support a full convention occupancy, and it has no ballrooms.
GUEST ROOM DEMAND

Questions and Assumptions
1. How many guest rooms are there?
2. What type of occupancy does the facility serve?
Hotels and Motels
61
3. What is the average occupancy per room expected during peak

occupancy?
The owners can provide the best answer to this question. If
they are unable to provide the information, the following assumptions may be used.
Convention hotel or motel: 1.5 to 2.0 persons per room.
Business travelers hotel or motel (urban): 1.5 to 2.0 persons per room.
Business travelers hotel or motel (nonurban): 1.25 to 1.75
persons per room.
Resort hotel or motel: 2.5 persons per room.
Resort suite/condo hotel: 2.5 to 4.0 persons per suite.
General occupancy hotel or motel: 1.5 to 2.0 persons per
room.
4. What will the peak demand period be?
Lacking other information, the following assumptions may
be considered applicable:
Convention hotel or motel: 1-h peak.
Business travelers hotel or motel: 1-h peak.
Resort hotel or motel: 3-h peak.
General occupancy hotel or motel: 2-h peak.
5. What will be the greatest contributor to the guest room demand?
The shower demand is almost always the greatest contributor to guest room demand. Some small factor can be assumed for
lavatory demand. One significant additional load is the hot tub
or whirlpool bath. If the facility under consideration has hot tubs
or whirlpool baths, it is essential to ask the owners:
What is the fill capacity?
What temperature must be maintained?
Will the tubs have built-in heaters to maintain the desired
temperature, or will the temperature have to be maintained
by the occasional introduction of hot water?
The designer also will have to make an assumption about the
percentage of tubs that will be in use during the peak demand period. The owners should evaluate this assumption.
6. What percentage of guests will shower during any given peak
demand period?
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One number that may be considered is 70%. In situations

where the peak demand period is 2 h, consider 70% for the
entire period, then use 70% of that number for the peak hour.
The 70% estimate is an assumption based on various premises. For example, in a convention hotel there will be
scheduled events; for business travelers there are normal
business hours. Apply the same logic for 3-h peak demand
periods.
7. What is the maximum flow potential of the shower heads?
8. What is the average duration of a guest shower?
In a hotel or motel, 5 min should be a reasonable assumption.
9. How much hot water should be stored?
This is a value judgment based on the recovery chosen by the
designer and the estimate of simultaneous shower useboth
of which are affected by the classification and location of the
facility. If its decided to provide recovery equal to the full
peak demand, then it seems reasonable to accommodate those
times when an inordinate number of people shower at the
same time. Think of the stored water as showers in the bank.
A general guide is to provide 15% of the hourly demand for
facilities of 100 or more persons and 20% for smaller facilities.
Example 5.1 Guest Room Demand

The following information is known or assumed about a convention facility. It has 300 guest rooms. We find that the minimum
supply water temperature will be 40F (4C) and that 2.5 gpm
(0.16 L/sec) maximum flow shower heads are to be used. We
assume 1.5 persons per room at peak occupancy and an average
shower time of 5 min per guest. We assume 70% of the guests
will shower during the peak hour demand period. The temperature of hot water desired at the shower head is 105F (41C). Hot
water will be stored at 140F (60C) and delivered to guest rooms
after being tempered to 105F (41C).
300 rooms 1.5 guests/room = 450 guests
450 guests 70% = 315 guests showering in peak hour
315 guests 5 min/guest 2.5 gpm = 3938 gal of
105F water required during peak hour
(315 guests 5 min/guest 0.16 L/sec 60 sec/min =
Hotels and Motels
63
15 120 L of 41C water required during peak hour)

The heat required to raise 3938 gph (15 120 L/h) of 40F (4C)
water to 105F (41C) is
3938 gph 8.33 lb/gal/F (105 40F) = 2,132,230
Btu/h output required
[15.12 m3/h 4188.32 kJ/m3/K (41 4C) =
2 343 113.74 kJ/h output required]
If it is decided to provide full recovery to reduce the storage
requirements (and probably the system cost), note the efficiency
of the water heaters that will be used. (It is never advisable to use
only one heater for an establishment where hot water is essential
to its operation.) For the purposes of this example, assume 80%.
The total input required by heaters then is
2,132,230 Btu/h
= 2,665,288 Btu/h
0.80
2 343 113.74 kJ/h

0.80
= 2 928 892.18 kJ/h
Storage
The designer has decided to provide storage to accommodate the
showering of 15% of the guests simultaneously.
3938 gph 15% = 591 gal of 105F water
(15 120 L/h 15% = 2268 L of 41C water)
Since 140F (60C) water is going to be stored, the equivalent
quantity of 140F (60C) water is as follows (see Chapter 1, Equation 1.7, for the mixed temperature formula):
105 40F
= 0.65 591 gal = 384 gal
140 40F
41 4C
60 4C
= 0.65 2268 L = 1474.2 L
If we use a storage tank with a tank efficiency of 80% and we

desire to draw 384 gal (1453.59 L) from the tank during the peak
hour, the quantity that must be stored is:
384 gal
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Water
0.80
= 480 gal minimum
1474.2 L
0.80
= 1842.75 L minimum
Select the next larger size standard tank.

Another way to select the recovery capacity when using larger
storage tanks is to divide the useable storage by the number of
hours the peak demand lasts. Subtract the result from the peak
hour demand to determine the minimum required recovery.
To provide owners with the most cost-effective system, evaluate the cost of several combinations of storage, recovery, and
efficiency.
FOOD SERVICE DEMAND

1. What type of food service is being offered (full restaurant, fast
food, etc.)?
2. What hours will food service be offered?
3. Are there multiple kitchens? Will there be a time when they
operate simultaneously?
Hot water demand
Since hot water demand is driven by the kitchen equipment, the
following questions need to be asked:
1. What will be the time period (total hours) of the kitchens
longest cleanup mode?
2. What fixtures that utilize hot water will be in the kitchen?
3. What temperature water is required by each?
4. What are the manufacturer and model number of the dishwasher? You will need to obtain information about the hot
water characteristics of this equipment.
5. Is a booster heater being used to furnish 180F (82C) water
to the dishwasher?
Hotels and Motels
65
Guide to Estimating Hourly Demand

The following can be used to estimate the hourly demand of 140F
(60C) water to several types of fixture. (Lavatories can basically
be ignored.)
1-compartment sink: 30 gph (113.55 L/h)
Prerinse: 45 gph (170.33 L/h)
Can wash: 45 gph (170.33 L/h)
These figures include initial fill and occasional refill or makeup.
Sometimes, if a 4-compartment sink is furnished, sanitizing
is done with chemicals and 180F (82C) water is not required.
Example 5.2 Food Service Demand

Assume you have a convention hotel that serves all three meals
each day. The kitchen has the following equipment:
Equipment
Conveyor type dishwasher
3-compartment sink
Assumed
140F (gph)
Assumed
180F (gph)a
320
90
320
2-compartment sink
1-compartment sink
60
30
Dishwasher prerinse
Can wash
45
45
590
320
aWater is raised from 140 to 180F by booster heater.
Assumed
Assumed
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Equipment
Conveyor type dishwasher
3-compartment sink
2-compartment sink
1-compartment sink
Dishwasher prerinse
Can wash
60C (L/h)
82C (L/h)a
1211.2
340.65
227.1
113.35
170.33
170.33
1211.2
2232.95
1211.2
aWater is raised from 60 to 82C by booster heater.
Assume the kitchen will be in the cleanup mode for a maximum of 3 h after every meal. (Discussions with kitchen operators
suggest that 3 h is a reasonable number that incorporates the
necessary time for an extremely busy cleanup period.) Total hot
water required per hour will be 590 gph (2232.95 L/h) of 140F
(60C) water, 320 gph (1211.2 L/h) of which must be raised to
180F (82C) by a booster heater.
To evaluate the storage required, consider the equipment to be
served. You may assume that a large demand will occur when the
cleanup effort is initiated. All the sinks will be filled, perhaps requiring 140F (60C) water. The dishwasher tanks will need to be
filled initially; assume 30 gal (113.55 L), though you should check
with the manufacturer. Therefore, you will need at least 210 gal
(794.85 L) of 140F (60C) water for the initial fill of 3 sinks and a
dishwasher tank. The normal draw down after initial fill should be
no greater than the initial fill. The major running demand will be
the dishwasher and prerinse, which operate continuously. If you
wish to calculate initial fill with a water temperature lower than
140F (60C), then do so. Hands cannot be immersed in very hot
water, but it may be the practice to fill the sinks initially with very
hot water for hot soak purposes.
Selection of water heating equipment
To select a storage tank, first multiply the expected initial fill
requirement by 1.1 to provide a 10% safety factor:
210 gal 1.1 = 231 gal
(794.85 L 1.1 = 874.34 L)
Hotels and Motels
67
Then select the nominal tank size by dividing 231 gal (874.34 L)
by the manufacturers published tank efficiency. (Assume 75%.)
231 gal
= 308 gal nominal storage required
0.75
874.34 L
0.75
= 1165.79 L nominal storage required
Select the next larger size standard tank. If heaters with full demand recovery capacity are specified, the water drawn from
storage during high demand periods will be quickly replaced and
no greater storage capacity should be required. Selecting the storage tank size requires the engineers judgment.
Required recovery
For a kitchen, you may want to calculate full recovery, not taking
into consideration storage since it is normally an insignificant
percentage of the demand, particularly when a conveyor type dishwasher is used. Assume a minimum inlet temperature of 40F
(4C). Also assume that an electric booster heater is furnished to
raise the dishwasher hot water from 140 to 180F (60 to 82C).
Using the heat transfer formula from Chapter 1 (Equation 1.2),
we calculate the 140F (60C) water recovery as follows:
590 gph 8.33 Btu/gal/F (140 40F) = 491,470
Btu/h output required
[(2.23 m3/h)(4188.32 kJ/m3/K)(333.15 277.59K) =
518 927.82 kJ/h output required]
Divide the output by the efficiency of the heater to determine the
input required.
LAUNDRY DEMAND
This demand is driven by the equipment used and the peak operation times. For large facilities, it can be a significant demand. For
small facilities, small residential or light commercial equipment is
often used. You must check the maximum operating water temperature and the gallons (liters) per hour required by each machine.
68
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The manufacturer of the laundry equipment can tell you how

much hot water is required for each machine. Generally, if you
tell them the capacity of each machine in pounds per hour (kg/
h), they can tell you the gallons per hour (L/h) of hot water required per pound (kg). For large machines, the draw down
rate can be high, so adequate storage is necessary. A number of
laundry equipment manufacturers have suggested that the minimum requirement is to store 5075% of the hourly demand, and
provide a recovery equal to the hourly demand. This will provide
stored water to meet the high draw down demand, and the recovery will provide for the continuous demand. Fifty percent is usually
adequate, but check with the manufacturer if possible. You dont
want temperature degradation due to the addition of cold water
during periods of high demand.
If you have small machines, again it is helpful to check with
the manufacturer for the maximum demand in gallons per hour
(L/h).
The temperature required by the user can be critical.
Example 5.3 Laundry Demand

Consider a full-service convention hotel that has two 135-lb (61.24
kg) and one 75-lb (34.02 kg) washer extractor. The manufacturer
has indicated that the machines require 2 gph of hot water for
each pound (16.65 L/h of hot water for each kg) of capacity. The
hotel owners have stated that they wash with 160F (71C) water
and the laundry operates 16 h each day. Minimum supply water
temperature will be 40F (4C).
It is obvious that storage will be of little value in meeting hot
water demand because of the long hours of operation. Adequate
storage must be provided, however, to meet short-term, high draw
down rates. Using the heat transfer formula from Chapter
1 (Equation 1.2), select the storage tank using 60% of peak hour
demand. The total machine capacity is 345 lb (156.49 kg).
345 lb 2 gph/lb = 690 gph of 160F water
(156.49 kg 16.65 L/h/kg = 2 605.56 L/h of 71C water)
690 8.33 (160 40) = 689,724 Btu/h output required
[2.61 m3/h 4 188.32 kJ/m3 K (344.26 277.59 K) =
727 687.18 kJ/h output required]
Hotels and Motels
69
Divide by the heater efficiency to obtain the input required.

689,724 Btu/h output
0.80 (heater efficiency)
727 687.18 kJ/h output

0.80 (heater efficiency)
= 862,155 Btu/h input
= 909 608.98 kJ/h input
Use 60% of peak hour demand to select the minimum storage

capacity.
690 gph 0.6 = 414 gal minimum
(2605.56 L/h 0.6 = 1563.34 minimum)
Select the next larger size standard unit or use multiple tanks.
GENERAL NOTES
System Considerations
The choice of a system(s) to meet the hotel/motels hot water
demand is up to the designer. There are several factors and ideas
that should be considered:
1. Should the hotel/motel be served by a single system? Should
it be served by two systems, one serving the guest rooms and
the other serving the laundry/kitchen? Does the hotel/motel
need three separate systems?
2. What type(s) of tempering device should be installed to ensure safe delivery of the proper temperature water to the
various areas?
3. If systems are combined, what size should the combined storage tank be?
4. Is it desirable to install a crossover bypass system so that, if
one system is down, water from another system can be diverted to temporarily provide service to the down system? If
this is done, it is important to remember that a tempering
valve must be placed in a bypass for the lower temperature
system so that, when this system is temporarily used for a
higher temperature, water can be routed through the tempering valve bypass.
70
Domestic W
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Design Criteria Considerations

When classifying the occupancy of a facility, be careful! In a resort facility there may be a convention hall. This means that any
of the small hotels normally considered resort facilities could be
(and often are!) used by people attending a convention. The key
thing to look for is the convention facility. This is a good time for
the designer to contact the owners or managers of the facility.
If the hotel guest room system is occasionally overloaded by
an unusually high occupancy rate, the result should not be an
immediate and drastic drop in temperature if the system was
sized reasonably. Some safety should be built into the minimum
supply water temperature. If the temperature is above the minimum at the time of the large demand, then there is that spare
capacity in the bank. There is some rationale to not sizing the
system for the greatest possible demand, which may occur, say,
once every 10 years. Sizing a system that way would cost the
owners a lot of money. Be aware, however, that some facilities
are very high end and their owners may direct you to size the
system so they never run short.
Hospitals
71
HOSPITALS
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to guide the designer step by step
through the procedure of designing a domestic water heating
distribution system for a hospital. It is important for the designer
to realize that there is a vast difference between designing a
domestic water heating system for a hospital and designing such
a system for any other type of building. A hospital encompasses
almost all types of hot water use, plus there are areas of operation that are unique to a hospital.
The first section of this chapter addresses design considerations and areas of concern. The second gives user group
requirements and offers an analysis to appraise. The final section
presents some design examples.
The designer is charged with identifying the variables, calculating the demand, and assuming the responsibility for laying
out an economical and efficient system to provide hot water to a
facilitys plumbing fixtures and other terminal points. The procedure presented here will help predict the minimum amount
of hot water needed by the facility.
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Safety and Health Concerns
See Chapter 1 for a discussion of Legionella pneumophila
(Legionnaires disease) and scalding.
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USER GROUP ANALYSIS

The specific areas of a facility, called user groups, should each
be considered when determining hot water usage. The user groups
identified below are typical of either a large or a small hospital
facility. (Each facility must be reviewed to determine its layout.)
The general outline that follows may be used for each user group.
General Outline
Identify the following for each user group:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Fixtures requiring hot water.

Whether the fixtures are public or private.
Water temperature and pressure requirements for each fixture.
Flow rates for each fixture.
The usage pattern of each fixture.
The acceptable time delay between the opening of a hot water
tap and the delivery of hot water.
Review the plans to determine:

1. The location of each fixture.
2. The locations of fixtures with specific temperature requirements.
User Groups
Patient areas
General patient areas in a hospital are typically used by people
admitted for surgical or medical procedures. Surgical patients
are people who enter the facility to have a surgical procedure
done and then remain in the facility to recover. A medical patient
is a person who enters a facility with a health ailment not requiring surgery but who requires constant and/or specialized care.
Surgical patients, early in their stay in the facility, are sponge
bathed and, per doctors orders, may use the shower facilities.
Medical patients typically have the use of the shower/bathing
facilities at all times.
Items that need to be determined include:
1. Are patient rooms private or semiprivateor are wards used?
Hospitals
73
2. Does each patient room have a shower/tub, or is there a central bathing area?
3. Check whether patient bathing is assisted and, if so, how
many staff are available to provide assistance.
4. Determine the flow from each type of fixture.
Areas of concern:
1. Many codes require 110F (43C) water to be used in the patient area to prevent scalding (refer to the discussion of
scalding in Chapter 1).
2. Due to the number of showers/bathtubs in this area, a high
use of hot water is possible.
3. In an intensive care area or isolation room, the hand washing
sink/lavatory is used more frequently than in a typical patient area.
Nurses station
A nurses station is the area where the nursing staff work is
centralized for the area it serves. Staff members prepare medicine and simple food or drink items for patients and do their
required paperwork and general cleanup.
Typically a staff toilet with a hand washing lavatory is located
nearby. Nourishment and medication rooms typically have sinks
in them. The clean and soiled utility rooms are in the vicinity of
the station. The clean utility room typically has a single bowl
sink while the soiled utility room typically has a double bowl
sink, a hand washing lavatory, and a flushing rim sink (also known
as a clinic sink) with a bedpan washer.
The nurses station is not a heavy hot water use area and is
typically part of another specific user group (i.e., patient areas
have their own nurses stations). In many of the newer facilities,
the nurses station is shared between departments to lower the
number of staff required. This is done commonly in smaller facilities.
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area is a location where therapy that utilizes
water occurs. The therapies may involve many different temperatures of water, but all include some hot water usage. The therapy
tubs in the area may come in many sizes, from 50 to 500-gal
(189.27 to 1892.71-L) capacity or larger.
Items that should be determined include:
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1. The number and sizes of all the tubs/baths in the area.

2. For each type of tub, the planned number of therapies per
hour.
3. The hours the department is in use.
4. Desired fill time for each tub. (Staff will fill tub as rapidly as
possible.) Also determine whether the tubs are fully or partially filled for cleaning between therapies.
5. Water temperatures used for the therapies.
6. Is there a shower for bathing purposes in the area?
Areas of concern:
1. Tub filling is desired to be as fast as possible.
2. Temperature is critical. (The staff will not accept an inadequate hot water supply.)
3. Before running tempered water to a thermostatic mixing valve,
check with the valves manufacturer to make sure it will function properly under expected conditions.
Dietary and food service
A hospital dietary department typically is in operation 24 h a
day, but that depends on the size of the facility. The department
feeds not only the patients and their visitors but also the staff
and sometimes the public. Normally three full meals a day are
provided, but a late-night meal also is served in some facilities.
Most dietary departments are designed by a food service consultant, who should be contacted and consulted.
1. The number of meals provided for each meal or day. Consult
the food service consultant.
2. The number of dishwashers and, for each, its type, size, gallons (liters) per cycle, cycles per hour, and required
temperature.
3. Number of sinks in the area and the type of each (prerinse,
etc.). Obtain water usages from the food service consultant
or use Table 6.1.
4. Are cart washers used? If so, during what hours are they
used, and what temperatures are desired for them?
5. Are the elevated water temperatures, e.g., 180F (82C), to be
boosted at the equipment or is a separate water heating system desired?
Hospitals
75
Areas of concern:
1. Water temperature in the area. Typically, three temperatures
are needed, 110F (43C) for hand washing, 140F (60C) for
dietary use, and 180F (82C) for sanitizing purposes.
2. The department usually has early operating hours and runs
simultaneously with other departments.
3. The department has a high water consumption.
Surgical suite
The surgical suite is where the facilitys surgical procedures are
performed.
1. Hours of scheduled surgery and typical starting time.
2. Number of scrub sinks in the suite and the length of time
required for the staff to wash.
3. Equipment used in the area and the water temperature it
requires (e.g., an electric flash sterilizer may use hot water to
shorten the warm-up time).
4. Number of showers in the suites locker rooms.
Areas of concern:
1. The time of the suites startup. Note that the suite typically
begins operation in the A.M., sometimes early A.M. (e.g., 6:00
A.M.), which is the same time other areas of the facility are
beginning startup, i.e., during hot water peak demand.
2. The average number of emergency operations from the trauma
unit or emergency room at night.
Laundry
A hospital produces a large amount of laundry, which needs to
be cleaned. The size of the facility determines the size of the laundry department. Not all facilities have their own laundry
departments; some opt to send the laundry to outside services.
1. The number and size of each washing machine in the area
(pound capacity and gallons [liters] of hot water per hour per
pound [kilogram] or per cycle).
2. The planned number of laundry operations (loads) per hour
per machine.
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3. The departments start time and hours of operation.

4. The temperatures of the water used.
Areas of concern:
1. The laundry departments schedule of operation. The department commonly begins operating in the early A.M., which is
the same time other areas of the facility are starting up (i.e.,
during hot water peak demand). The filling of the washers is
typically the first thing done at startup. The probability that
the washing machines will fill simultaneously is high during
startup.
2. Some of the laundry may be considered contaminated and
require special treatment. Verification of this possibility is
required.
Refer to Laundries, Chapter 12, for the sizing of hot water systems for this area. Due to the elevated water temperatures
required, separate water heating systems may have to be used.
Central sterile supply
This is where surgical and other equipment/tools used in the
facility are sent for cleaning or sterilization prior to disposal or
reuse. The central sterile supply department is typically in operation during and after the surgical suites scheduled hours of
operation. The department has many pieces of equipment that
use hot water; it could be considered a specialized dishwashing
area.
1. Hours that central sterile supply is in operation and when
startup begins.
2. Number of times each piece of equipment is used per hour.
3. Equipment requirements with regard to water temperature,
flow, water quality, and pressure.
Areas of concern:
1. The departments scheduled hours of operation. The department commonly begins operating in the A.M., which is the
same time other areas of the facility start up (i.e., during hot
water peak demand).
2. Water pressures, quality, and temperatures are critical in this
area.
Obstetrics/Nursery
Hospitals
77
This department is where the birth process occurs. Due to the

unpredictability of the birth process, it is in use 24 h a day. Many
of the newer facilities provide showers or tub/shower combinations in the individual birthing rooms and post-birthing rooms.
1. Layout of the obstetrics department. Does each room have a
tub/shower or are there central bathing facilities or both?
Are there birthing rooms? After the birth, are the mother and
infant transported to another room?
2. Determine the shower head flow and/or the tub flow/capacity.
Areas of concern:
1. The birth process can be a long ordeal, and taking showers
during the process relaxes and soothes the mother. Many
facilities and health organizations recommend this. After the
birth, baths and showers are taken not only to relax the mother
but to flush the perineal area, which may be done in a sitz
bath.
2. Hot water supply temperature is 110F (43C) (the same as in
the patient area).
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., lab, administration, maintenance,
autopsy, the morgue)
A hospital facility has many other areas with fixtures requiring
hot water beside those noted above. Most of these areas have
sinks, hand washing lavatories, and staff shower rooms.
1. In areas where showers are located, determine the flow rates
of the shower heads.
2. Determine the water temperatures needed in those areas
(maintenance may desire 140F [60C] temperatures for
cleanup or washdown areas).
Areas of concern:
1. The times that these areas are in use overlap the usage times
of many of the other specific user groups. Though the fixtures may be few, they still are used and should be considered
when doing calculations.
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WORKSHEETS AND TABLES

Worksheet 6.AUser Group
This worksheet may be copied by the designer for use in calculating the hot water requirements for an individual user group. A
different sheet should be used for each user group. All water
quantity usage figuresgallons per minute (gpm), (liters per
second [L/sec]), gallons per hour (gph), (liters per hour [L/h]),
and minutes of use per hour (min use/h)are suggested.
The designer must ascertain the correct quantities through
actual fixture/device/equipment literature (e.g., shop drawings) and/or discussions with the owner and/or user.
The fixture column lists the fixtures in a facility that use
hot water. The designer may add to this list if necessary. The
quantity column indicates the number of those fixtures located
in the user group area. Gpm (L/sec) is the flow rate from the
fixture used in the calculation. Min use/h is the estimated use
of the fixture in 1 h. (Note: In the case of dietary demands, and
perhaps other occasional demands, gph [L/h] will be substituted for min use/h.)
The next section of the worksheet, Temperature at Outlet,
is for the water temperature at the faucet outlet, not the system
temperature. This is important since cold water will be added to
the system hot water to obtain the desired outlet temperature.
Because of this, the flow from the faucet is not all hot water.
Table 1.1 is used to determine the actual amount of hot water
needed at the faucet outlet. The temperature at outlet section
is split into four subsections, each having a different faucet outlet water temperature. For the last subsection, labeled other,
any temperature may be used, but the temperature must be the
same for all fixtures used in that column. Each temperature subsection is split into two more subsections, gpm (L/sec) and gph
(L/h). The equation for each is noted on the worksheet.
When the fixtures in the user group are tabulated, each column is added and the totals are placed at the bottom of the sheet
under totals. The user group usage factors for gpm (L/sec) and
gph (L/h) are found in Table 6.2. Each total is multiplied by the
appropriate usage factor to get the user group totals, which are
used on Worksheet 6.BUser Group Totals. The user group totals are the amount of hot water predicted to be used in a particular
user group during the peak hour(s). Designers should use their
best judgment when working with these figures.
Hospitals
79

Temperature at Outleta (F)
A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Bathroom group
C
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
(GPM = A B GPH = A B C)
110
___________
GPM GPH
Tub/shower & lavatory
2.5
10
Public lavatory
0.5
10
Private lavatory
Single bowl sink
2.5
Double bowl sink
2.5
Bathtub
10
Shower
2.5
10
Flushing rim sink
4.5
Floor receptor
4.5
Scrub sink, per faucet
2.5
10
Small hydro-tub
(less than 100 gal)
15
Large hydro-tub
(more than 100 gal)
15
Laundry tub
4.5
Residential washing
machine
4.5
Residential dishwasher
4.5
Commercial dishwasher
Triple compartment sink,

per faucet,
Commercial kitchen,
single sink
Commercial kitchen,
double sink
Commercial kitchen,
prerinse
2.5
Hose station or
cart/can wash
10
Sonic cleaner
4.5
Washer/disenfector
TOTALS:
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
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Worksheet 6.A (M) User Group

Temperature at Outleta (C)
A
Fixture
Qty.
Bathroom group
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
L/H = A B C 60 Sec/Min)
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
Tub/shower & lavatory
0.16
10
Public lavatory
0.03
10
Private lavatory
0.13
Single bowl sink
0.16
Double bowl sink
0.16
Bathtub
0.44
10
Shower
0.16
10
Flushing rim sink
0.28
Floor receptor
0.28
0.16
10
Small hydro-tub
Less than 378.5 L
0.95
Large hydro-tub
More than 378.5 L
0.95
Laundry tub
0.28
Residential washing
machine
0.28
0.28
0.44

per faucet
0.57
Commercial kitchen
single sink
0.57
Commercial kitchen
double sink
0.57
Commercial kitchen
prerinse
0.16
Hose station or
cart/can wash
0.57
10
Sonic cleaner
0.28
Washer/disenfector
0.57
TOTALS:
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
81
Worksheet 6.BUser Group Totals

This worksheet may be copied by the designer for use in calculating a facilitys hot water requirements. The totals found at
the bottom of the sheet indicate the predicted amount of hot
water the facility will use during the peak usage hour. Designers
should use their best judgment when working with these numbers to determine the amount of hot water supplied to the facility.
The items in the first, or user group, column are obtained
from Worksheet 6.A. As seen, the user group totals from
Worksheet 6.A are placed in the columns under the appropriate
temperature at outlet, gpm (L/sec), and gph (L/h) headings.
All of the user group totals for gpm (L/sec) are added together
and the resulting number is placed in the Subtotals section
near the bottom of the worksheet. This also is done for gph (L/h)
figures.
Designers need to determine when more than one water heater
supply temperature (e.g., 105F, 110F, 140F [41C, 43C, 60C])
will be required in the facility. When more than one water heater
is required to supply different temperatures, separate Worksheets
6.A and 6.B should be used for each water heater system. Subtotal each temperature at outlet column, use Table 1.1 to look up
the hot water multiplier for the system water temperature supplied to the facility, then multiply each subtotal by its appropriate
multiplier. When this is done, total the actual gpm (L/sec) and
gph (L/h) demands for the system water temperature supplied to
the facility (the bottom row of the worksheet) and put the resulting numbers under totals at the bottom right of the worksheet.
These totals are the gpm (L/sec) and gph (L/h) the water heater(s)
must supply to the facility. Designers should use their best judgment when working with these figures.
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User Group
105
110
___________
___________
GPM Use/H GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
Patient area
Nurses station
Obstetrics/Nursery
Hydrotherapy
Dietary & food service
Surgical suite
Miscellaneous areas
SUBTOTALS:
Hot Water Multiplier, P
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ F)b
TOTALSc
(Refer to Table 1.1):
Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier:
Note: User group totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A.
bTemperature of water leaving the water heater supplying the facility.
cTotal hot water required. Temperature based on water heater temperature.
GPM
GPH
Hospitals
83
Worksheet 6.B (M) User Group Totals

User Group
41
___________
L/Sec L/H
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Patient area
Nurses station
Obstetrics/Nursery
Hydrotherapy
Dietary & food service
Surgical suite
Miscellaneous areas
SUBTOTALS:
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ C)b
TOTALSc
Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier:
L/Sec
L/H
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Worksheet 6.AUser GroupExample 6.1

This is a copy of Worksheet 6.A with recommendations on temperatures at outlet and other comments. (See worksheet
footnotes.) Designers should use their best judgment and take
into account national, state, and local codes when considering
these recommendations.
Worksheet 6.A User GroupExample

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Bathroom group
tub/shower & lavatoryb,c 2.5
Public lavatoryb
0.5
2
Private lavatoryb
2.5
Single bowl sinkb
2.5
Double bowl sinkb
7
Bathtube
2.5
Showerb
Flushing rim sinkf
4.5
4.5
Floor receptorf
2.5
Scrub sink, per faucetg
Small hydro-tub
15
(less than 100 gal)d
Large hydro-tub
15
(more than 100 gal)d
Laundry tubf
4&5
Residential washing
4.5
machinef
4.5
Residential dishwasherf
Commercial dishwasherj
per fauceth,i
9
Commercial kitchen,
9
single sinkh,i
Commercial kitchen,
9
double sinkh,i
Commercial kitchen,
prerinseg
2.5
Hose station or
9
cart/ can washh
4.5
Sonic cleanerj
9
Washer/disenfectorj
Min ___________
105
Use/H GPM GPH
10
10
4
1
1
10
10
1
1
10
*l
*
*
*
*
*
*
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
6
3
7
*
*
*
*
90
30
60
45
10
*
*
*
*
*
TOTALS:
Note: GPM calculation is for a semi-instantaneous water heating system. GPH calculation
is for a storage type water heating system.
(Continued)
Hospitals
85
(Worksheet 6.A Example continued)

bBased on ANSI standards of 2.5 gpm for showerheads, 2.5 gpm for sinks, 2.0
gpm for lavatories, and 0.5 gpm for public lavatories.
cBased on the shower as the dominant fixture.
dBased on the valve size used. Designer must base design on the type of valve
that is specified or present in an existing facility.

eSame as d except two baths per hour.
fBased on 4.5 gpm and in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec
maximum velocity.
gConsidered same as shower.
hNine gpm based on in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec
maximum velocity.
iBased on Table 6.1, General Purpose Hot Water Requirements for Various Kitchen
Uses ( gph).
jBased on the equipment used. Designer must determine which model is used.
kWhere a dash () appears, please refer to Table 6.1 for the recommended hourly
use figure.
lAn asterisk (*) indicates the recommended outlet temperature.
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Worksheet 6.A(M) User GroupExample

A
Fixture
Qty.
Bathroom group
tub/shower
1,2
& lavatoryb,c
1
Public lavatoryb
Private lavatoryb
1
1
Single bowl sinkb
Double bowl sinkb
1
4
Bathtube
Showerb
1
5
Flushing rim sinkf
Floor receptorf
5
Scrub sink,
6
per faucetg
Small hydro-tub
(less than 378.5 L)d 3
Large hydro-tub
(more than
378.5 L)d
3
5
Laundry tubf
Residential washing
machinef
5
Residential
5
dishwasherf
Commercial
9
dishwasherj
Triple compartment
sink per fauceth,i 7,8
Commercial kitchen
7,8
single sinkh,i
Commercial kitchen
7,8
double sinkh,i
Commercial kitchen
prerinseg
6
Hose station or
7
cart/can washh
9
Sonic cleanerj
Washer/disinfectorj
9
(L/Sec = A B
Min ___________
41
0.16
0.03
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.44
0.16
0.28
0.28
10
10
4
1
1
10
10
1
1
*l
*
*
*
*
*
*
0.16
10
0.95
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
0.95
0.28
0.28
0.28
0.44
0.57 k
340.65
0.57
113.55
0.57
227.10
0.16
170.33
0.57
0.28
0.57
10
*
*
*
*
*
*
TOTALS:

User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 6.B
Note: L/sec calculation is for a semi-instantaneous water heating system. L/h calculation
is for a storage type water heating system.
(Continued)
Hospitals
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(Worksheet 6.A[M] Example continued)

bBased on ANSI standards of 0.16 L/sec for showerheads, 0.16 L/sec for sinks,
0.13 L/sec for lavatories, and 0.03 L/sec for public lavatories.

eSame as d except two baths per hour.
fBased on 0.28 L/sec and DN15 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/sec
maximum velocity.
h0.57 L/sec based on DN20 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/
sec maximum velocity.

Uses (L/h).
use figure.
Table 6.1 General Purpose Hot Water Requirements

for Various Kitchen Uses
This table, which supplies information on the hot water requirements for various kitchen uses, should be used for the dietary
and food service user group.

Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses
Equipment
GPH
L/H
Vegetable sink
Single compartment sink
Bar sink
Lavatories
45
30
60
90
180
45
240
40
30
5
170.33
113.55
227.10
340.65
681.30
170.33
908.40
151.40
113.55
18.93
Source: Values are extracted from Dunn et al. [1959] 1989. Chapter 4. ASPE Data
Book. Table 9.
Note: Requirements are for water at 140F (60C).
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Table 6.2 Usage Factors for User Groups

This table provides the recommended usage factors for use with
Worksheet 6.A. The following discussion gives the background of
how these numbers were determined. (They represent a consensus of opinion of experienced designers; however, designers should
use their best judgment when working with these figures):
General
The gpm (L/sec) figure is based on the possibility that every hot
water using fixture will be operated in any 1 min (sec). The gph
(L/h) figure is based on the possibility that every hot water using fixture will be operated during a 1-h period. These figures are
based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h peak period.

User Groups
Patient Nurses HydroArea
Station therapy
GPM (L/Sec) 0.10

GPH (L/H)
0.40
0.05
0.50
0.25
0.90
Dietary &
Food
Surgical
Service Suite
0.40
0.90
0.50
0.50
Central
Sterile Obstetrics/ Misc.
Supply Nursery Areas
0.20
0.90
0.10
0.40
0.05
0.10
Note: Based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h peak period.
Patient area
This user group is split into two areas, surgical and medical patient areas. Many patients in these areas are not ambulatory and
require assistance from the staff to use the toilet or the bathing
facilities. Many surgical patients are not allowed to use the shower
or bathing facilities until approximately the second day after surgery. Medical patients are often not allowed to use the facilities
until after their conditions improve. Because of this, many are
sponge bathed. The lavatory is a fixture that is heavily used by
the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based on
only the shower being in use (i.e., the lavatory is not in use during the same minute). Also, it is assumed that not all the patients
are using the fixtures during the same minute.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on
either the shower or the lavatory being used in an hour during
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89
peak usage time. Because the lavatory uses less water than the
shower, the factor is less than 0.50 (50%).
Nurses station
This user group is in use 24 h a day but typically is used most
heavily during shift changes. This is because of the preparation
necessary before patients can be aided.
the relationship between the staff and patients. During a peak 3h period of hot water use, the patient area is used more heavily
than the nurses station. Since many patients need assistance
using the bathing or shower facilities, staff members are in the
patient areas aiding patients and not at the nurses station using
the fixtures there.
The 0.5 (50%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on these
same issues, but because of the time staff members spend at the
nurses station organizing or distributing medicines and doing
other work, the hand washing fixtures there are heavily used.
Hydrotherapy
When in operation, this area is a large water user. The staff can
be split between the physical and hydrotherapy areas.
the cyclical use of the therapy tubs and on the assumption that
staff members also are doing physical therapy.
The 0.90 (90%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is based on the
assumption that during peak usage times almost all the fixtures
in this area are used. That assumes that the staff schedules water therapies during one time and physical therapies during
another.
This area is a large water user. Depending on the size of the
facility, the usage of water for food preparation and for cleaning
may overlap.
the assumption that cleaning (the washing of dishes, etc.) does
not occur in the same minute as food preparation. Also, it assumes that the sinks are filled and then work is done using an
intermittent, not a steady, water supply.
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assumption that most of the area fixtures are used during one of
the hours of the facilitys peak usage time.
Surgical suite
Surgical procedures account for the majority of the time this area
is in use. Though the scrub sinks are used intermittently during
a procedure (e.g., staff leaving the room and returning will scrub
again), the showers and scrub sinks are typically not used concurrently.
The 0.50 (50%) usage factor for both the gpm (L/sec) and gph
(L/h) are based on the above scenario. During any 1 min or h of
the facilitys peak usage period, either the scrub sinks or the
showers are in use.
This area, which houses washing equipment, is in use during
the facilitys peak usage time.
the assumption that some of the equipment is in a fill cycle during any 1 min. Due to the nature of equipment cycles, all the
equipment does not use water during the same minute.
most of the equipment being used in the facilitys peak usage
hour.
Obstetrics/Nursery
This user group is in use 24 h a day. The birth process and
resting afterward typically account for the majority of
a patients time in this area. Showers are sometimes taken during labor to relax the mother, and the hand washing lavatory is
used extensively during labor by the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) gpm (L/sec) usage factor is based on usage in
the patient area. Though a patient in the obstetrics (OB)/nursery area bathes after a birth, there is no set schedule for this
because of the unpredictable nature of the birth process. Thus,
at any 1 min, only 10% of the fixtures in this area are operated.
(This is part of the reasoning for the 5% factor used for the nurses
station. Fixtures in the OB/nursery user group typically are used
by staff members, implying that those workers are not concurrently at the nurses station using fixtures there.)
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The 0.40 (40%) gph (L/h) usage factor also is based on the
patient wing area. Also, many patients remain in the birthing
rooms after delivery. (Theyre not transferred to separate postpartum rooms.) Because of this, lavatories are used during labor
by the staff and bathing or shower facilities are used by patients
during the peak usage period. Both fixtures are not used extensively during the same hour.
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., lab, administration, maintenance,
autopsy, the morgue)
The rest of the facility uses water but not during the facilitys peak
usage time and not as much as those areas already
discussed. This is because most of the staff are not in the miscellaneous areas. These areas must be taken into account, however,
because water using fixtures are available and used there.
the assumption that only a minor number of the fixtures are
used during any 1 min of the facilitys peak usage time.
assumption that most of the fixtures in these areas are used
outside of the facilitys peak usage hour.
The designer must determine the usage pattern for each miscellaneous area.
QUESTIONS FOR OWNER OR CLIENT

Patient Areas and Nurses Stations
1. Are patient rooms private or semiprivate?
2. Does each patient room have a shower/tub or is there a central bathing area?
3. Determine the flow from shower heads or tub flow/capacities.
Hydrotherapy
1. What are the number and size of each tub in the area?
2. What is the number of planned therapies per hour?
3. What hours is the department in use?
4. What is the required fill time for each tub? Are the tubs to be
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fully filled for cleaning between patients?

5. What water temperatures are used for the therapies?
Dietary and Food Service

1. What is the number of meals provided each day?
2. What is the type of dishwasher used (number, size, gallons
[liters] per cycle, cycles per hour, and temperature required)?
3. What are the type and number of sinks, prerinses, etc., in
the area?
4. Are cart/can washers used and, if so, during what hours are
they operational and what temperatures are required?
Surgical Suite
1. What are the hours of scheduled surgery and what is the
typical starting time?
2. How many scrub sinks are in the suite?
3. What other equipment is used in the area and what temperatures are required (e.g., does the electric flash sterilizer require
hot water to shorten warm-up time)?
4. How many showers are in the different locker rooms?
Laundry
1. What are the number and size of each washing machine in
the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons per hour per
pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
2. What is the number of planned laundry operations (loads)
per hour?
3. What are the start time and the hours the department is in
operation?
4. What are the temperatures of water to be used?
Central Sterile Supply

1. What are the operating hours of central sterile supply and
when does startup begin?
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2. How many times is each piece of equipment used per hour?

3. What equipment is in the area and what are the required
water temperature, flow rate, water quality, and pressure for
each piece?
Obstetrics/Nursery
1. Does each room have a tub/shower in it, or are there central
bathing facilities? Is there a birthing room and after the birth
are the mother and infant transported to another room?
2. Verify the shower head flow and/or tub flow/capacity.
3. What is the number of scrub sinks in the area?
4. How many flushing rim sinks are in the areas departments?
Miscellaneous Areas (e.g., Lab, Administration,

Maintenance, Autopsy, the Morgue)
1. What are the flow rates of the shower heads in a given area?
2. Check the water temperatures required in these areas.
3. Determine the acceptable time delay between the hot tap opening and the delivery of hot water. (Keep the length of branch
piping as short as possible. Discuss this issue with all users.)
EXAMPLES
Example 6.232-Bed Hospital
The facility in question is a 32-patient-bed hospital (having 24
patient-care, 6 obstetrics, and 2 intensive care, or ICU, beds). A
facility of this size typically is located outside of a metropolitan
area. The facility is a complete care, 24 h/day hospital without a
laundry (a facility of this size typically does not produce enough
laundry to warrant its own laundry facility).
Description of user groups
Patient area
The facility has 24 patient-care beds (12 for medical patients
and 12 for surgical patients). The facility has a wing arrangement with medical patients in one wing and surgical patients
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in the other. The rooms are single patient rooms with a shower
(2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical) and lavatory (2.0 gpm [0.13 L/
sec] typical) in each. There is a tub room with a single bathtub. Each wing has a clean utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5
gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical) and a soiled utility room (double
bowl sink, hand washing lavatory, and flushing rim sink with
bedpan washer). Each wing has a janitors closet with a receptor.
Nurses station
Because of the size of the facility, one nurses station provides service to the medical, surgical, and ICU patient beds.
This station has a medical drug dispensing room (single sink),
a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink at the
station for general water use. A second nurses station, for
obstetrics, has a general use sink. This station shares the
use of the drug dispensing and toilet rooms with the other
station.
An on-call room for staff members, which has a shower
and lavatory, is also provided in this area.
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a hip/leg tub (100 gal [378.50 L]),
arms/hips/leg/back tub (110 gal [416.35 L]), and a hands/
elbows/arms tub (25 gal [94.63 L]) with a hand washing lavatory in the area. The 25-gal (94.63-L) arm tank is filled using
the hip/leg tub valve. In this example, a mixing valve will be
used at a maximum flow of 15 gpm (0.95 L/sec). There is also
a shower with lavatory provided for outpatient services.
Because of the size of the facility, the dietary department provides three hot meals a day and a cold meal at night. It is a
full-service department with the following equipment: triple
compartment sink with prerinse, scrapping sink with prerinse,
dishwasher, double sink for food thawing, sink for vegetable
preparations, and a hand washing lavatory. The department
starts operation at 6:00 A.M. The department requires 140F
(60C) water at all fixtures except the hand washing lavatory,
where 110F (43C) supply water is required. A 105F (41C)
faucet outlet temperature is assumed. The dishwasher requires 180F (82C) water and the 140F (60C) water will be
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boosted at the dishwasher with an electric booster heater.

Surgical suite
The facility has two operating rooms with two double scrub
sinks in the suite, and the department runs from 6:00 A.M.
to 12:00 P.M. Monday through Friday. The department also
has two general purpose sinks, a flash sterilizer (steam is
provided from a central system), janitors receptor, two flushing rim sinks (one in recovery), and two showers with lavatories
in the locker areas.
The central sterile supply operates between 6:00 A.M. (when
surgery starts at 6:00 A.M.; otherwise 8:00 A.M.) and 4:00
P.M. The department has two gravity sterilizers, a sonic
cleaner, washer disinfector, hand washing lavatory, double
sink, and flushing rim sink with bedpan washer. The sonic
cleaner and washer disinfector are typically used once an hour.
Obstetrics/Nursery
This department has six labor and delivery rooms set up so
that the mother and infant may remain in one room for the
duration of their stay. If an overflow occurs, the surgical patient wing is adjacent to the OB and the mother is transferred
to an open room. Each room has a tub/shower with two hand
washing lavatories. The OB department shares the soiled and
clean utility rooms with the surgical patient wing.
Miscellaneous areas
Same-day surgery is a place where minor surgeries can be
performed as outpatient services (patients need not stay in
the facility overnight). The area has a general use sink and is
adjacent to the emergency room (ER), thus sharing many of
ERs fixtures. Hours are between 6:00 A.M. and 5:00 P.M.
The ER has a scrub sink, flushing rim sink with bedpan
washer, two general use sinks, a double sink, and a toilet
room with lavatory. This department is considered to be in
use 24 h a day.
Radiology is the department where X-rays are taken. The
department typically has a general use sink in each procedure room. In this example, the department has two general
radiology rooms and a CT scan room, each with a sink. The
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area also has a janitors closet with receptor, a toilet room

with lavatory, and a dark room with a sink and processor.
(You need to determine if the processor requires hot water.)
In this case, the processor is a cold water unit.
The maintenance area has a cart wash area and service
sink, both using 140F (60C) water. Also the area has male
and female staff locker rooms, each with one shower and two
lavatories.
Questions for owner or client
(This is a sample application of the questions from the previously
defined user group analysis. Answers to questions appear in boldface type.)
Patient areas and nurses stations
1. Are patient rooms private or semiprivate?
Private
2. Does each patient room have a shower/tub or is there a
central bathing area?
Shower with one central tub per wing
2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) for shower head, lavatory at
2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec)
Hydrotherapy
1. What are the number and size of each tub in the area?
1 at 100 gal (378.50 L), 1 at 110 gal (416.35 L),
and 1 at 25 gal (94.63 L)
Two
8:00 A.M. 5:00 P.M.
4. What is the required fill time for each tub? Are the tubs to
be fully filled for cleaning between patients?
15 gpm (0.95 L/sec) valve is to be used.
Yes
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103F (39C)
Yes, with a 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) shower head and
a 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec) lavatory
1. What is the number of meals provided each day?
200
2. How many dishwashers are there and what are the type,
size, gallons (liters) per cycle, cycles per hour, and temperature required for each?
One
Hobart AM14
1.2 gal/rack at 53 racks = 64 gal/cycle (4.54 L/
rack at 53 racks = 240.62 L/cycle)
One cycle/h
140F (60C)
3. What is the number of sinks, prerinse, etc. in the area
and what is the type of each?
Triple compartment sink with prerinse
Scrapping sink with prerinse
Double sink for food thawing
Single sink for vegetable prep
A hand washing lavatory
4. Are cart/can washers used and, if so, during what hours
are they operational and what temperatures are required?
Yes
Washed after meals are served
140F (60C)
Surgical suite
1. What are the hours of scheduled surgery and what is the
6:00 A.M. 12:00 P.M. typical
2. How many scrub sinks are in the suite?
Two double scrub sinks at 2.5 gpm/faucet (0.16 L/
sec/faucet)
3. What other equipment is used in the area and what tem-
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peratures are required (e.g., does the electric flash sterilizer require hot water to shorten warm-up time)?
Two sinks
Janitors receptors
Two flushing rim sinks
Steam flash sterilizer
4. How many showers are in the different locker rooms?
Two showers (1 in the locker room for each sex)
and 2 lavatories
Laundry
1. What is the number and what are the sizes of the washing machines in the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and
gallons per hour per pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
Nonefacility sends laundry out.
per hour?
3. What are the start time and the hours the department is
in operation?
1. What are the operating hours of central sterile supply
and when does startup begin?
6:00 A.M. 4:00 P.M.
2. How many times is each piece of equipment used per hour?
Sonic cleaner (5 gph [18.93 L/h]) and washer (27
gph [102.20 L/h])
3. What equipment is in the area and what is the required
water temperature, flow rate, water quality, and pressure
for each piece?
140F (60C) is needed at the equipment.
35 psig (241.32 kPa)
120F (49C) supplied at the sink and lavatory
110F (43C) and 105F (41C) outlet temperatures,
respectively
The equipment in the area is electric.
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Obstetrics/Nursery
1. Does each room have a tub/shower in it, or are there
central bathing facilities?
Individual room tub/showers and two lavatories
2. Is there a birthing room and after the birth are the mother
and infant transported to another room?
Typically, no to both questions
3. Determine the shower head flow and/or tub flow/
capacity.
2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) showers and 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/
sec) lavatories
4. What is the number of scrub sinks in the area?
None (If surgical procedure is required, patient is
transported to surgical suite.)
5. How many flushing rim sinks are in the areas departments?
It shares with the surgical patient wing.
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., lab, administration,
maintenance, autopsy, the morgue)
(Refer to the description of the facility for information.)
1. What are the flow rates of the shower heads in a given
area?
2. Check the water temperatures required in the areas.
3. Determine the acceptable time delay between the hot tap
opening and the delivery of hot water. (Keep the length of
branch piping as short as possible. Discuss this issue
with all users.)
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User group worksheets, 32-bed hospital
Worksheet 6.A User Group: Patient Area

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
Double Bowl Sink
Bathtub
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
24
2
1
1
1
1
1
10
4
1
1
10
1
1
2.5
2
2.5
2.5
7
4.5
4.5
TOTALS:
60
4
2.5
2.5
7
76

User Group Totals UF Totals;
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B:
0.1
7.6
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
600
16
2.5
2.5
70
691
0.4
276
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
0.1
0.4
0.9
3.6
Worksheet 6.A (M)User Group: Patient Area

A
Fixture
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
Double Bowl Sink
Bathtub
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
Qty.
24
2
1
1
1
1
1
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
0.16
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.44
0.28
0.28
10
4
1
1
10
1
1
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
3.84 2304.0
0.26
62.4
0.16
9.6
0.16
9.6
0.44 264
0.28
0.28
16.8
16.8
TOTALS:
4.86 2649.6
0.56
33.6
Usage Factor UF Refer to Table 6.2:

Group Totals UF Totals;
Transfer to Worksheet 6.B
0.1
0.1
0.4
0.06
13.44
0.4
0.49 1059.84
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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Worksheet 6.A User Group: Nurses Station

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
2.5
10
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
2.5
2.5
TOTALS:
9.5
0.05
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer

to Worksheet 6.B:
0.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
25
38
0.5
19
Worksheet 6.A (M) User Group: Nurses Station

A
Fixture
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
0.16
10
0.16
96
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.13
31.2
Single Bowl Sink
0.16
0.32
19.2
TOTALS:
0.61 146.4
0.1
0.5

0.03
73.2
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Hydrotherapy

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
2.5
10
2.5
25
Public Lavatory
0.5
10
0.5
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than
100 Gal
2
(4 fills) 15
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
12
TOTALS:
0.25

to Worksheet 5B:
0.75
30
0.9
103
___________
GPM GPH
30
360
30
360
0.25
27
7.5
0.9
324
Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Hydrotherapy

A
Fixture
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
0.16
10
0.16
96
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
0.50
18
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than
378.5 Liters
2
(4 fills) 0.95
12
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
39
___________
L/Sec L/H
1.89 1368
TOTALS:
0.66 114
1.89 1368
0.25
0.25

to Worksheet 5B:
0.17 102.6
0.9
0.9
0.47 1231.2
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Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Dietary & Food Service

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
0.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Public Lavatory
0.5
10
Commercial
Dishwasher
64 gphb
64
Triple Compartment
Sink
90 gphb
18
180
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
30 gphb
30
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
60 gphb
60
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse
2.5
45 gphb
2.5
45
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
10
90
54.5
469
TOTALS:
0.5
0.4
0.9
0.4

to Worksheet 6.B:
0.2
4.5
21.8

bThese values are in total gph and do not reflect min use/h.
0.9
422
Other
___________
GPM GPH
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Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Dietary & Food Service

A
Fixture
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
Commercial
Dishwasher
0.44
64
Triple Compartment
Sink
0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
0.03
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
18
0.44
242.24
340.65 L/hb
1.14
681.30
0.57
113.55 L/hb
0.57
113.55
0.57
227.1 L/hb
0.57
227.1
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse
0.16
170.33 L/hb
0.16
170.33
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
0.57
37.85 L/hb
0.57
37.85
TOTALS:
0.03
18
0.4
0.9

to Worksheet 6.B:
0.01
16.2

bThese values are in total L/h and do not reflect min use/h.
3.45 1472.37
0.4
0.9
1.38 1325.13
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Surgical Suite

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
Shower
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet
2
2
2
2
1
4
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
2
2.5
2.5
4.5
4.5
2.5
4
1
10
1
1
10
TOTALS:
4
5
5
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
16
5
50
10
100
24
171
9
4.5
9
4.5
13.5
13.5

0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
User Group Totals (UF x Totals); Transfer
to Worksheet 6.B:
12
85.5
6.8
6.8
Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Surgical Suite

A
Fixture
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.26
62.4
Single Bowl Sink
0.16
0.32
19.2
Shower
0.16
10
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.32 192
Flushing Rim Sink
0.28
0.56
33.6
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.28
16.8
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 4
0.16
10
0.64 384
TOTALS:
1.54 657.6
0.84
50.4
Usage Factor s (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
0.5
0.5
0.5

to Worksheet 6.B:
0.77 328.8
0.42
25.2
0.5
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
106
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Water
Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Central Sterile Supply

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Private Lavatory
Double Bowl Sink
2.5
2.5
2.5
Flushing Rim Sink
4.5
1
5 gphb
Sonic Cleaner
4.5
Washer/Disenfector
110
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
4.5
27 gphb
27
32
TOTALS:
4.5
10.5
4.5
4.5
13.5
0.2
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.2
0.9
User Group Totals ( UF Totals);

Transfer to Worksheet 5B:
0.9
9.5
0.9
4.1
2.7
28.8

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Central Sterile Supply

A
Fixture
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.13
31.2
Double Bowl Sink
0.16
0.16
9.6
Flushing Rim Sink
0.28
Sonic Cleaner
Washer/Disenfector 1
0.28
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.28
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
16.8
18.93 L/hb
0.28
0.57 102.2 L/hb
18.93
0.57 102.2
TOTALS:
0.29
40.8
0.28
16.8
0.2
0.9
0.2
0.9

Transfer to Worksheet 5B:
0.06
36.72
0.06
15.12

0.85 121.13
0.2
0.9
0.17 109.02
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
107
Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Obstetrics/Nursery

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
2.5
Private Lavatory
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
10
15
150
12
48
27
198
TOTALS:
Usage Factor (UF) (Refer to Table 6.2):
0.1
0.4

to Worksheet 6.B:
2.7
79.2
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
aTemperatures are at faucet outlet NOT System Temperature.
Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Obstetrics/Nursery

A
(L/Sec = A B
Fixture
41
Min ___________
Qty. L/Sec Use/H L/Sec L/H
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
0.16
10
Private Lavatory
0.13
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.96 576
0.78 187.2
TOTALS:
1.74 763.2
0.1

to Worksheet 6.B:
0.17 305.28
0.4
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
108
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Water
Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Miscellaneous Areas

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Private Lavatory
6
Single Bowl Sink
7
Double Bowl Sink
1
Shower
2
Flushing Rim Sink
1
Floor Receptor
2
Scrub Sink, Per Faucet 1
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
1
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
2
2.5
2.5
2.5
4.5
4.5
2.5
4
1
1
10
1
1
10
10
TOTALS:
12
17.5
2.5
5
2.5
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
48
17.5
2.5
50
4.5
9
39.5

110
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
9
2.5
143
13.5
13.5
90
90
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
2.0
14.3
0.7
1.4
0.5
aNote: Temperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Miscellaneous Areas

A
Fixture
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
Double Bowl Sink
Shower
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
6
7
1
2
1
2
1
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.28
0.28
0.16
4
1
1
10
1
1
10
0.57
10
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.78 187.2
1.12 67.2
0.16
9.6
0.32 192
0.28
0.56
0.16
16.8
33.6
9.6
0.57 342
TOTALS:
2.54 552
0.84
50.4
0.57 342

User Group Totals (UF Totals);
0.05
0.1
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.13
55.2
0.42
5.04
0.03
34.2
aNote: Temperatures are at faucet outlet NOT system temperature.
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
109
User group totals worksheet, 32-bed hospital

User Group
105
110
___________
___________
GPM Use/H GPM GPH
PATIENT AREA
7.6
276
NURSES STATION
0.5
19
HYDROTHERAPY
0.75
27
DIETARY & FOOD

SERVICE
SURGICAL SUITE
0.2
12
4.5
0.9
4.1
2.7
28.8
0.7
1.4
0.5
9.3
15.9
9.5
2.7
79.2
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
14.3
515
7.5
324
7.5
324
422
6.8
0.9
26.7
21.8
6.8
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY
Other (103)
___________
GPM GPH
3.6
85.5
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY
SUBTOTALS:
0.9
140
___________
GPM GPH
25
459
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
140F)b
0.61
0.61
0.67
0.67
0.59
0.59
TOTALSc

Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier:
16.2
314
6.2
10.7
25
459
4.4
191

GPM
GPH
52
976
110
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Water
Worksheet 6.B(M) User Group Totals

User Group
41
___________
L/Sec L/H
PATIENT AREA
0.49 1059.84
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.06
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other (39)
___________
L/Sec L/H
13.44
NURSES STATION
0.03
73.2
HYDROTHERAPY
0.17
102.6
DIETARY & FOOD

SERVICE
0.01
16.2
SURGICAL SUITE
0.77
328.8
0.42
25.2
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY
0.06
40.8
0.06
15.12 0.17
109.02
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY
0.17
325.28
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
0.13
55.2
0.42
5.04 0.03
34.2
SUBTOTALS:
1.83 2001.91
0.96
0.61
0.67
0.47 1231.2
1.38 1325.13
58.8
1.58 1468.35 0.47 1231.2
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
60C)b
0.61
0.67 1
0.59
0.59
TOTALSc
Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier:
L/Sec
1.12 1221.17
0.64
39.4
1.58 1468.35 0.28
L/H
726.41 3.62 3455.83

Hospitals
111
Example 6.3300-Bed Hospital

This is an example of a 300-patient-bed hospital. A facility of this
size typically is located around a metropolitan area. This is a
complete-care, 24 h/day hospital with a full-service kitchen and
a laundry (this size hospital typically produces enough laundry
to warrant its own laundry facility). Refer to the attached
worksheets for specific fixture quantities.
Description of user groups
Patient area
The hospital has 300 patient-care beds, including those in
intensive care suites, critical care suites, postsurgery rooms,
emergency suites, and patient-care rooms. The facility is divided by floor, with medical patients and surgical patients
housed on different floors. Patient rooms are private or semiprivate rooms with a shower (2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical)
and a lavatory (2.0 gpm [0.13 L/sec] typical) in each. In the
emergency care, intensive care and critical care suites, each
bed has a lavatory, and each suite has a flushing rim sink
with a bedpan washer. There are tub rooms on each floor
with a single bathtub for those who desire to take a bath.
Each floor has a clean utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5 gpm
[0.16 L/sec] typical) and a soiled utility room (double bowl
sink, hand washing lavatory, and flushing rim sink with bedpan washer). Each floor has a janitors closet with receptor.
Nurses station
Because of the size of the facility, each suite has a nurses
station, which provides service to the medical, surgical, intensive care unit, and critical care unit (CCU) patient
beds. Each station has a medical drug dispensing room (single
sink), a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink
for general use. There are also nurses stations at the emergency services area and the same-day surgery suites. These
nurses stations each have a general use sink at the station
and a toilet room with lavatory. An on-call room, which has a
shower and lavatory for staff members, is located in each of
these areas.
112
Domestic W
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Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a large hydrotherapy tub (500 gal
[1892.5 L]), 3 hip/leg tubs (100 gal [378.5 L]), arms/hips/
leg/back tubs (110 gal [416.35 L]) and a hands/elbows/
arms tub (25 gal [94.6]), and there is a hand washing
lavatory in the area. Mens and womens locker rooms with
showers and lavatories are provided for outpatient services.
The dietary department provides three hot meals a day and a
cold meal at night for all the patient rooms and the staff dining room. It is a full-service department with the following
equipment: triple compartment sink with prerinse, scraping
sink with prerinse, dishwasher, double sinks for food prep/
thawing, single sinks for vegetable preparation, and hand
washing sinks. The department starts operation at 6:00 A.M.
and could make up to 1200 meals a day. All fixtures require
140F (60C) water except the hand washing lavatory, which
requires 110F (43C) water. The dishwasher requires 180F
(82C) water, and the 140F (60C) supply water temperature
will be raised at the dishwater with an electric booster heater.
This facility also has a guest cafeteria, which serves three
meals a day and has the following equipment: triple compartment sink with prerinse, scraping sink with prerinse,
dishwasher, double sink for food thawing, single sink for vegetable preparation, and a hand washing sink.
Surgical/recovery suite
The facility has 24 operating rooms, each with two double
scrub sinks. The surgery department runs from 6:00 A.M. to
12:00 P.M. Monday through Friday with on-call services the
remainder of the time. The department also has general purpose sinks, flash sterilizers (steam is provided from a boiler
in the boiler room), two janitors receptors, flushing rim sinks
(one in recovery), and showers with lavatories in the mens
and womens staff locker areas. The area also has four toilet
rooms with lavatories and two dark rooms. Each dark room
has a sink and a processor, which requires tempered water.
Thermostatic mixing valves should be used to provide the
tempered 110F (43C) water.
Hospitals
113
Laundry
Refer to the Laundries chapter for the sizing of hot water
systems for this area.
The central sterile supply starts at 6:00 A.M. if there is scheduled surgery at that time; if not, it starts at 8:00 A.M. The
department stops at 4:00 P.M. The area has four gravity steam
sterilizers (steam is supplied from the boiler room), a sonic
cleaner, washer disinfector, cart washer, hand washing lavatories, double compartment sink with prerinse hose, and
flushing rim sink with bedpan washer. The sonic cleaner and
washer disinfector are typically used 2 cycles per hour.
Obstetrics/Nursery
The department has two delivery rooms and four separate labor rooms. Each delivery room has two scrub-up
sinks, a steam sterilizer (steam is supplied from the boiler
room), and a single wash-up sink. There is a soiled utility
room with a flushing rim sink and a single wash-up sink.
Each labor room has a toilet with lavatory.
There are three levels of nursery in this facility: one (level
I) is for the newborns requiring standard care; one (level II) is
for newborns requiring extra observation; and one (the
neonatal intensive care unit, or NICU) is for newborns requiring critical care. An isolation room is used for newborns who
need to be isolated. Each nursery has a lavatory, a single
wash-up sink, and a larger sink used to wash and bathe the
newborns. There is one shared soiled utility room with a washup sink and a flushing rim sink.
Miscellaneous areas
Same-day (outpatient) surgery is where minor surgeries are
performed as outpatient services (i.e., the patients need not
stay overnight in the facility). The area has a general use sink,
a flushing rim sink, and scrub sinks adjacent to the two operating rooms. Hours of operation are between 6:00 A.M. and
8:00 P.M.
The emergency room is in use 24 h a day. It has a scrub
sink, a flushing rim sink with bedpan washer, and a general
use sink in each of the four trauma rooms (areas used for
114
Domestic W
Water
severely injured or critical patients). Each of the 12 examination pods is equipped with a lavatory. The pelvic exam room
has a toilet with lavatory. There are two cast rooms, each
with a lavatory.
Radiology is where X-rays are taken. The department has
two general radiology rooms, three CT scan rooms, and two
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines , each with a
flushing rim sink and a lavatory. Each procedure room is
provided with a general use sink. The area also has a janitors closet with receptor, a toilet room with lavatory, and
three dark rooms, each with a sink and a cold water film
processor.
The maintenance area has a cart wash and service sink,
both using 140F (60C) water. Also the area has male and
female staff locker rooms, each with two showers and two
lavatories.
Hospitals
115
User group worksheets, 300-bed hospital
Worksheet 6.AUser Group:

Patient Area/OB/Nursery
A
Fixture
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
Qty. GPM
300
2.5
10
Public Lavatory
20
0.5
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
20
750
7500
10
10
100
10
40
2.5
50
50
12.5
Double Bowl Sink
2.5
Bathtub
Flushing Rim Sink
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
10
21
110
___________
GPM GPH
12.5
210
10
4.5
45
45
Floor Receptor
4.5
22.5
22.5
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
2.5
10
Residential Washing
Machine
4.5
TOTALS:
Transfer to Worksheet 5 B:
50
9
54
76.5
121.5
0.4
0.1
0.4
85.9 3184.8
7.7
48.8
859
0.1
7962
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
116
Domestic W
Water
Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group:

Patient Area/OB/Nursery
A
Fixture
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
300
0.16
10
20
0.03
10
0.60
360
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.65
156
Single Bowl Sink
20
0.16
3.20
192
Double Bowl Sink
0.16
0.80
48
Bathtub
0.44
10
1.32
792
10
0.28
2.8
168
Floor Receptor
0.28
1.4
84
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
0.16
10
Residential Washing
Machine
0.28
0.56
201.6
4.76
453.6
Public Lavatory
Flushing Rim Sink
TOTALS:
48.00 28 800
0.32
192
54.89 30 540
0.1

Transfer to Worksheet 6. B:
0.4 0.1
5.49 12 216
0.48
0.4
181.44
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
117

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Public Lavatory
0.5
Private Lavatory
20
Single Bowl Sink
2.5
Double Bowl Sink
2.5
Bathtub
Shower
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
10
30
40
160
12.5
12.5
10
42
420
2.5
10
15
150
110
___________
GPM GPH
Flushing Rim Sink
4.5
Floor Receptor
4.5
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than
100 Gal
3
fills/h
15
18
45
810
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than
100 Gal
2
fills/h
15
30
30
900
75
1710
Residential Washing
Machine
4.5
54
Residential
Dishwasher
4.5
27
36
99
TOTALS:
117.5
0.25
29.5
777.5
0.9
700
0.25
9
0.9
89.1
0.25
18.8
0.9
153
118
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Water

A
Fixture
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
Private Lavatory
20
0.13
0.18 108
2.6
624
Single Bowl Sink
0.16
0.80
48
Double Bowl Sink
0.16
0.32
19.2
Bathtub
0.44
10
2.64 1584
Shower
0.16
10
0.96 576
Flushing Rim Sink
0.28
0.56
33.6
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.56
33.6
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than
100 Gal
3
fills/h
0.95
18
2.85 3078
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than
100 Gal
2
fills/h
0.95
30
1.90 3420
Machine
0.28
0.56 201.6
Residential
Dishwasher
0.28
0.56 100.8
TOTALS:
7.5 2959.2
2.24 369.6
4.75 6498
0.25
0.25
0.25

1.88 2663.28
0.9
0.9
0.56 332.64
0.9
1.19 5848.2
Hospitals
119

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Public Lavatory
0.5
10
Single Bowl Sink
2.5
7.5
7.5
Double Bowl Sink
2.5
7.5
7.5
Floor Receptor
4.5
Commercial
Dishwasher
64 gphb
21
192
Triple Compartment
Sink
90 gphb
27
270
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
30 gphb
27
90
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
60 gphb
27
180
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse
2.5
45 gphb
7.5
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
10
90
119
957
TOTALS:
110
___________
GPM GPH
20
17
0.4

6.8
35
0.9
31
0.4
0.9
3.6
8.1

0.4
47
135
0.9
861
Other
___________
GPM GPH
120
Domestic W
Water

A
Fixture
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
0.12
72
Single Bowl Sink
0.16
0.48
28.8
Double Bowl Sink
0.16
0.48
28.8
Floor Receptor
0.28
Commercial
Dishwasher
0.44
242.24 L/hb
1.32
Triple Compartment
Sink
Per Faucet
0.57
340.65 L/hb
1.71 1021.95
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
0.57
113.55 L/hb
1.71
340.65
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
0.57
227.10 L/hb
1.71
681.30
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse
0.16
170.33 L/hb
0.48
510.98
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
0.57
0.57
342
0.56
33.6
10
TOTALS:
1.08 129.6
0.56
33.6
0.4
0.4
0.9

0.43 116.64
0.9
0.22
726.72
7.50 3623.6
0.4
0.9
30.24 3.00 3261.24

Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
121
Worksheet 6.AUser Group: Surgical Suite

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Public Lavatory
10
0.5
10
50
Single Bowl Sink
10
2.5
25
25
Double Bowl Sink
2.5
30
300
Shower
110
___________
GPM GPH
12
2.5
10
Flushing Rim Sink
4.5
18
18
Floor Receptor
4.5
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
30
2.5
10
27
27
TOTALS:
75
750
140
113
0.5
70
0.5
565
0.5
13
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
0.5
13
Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Surgical Suite

A
Fixture
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Public Lavatory
10
0.03
10
0.30
Single Bowl Sink
10
0.16
1.60
96
Double Bowl Sink
0.16
0.32
19.2
1.92
Shower
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
180
12
0.16
10
Flushing Rim Sink
0.28
1152
1.12
67.2
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.56
33.6
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
30
0.16
10
4.80 2880
TOTALS:
8.94 4327.2
1.68 100.8
0.5
0.5
0.5

4.47 2163.6
0.84
50.4
0.5
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
122
Domestic W
Water
Worksheet 6.A User Group: Central Sterile Supply

A
Fixture
Public Lavatory
Double Bowl Sink
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
Sonic Cleaner
Washer/Disenfector
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
4
4
2
1
0.5
2.5
4.5
4.5
10
1
1
1
2.5
45 gphb
90
1
1
1
9
4.5
9
10
5 gphb
27 gphb
9
4.5
9
90
5
27
TOTALS:
2
20
110
___________
GPM GPH
20
10
9
4.5
12

0.2
2.4
Other
___________
GPM GPH
30
0.9
27
14
0.2
2.7
9
4.5
14
0.9
12
28
0.2
5.5
212
0.9
191

Worksheet 6.A(M)User Group: Central Sterile Supply

A
Fixture
Public Lavatory
Double Bowl Sink
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinse
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
Sonic Cleaner
Washer/Disenfector
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
10
1
1
1
0.12
0.64
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
4
4
2
1
0.03
0.16
0.28
0.28
72
38.4
0.16 170.33 L/hb
0.32 340.66
1
1
1
0.57 10
0.28 18.93 L/hb
0.57 102.20 L/hb
0.57 342
0.28 18.93
0.57 102.20
0.56
0.28
33.6
16.8
TOTALS:
0.76 110.4
0.84
50.4

0.2
0.9
0.2
0.9
0.15
99.36
0.17
45.36

1.74 803.79
0.2
0.9
0.35 723.41
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Hospitals
123

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Public Lavatory
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
Double Bowl Sink
Shower
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
20
30
36
8
7
18
4
0.5
2
2.5
2.5
2.5
4.5
4.5
10
4
1
1
10
1
1
10
60
90
20
17
2.5
10
10
10
TOTALS:
208

0.05
10
110
___________
GPM GPH
81
18
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
100
240
90
20
175
81
18
100
725
0.1
72
99
99
90
90
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
9.9
0.5

A
Fixture
Public Lavatory
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
Double Bowl Sink
Shower
Flushing Rim Sink
Floor Receptor
Scrub Sink,
Per Faucet
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
20
30
36
8
7
18
4
0.03
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.16
0.28
0.28
10
4
1
1
10
1
1
0.60
3.9
5.76
1.28
1.12
0.16
10
0.64 384
0.57
10
TOTALS:
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
360
936
345.6
76.8
672
5.04 302.4
1.12 67.2
0.57 342
13.3 2774.4
0.05
0.1
0.67 277.44
6.16 369.6
0.57 342
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.31
36.96
0.02
34.2
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
124
Domestic W
Water
User group totals worksheet, 300-bed hospital
Worksheet 6.B User Group Totals

User Group
105
110
___________
___________
GPM Use/H GPM GPH
PATIENT AREA
85.9 3,184.8
7.7
48.8
29.5
89.1
140
___________
GPM GPH
103
___________
GPM GPH
NURSES STATION
HYDROTHERAPY
DIETARY & FOOD
SERVICE
SURGICAL SUITE
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY
6.8
70
2.4
700
3.6
8.1
565
31.5
13.5
13.5
47.6
861
27
2.7
12.2
5.5
191
72.5
4.95
9.9
0.45
18.8
153
18.8
153
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
SUBTOTALS:
10.4
204.9 4,581
41.5
181.6
53.6 1061
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
140F)b
0.61
0.61
0.67
0.67
0.59
0.59
TOTALSc
140F

Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier:
124.9 2,794.4
27.8
121
53.6 1061
11.1
90
Note: Totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A.

GPM
GPH
217
3,111
Hospitals
125
Worksheet 6.B(M)User Group Totals

User Group
41
43
60
Other (39)
______________
_____________
_____________
_____________
L/Sec
L/H
L/Sec L/H L/Sec
L/H L/Sec L/H
PATIENT AREA
5.49
12 216
0.48
181.44
2 663.28
0.56
332.64
116.64
0.22
30.24
0.84
50.4
NURSES STATION
HYDROTHERAPY
1.88
DIETARY & FOOD

SERVICE
0.43
SURGICAL SUITE
4.47
CENTRAL STERILE
SUPPLY
0.15
99.36
0.17
45.36
0.35
723.41
0.67
277.44
0.31
36.96
0.02
34.2
13.09
17 536.32
2.58
677.04
0.61
0.61
0.67
0.67
2 163.6
1.19 5848.2
3.00 3261.24
OBSTETRICS &
NURSERY
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
SUBTOTALS:
3.37 4018.85 1.19 5848.2
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
60C)b
0.59
0.59
TOTALSc

Subtotals Hot
Water Multiplier:
L/Sec
7.98
10 697.16
1.73
453.62
L/H
3.37 4018.85 0.70 3450.44 13.78 18 620.07
Note: Totals are taken from Worksheet 6.A

Spas, Pools, Health Clubs, and Athletic Centers
127
SPAS, POOLS,
HEALTH CLUBS,
AND ATHLETIC
CENTERS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides guidelines for determining the hot water
requirements for spas, pools, health clubs, and athletic centers.
INFORMATION GATHERING
The accuracy of the calculated hot water requirements will only
be as good as the accuracy of the information used to determine
the requirements. Therefore, a significant portion of the design
time should be allotted to information gathering and validation.
This is especially true if unique therapies or special treatments
will be performed at the facility.
Sources of information include the following:
1. The architects design documents,
2. The interior design documents,
3. The architect,
4. The interior designer,
5. The owner,
6. The spa manager or coordinator,
7. The therapist,
8. Maintenance personnel,
9. Comparisons with similar facilities, and
10. Cut sheets on each piece of equipment.
Information will be used to determine:
128
Domestic W
Water
1. Which fixtures require hot water,

2. The number and types of fixture required,
3. Shower room requirements,
4. Peak usage times,
5. The types of therapy specific to each room, such as:
Manicure,
Pedicure,
Vichy showers,
Hydro showers,
Body showers,
Massages.
6. Hot water requirements, such as:
Water temperature (for each type of therapy),
Demand required,
Recovery required.
7. Any special requirements that may be typical to this facility.
HOT WATER REQUIREMENTS

Therapies/Special Needs
The therapy load can oftentimes be a significant load. This needs
to be carefully evaluated. Coordinating with the health club/spa
staff, including the therapist, managers, and maintenance staff,
is very important. The owner, architect, or interior designer usually determines the quantities of fixtures.
The hot water requirements of therapies and special needs
can be affected by such things as:
1. The schedule of each type of therapy per room per hour and
the number of therapy rooms.
2. Whether cleaning/maintenance is required between therapies.
3. What temperature is required for different therapies.
4. What other activities are happening concurrently with the
therapies.
5. The maximum flows for the equipment used.
129
6. The actual time of operation per therapy for each fixture.

The different therapies are listed below with their typical associated water temperature(s). These temperatures can vary
according to therapist and client. Manufacturers should be contacted for the flow rates of the equipment.
1. Vichy shower (requires two temperatures):
Hot water temperature 101F (38C),
Cold water temperature 80F (27C).
2. Swiss showers
Range in temperature from 80 to 101F (27 to 38C).
3. Mineral salt bath
Constant temperature of 101F (38C).
4. Water path (lower leg/ankle therapies typically consisting of
two water paths)
Cold water path 55F (13C),
Hot water path 105F (41C).
5. Hydrotherapy tub
Temperature will change based on type of hydrotherapy procedure.
6. Manicures/pedicures
Constant temperature of 95F (35C).
Shower Rooms
The locker room shower load must also be considered. Typically
showers will operate concurrently with the therapies. The quantity of showers is usually determined by the owners requirements,
the architects design, and/or code requirements. Facilities often
include areas with showers designed for specific functions, such
as family changing areas and childrens locker rooms. These areas
need to be evaluated for their use during the peak hours of operation.
The hot water requirements of the showers can be affected by
such things as:
1. Hours of operation.
2. Occupancy at different hours. It should be noted that the
occupancy will vary throughout the day. This list is only a
guide; the occupancy may vary with location and owners re-
130
Domestic W
Water
quirements.
Early morning, 5:00 to 8:00 A.M.workforce, young professionals.
Late morning, 8:00 to 11:00 A.M.parents with/without
children, older or retired people.
Noon, 11:30 A.M. to 1:30 P.M.workforce, young professionals.
Afternoon, 1:30 TO 4:00 P.M.parents with children, older
or retired people.
Early evening, 4:00 to 6:00 P.M.the after work crowd,
young professionals.
Late evening, 7:00 to 9:00 P.M.families and single people.
3. Maximum flow rate of shower heads.
4. Special fixtures required.
5. Duration of showers.
6. Type of clients using the facility.
Note: It is not unusual for 25 to 50% of the showers in health
club facilities to be operating throughout the day. It is anticipated that during the peak hour 100% of the showers will operate
simultaneously.
Other Demands
There may be other demands associated with these facilities, depending on owner preferences. If any of these other services are
specified, they too must be considered in the overall hot water
calculation. These demands are usually not large and need to be
added to the overall system capacity.
1. Laundry demand,
2. Food service demand.
CALCULATING THE HOT WATER DEMAND

Hot water demand for spas can be divided into several categories: general purpose, therapies, showers, laundries, and/or food
service. It is important to determine which, if any, of these loads
will occur at the same time and what the duration of the overlap
will be. As a general rule, if the facility is a full-service spa, including therapies, weight training, aerobics, etc., a system
131
designed for both the therapies and the shower area should be
considered. If food service is also included, then this must be
considered in the calculations. If there will not be concurrent
usage, then the system can be designed according to the maximum demand during the peak hour. Consideration needs to be
given to providing two water heaters, each sized for 60% of the
total demand required.
Nursing/Inter
mediate Care and Retirement Homes
Nursing/Intermediate
133
NURSING/
INTERMEDIATE CARE
AND
RETIREMENT HOMES
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to guide the designer step by step
through the procedure of designing a domestic water heating system for a nursing/intermediate care and retirement home. It is
important for the designer to realize that there is a difference between designing a domestic water heating system for this type of
facility and designing one for any other type of building.
The first section of this chapter addresses design considerations and areas of concern. The second gives user group
requirements and offers an analysis to appraise. A third section
contains worksheets, and the final section presents a design
example.
The designer is charged with identifying the variables, calculating the demand, and assuming the responsibility for laying
out an economical and efficient system to provide hot water to a
facilitys plumbing fixtures and other terminal points. The procedure presented here will help predict the minimum amount of
hot water needed by the facility.
Nursing care facilities typically have residents who require
nursing supervision in an inpatient setting. These residents generally have health issues or are frail from age, both of
which may adversely affect their mobility and ability to care for
themselves. These facilities offer 24 h per day care and typically
are regulated by the state department of health.
Intermediate care facilities typically have residents who either desire or need nursing supervision. These residents are
healthier and more mobile than the residents of nursing care
134
Domestic W
Water
facilities and may still be able to care for themselves. The nursing supervision is provided for general assistance and emergency
care.
Retirement homes, as discussed in this chapter, are understood to be facilities that are either adjacent or attached to
nursing/intermediate care units. The facilities are so arranged
to enable the spouse/friend of a person in the nursing care unit
to be close by and aid in care. Residents of these facilities are
fully mobile and capable of taking care of themselves. Medical
assistance is available, however, if it is needed. Retirement homes
are similar to apartment complexes for the elderly.
Safety and Health Concerns
See Chapter 1 for a discussion of Legionella pneumophila
(Legionnaires disease) and scalding.
USER GROUP ANALYSIS

The specific areas of a facility, called user groups, should each
be considered when determining hot water usage. The user groups
identified below are typical of either a large or a small nursing/
intermediate care and retirement home. (Each facility must be
reviewed to determine its layout.) The general outline that follows may be used for each user group.
General Outline
Identify the following for each user group:
1. Fixtures requiring hot water,
2. Whether the fixtures are public or private,
3. Water temperature and pressure requirements for each fixture,
4. Flow rates for each fixture,
5. The usage pattern of each fixture.
Nursing/Inter
135
User Groups
Nursing/Intermediate care facility
Resident areas
General resident areas in a nursing/intermediate care
facility typically are sleeping quarters, which may be shared
(double rooms are usual) and each of which has its own toilet
room. People living in this type of facility typically require
constant, specialized care.
1. Are resident rooms private or semiprivate?
2. Does each resident room have a shower/tub or is there a
3. Does each room have a lavatory?
4. The flow from each type of fixture.
Areas of concern:
1. Many codes require 110F (43C) water in the resident
area to prevent scalding (refer to the discussion of scalding in Chapter 1).
2. If the resident rooms each have a tub/shower, high hot
water usage is possible.
Nurses station
A nurses station is the area where the nursing staff work is
centralized for the area it serves. Staff members prepare medicine and simple food and drink items for residents and do
their required paperwork and general cleanup.
Typically a staff toilet with a hand washing lavatory is
located nearby. Nourishment and medication rooms typically have sinks in them. The clean and soiled utility rooms
are in the vicinity of the station. The clean utility room typically has a single bowl sink while the soiled utility room
typically has a double bowl sink, hand washing lavatory,
and a flushing rim sink (also known as a clinic sink) with a
bedpan washer. There may also be a bedpan sanitizer, and if
so, the hot water requirements of this unit will need to be
addressed.
136
Domestic W
Water
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area is where therapy using water
occurs. The therapies may involve many different temperatures of water, but all include some hot water usage. The
therapy tubs in the area may come in many sizes, from 50gal to 500-gal (189.25-L to 1892.50-L) capacity or larger.
1. The number and size of each tub in the area.
2. For each type of tub, the number of planned therapies
per hour.
3. The hours the department is in use.
4. Desired fill time for each tub. (Staff will fill tub as rapidly
as possible.) Also determine whether the tubs are fully or
partially filled for cleaning between therapies.
5. Water temperatures used for the therapies.
6. Whether there is a shower for bathing purposes in the
area. (It could be in use at the same time the tub is being
cleaned or refilled.)
Areas of concern:
1. Tub filling is desired to be as fast as possible.
2. Temperature is critical. (The staff will not accept an inadequate hot water supply.)
The dietary department provides three meals a day.
Most dietary departments are designed by food service consultants, who should be contacted and consulted.
1. The number of meals provided for each meal or day. Consult the food service consultant.
2. The number of dishwashers and, for each, its type, size,
gallons (liters) per cycle, cycles per hour, and required
temperature.
3. Number of sinks in the area and the type of each (prerinse,
etc.). Obtain water usages from the food service consultant or use Table 8.1.
Nursing/Inter
137
used and what temperatures are desired for them?
5. Are the elevated water temperatures, e.g., 180F (82C),
to be boosted at the equipment or is a separate water
heating system desired?
Areas of concern:
1. Water temperatures and pressures in the area. Typically
two and sometimes three temperatures are needed: 110F
(43C) for hand washing, 140F (60C) for dietary use,
and 180F (82C) for dishwashing. Some of the equipment may have higher or lower than water line pressure
requirements.
2. The department usually has early operating hours and
runs simultaneously with other departments.
3. The department has a high water consumption.
Central bathing
Central bathing is where staff members aid residents who
cannot bathe themselves and where, if individual rooms do
not have their own tubs/showers, all the residents shower/
bathe. The area typically has a shower, a residential style
tub, and a specialized bathing tub for nonambulatory residents.
1. The hours of scheduled bathing and the typical starting
time.
2. The type of specialized tub and the amount of water it
requires.
3. The layout of the fixtures. (Does it match the room layout
noted above?)
Areas of concern:
1. The suites scheduled operating hours and the number of
planned baths per hour.
2. Determine the maximum number of baths that may be
performed per hour in the tub. Assume that when staff
members aid residents in bathing, the maximum number
possible will be done.
138
Domestic W
Water
Laundry
A nursing care facility produces a large amount of laundry.
The size of the facility determines the size of the laundry department. Not all facilities have their own laundry department;
some opt to send the laundry to an outside service.
1. The number and size of each washing machine in the
area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons of hot water
per hour per pound or per cycle [liters of hot water per
hour per kilogram or per cycle]).
2. The planned number of laundry operations (loads) per
hour per machine.
3. The departments start time and hours of operation.
Areas of concern:
1. The laundry departments schedule of operation. The department commonly begins operating in the early A.M.,
which is the same time other areas of the facility begin
startup (i.e., during hot water peak demand). The filling
of the washers is typically the first thing done at startup.
The probability that the washing machines will fill simultaneously is high during startup.
Refer to the Laundries chapter for the sizing of hot water systems for this area. Due to the elevated water
temperatures required, separate water heating systems may
have to be used.
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., administration and
maintenance)
The facility has many other areas with fixtures requiring hot
water beside those noted above. Most of these areas have
sinks, hand washing lavatories, and staff shower rooms.
1. In areas where showers are located, the flow rates of the
shower heads.
2. The water temperatures needed in those areas (maintenance may desire 140F [60C] temperatures for cleanup
or washdown areas).
Nursing/Inter
139
Areas of concern:
1. The times that these areas are in use overlap the usage
times of many of the other specific user groups. Though
the fixtures may be few, they still are used and should be
considered when doing calculations.
Retirement home
Resident areas
General resident areas in a retirement home are typically private apartments.
1. Number of bedrooms in each apartment and thus the
number of occupants to be considered.
2. The number and types of fixture in each apartment.
3. Does each apartment have a dishwasher and/or separate
laundry area?
4. The flow from each type of fixture.
Areas of concern:
1. Though codes may not require 110F (43C) water for this
type of facility (because of the generally adequate health
of its occupants) that water temperature might be considered to prevent scalding (see the discussion of scalding
in Chapter 1).
Laundry
Since a retirement home is similar to an apartment complex,
the facility may have a laundry room with a number of residential type washing machines.
1. The number of washing machines in the area and the size
of each (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons of hot water per hour per pound or per cycle [liters of hot water per
hour per kilogram or per cycle]).
2. The planned number of laundry operations (loads) per
hour per machine.
3. The rooms start time and the hours it is open for use.
140
Domestic W
Water

Areas of concern:
1. The laundry rooms scheduled hours of operation. Since
residents use this area, its hours of use are not regulatedthus, it could be used at any time. There is a
possibility that the washing machines will fill simultaneously.
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., administration and
maintenance)
The facility has many other areas with fixtures requiring hot
water beside those noted above. Most of these areas have
sinks, hand washing lavatories, and public toilet rooms. If
the facility adjoins a nursing care facility, these areas may be
shared with the nursing care facility. The items that need to
be determined and areas of concern are the same as those
noted above for a nursing care facility.
WORKSHEETS AND TABLES

This worksheet may be copied by the designer for use in calculating the hot water requirements for an individual user group. A
different sheet should be used for each user group. All water
quantity usage figuresgallons per hour (gph), liters per hour
(L/h), gallons per minute (gpm), liters per second (L/sec), and
minutes of use per hour (min use/h)are suggested. The designer must ascertain the correct quantities through actual
fixture/device/equipment literature (e.g., shop drawings) and/
or discussions with the owner and/or user.
The fixture column lists fixtures in a facility that use hot
water. The designer may add other fixtures to this list if necessary. The quantity column indicates the number of those fixtures
located in the user group area. Gpm (L/sec) is the flow rate
from the fixture used in the calculation. Min use/h is
the estimated use of the fixture in 1 h.
The next section, temperature at outlet, is for the water
temperature at the faucet outlet not the system temperature. This
is important, since cold water will be added to the system hot
water to obtain the desired outlet temperature. Because of this,
Nursing/Inter
141
the flow from the faucet is not all hot water. Table 1.1 is used to
determine the actual amount of hot water needed at the faucet
outlet. The temperature at outlet section is split into four subsections, each having a different faucet outlet water temperature.
For the last subsection, labeled other, any temperature may be
used, but the temperature must be the same for all fixtures used
in that column. Each temperature subsection is split into two
more subsections, gpm (L/sec) and gph (L/h). The equation
for each is noted on the worksheet.
When the fixtures in the user group are tabulated,
each column is added and the totals are placed at the bottom of
the sheet under totals. The user group usage factors for gpm
(L/sec) and gph (L/h) are found in Table 8.2. Each total is multiplied by the appropriate usage factor to get the user group totals,
which are used on Worksheet 8.B User Group Totals. The
user group totals are the amount of hot water predicted to be
used in a particular user group during the peak hour(s). Designers should use their best judgment when working with these
figures.
142
Domestic W
Water

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
C
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Bathroom group
tub/shower & lavatory
2.5
10
Public lavatory
0.5
10
Private lavatory
Single bowl sink
2.5
Double Bowl Sink
2.5
Bathtub
10
Shower
2.5
10
4.5
Floor receptor
4.5
2.5
10
15
Large hydro-tub
(more than 100 gal)
15
110
___________
GPM GPH
Flushing rim sink
Small hydro-tub
(less than 100 gal)
Laundry tub
4.5
Residential washing
machine
4.5
4.5

per faucet
Commercial kitchen,
single sink
Commercial kitchen,
double sink
Commercial kitchen,
prerinse
2.5
Hose station or
cart/can wash
10
TOTALS:
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8. B:
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
Nursing/Inter
143
Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group

A
Fixture
Qty.
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower & Lavatory
0.16
10
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
Private Lavatory
0.13
Single Bowl Sink
0.16
Double Bowl Sink
0.16
Bathtub
0.44
10
Shower
0.16
10
Flushing Rim Sink
0.28
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.16
10
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than 378.5 L
0.95
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than 378.5 L
0.95
Laundry Tub
0.28
Residential Washing
Machine
0.28
Residential Dishwasher
0.28
Commercial Dishwasher
0.44
Triple Compartment Sink

Per Faucet
0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
0.57
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse
0.16
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
0.57
10
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
TOTALS:
Usage Factors ( UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):
User Group Totals ( UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B:
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
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This worksheet may be copied by the designer for use in calculating a facilitys hot water requirements. The totals found at the
bottom of the sheet indicate the predicted amount of hot water
the facility will use during the peak usage hour. Designers should
use their best judgment when working with these numbers to
determine the amount of hot water supplied to the facility.
The items in the first, or user group, column are obtained
from Worksheet 8.A. As seen, the user group totals from
Worksheet 8.A are placed in the columns under the appropriate
temperature at outlet, gpm (L/sec), and gph (L/h) headings.
All of the user group totals for gpm (L/sec) are added together
and the resulting number is placed in the Subtotals section
near the bottom of the worksheet. This also is done for the gph
(L/h) figures.
Designers need to determine when more than one hot water
heater supply temperature (e.g., 105F, 110F, 140F [41C, 43C,
60C]) will be required in the facility. When more than one water
heater is required to supply different temperatures, separate
Worksheets 8.A and 8.B should be used for each water heater
system. Subtotal each temperature at outlet column, use Table
1.1 to look up the hot water multiplier for the system water temperature supplied to the facility, then multiply each
subtotal by its appropriate multiplier. When this is done, total
the actual gpm (L/sec) and gph (L/h) demands for the system
water temperature supplied to the facility (the bottom row of the
worksheet), and put the resulting numbers under totals at the
bottom right of the worksheet. These totals are the gpm (L/sec)
and gph (L/h) the water heater(s) are required to supply to the
facility. Designers should use their best judgment when working
with these figures.
Nursing/Inter
145
Worksheet 8.B User Group Totals

User Group
105
110
___________
___________
GPM Use/H GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
Nursing care facility

Resident area
Nurses station
Hydrotherapy
Dietary &
food service
Central bathing
Miscellaneous areas
Retirement home
Resident rooms
Miscellaneous areas
SUBTOTALS:
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ F)b
TOTALSc
Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier:
GPM
GPH
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User Group
41
___________
L/Sec L/H
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H

Resident area
Nurses station
Hydrotherapy
Dietary &
food service
Central bathing
Miscellaneous areas
Retirement home
Resident rooms
Miscellaneous areas
SUBTOTALS:
(Water Heater Temp.
_____ C)b
TOTALSc
Subtotals Hot Water
Multiplier:
L/Sec
L/H
Nursing/Inter
147
Worksheet 8.AUser GroupExample

This is a copy of Worksheet 8.A with recommendations on temperature at outlet and other comments. (See worksheet footnotes.)
Designers should use their best judgment and take into account
national, state, and local codes when considering these recommendations.
Worksheet 8.AUser Group Example

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatoryb,c
Public Lavatoryb
Private Lavatoryb
Single Bowl Sinkb
Double Bowl Sinkb
Bathtube
Showerb
Flushing Rim Sinkf
Floor Receptorf
Small Hydro-Tub
Less Than 100 Gald
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than 100 Gald
Laundry Tubf
Residential Washing
Machinef
Residential Dishwasherf
Commercial Dishwasherj
Triple Compartment Sink
Per Fauceth,i
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sinkh,i
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sinkh,i
Commercial Kitchen
Prerinseg
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Washh
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
2.5
0.5
2
2.5
2.5
7
2.5
4.5
4.5
10
10
4
1
1
10
10
1
1
Based on
15
tub size
Based on
15
tub size
4.5
1
*l
*
*
*
*
*
*
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
4.5
6
4.5
3
7 Equip. used
*
*
*
*
*
90
30
60
2.5
45
10
TOTALS:
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B:
(Continued)
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(Worksheet 8.A Example continued)

Note: GPM calculation is for a semi-instantaneous water heating system. GPH
calculation is for a storage type water heating system.
bBased on ANSI standard of 2.5 gpm for showerheads, 2.5 gpm for sinks, 2.0 gpm
for lavatories, and 0.5 gpm for public lavatories.
eSame as d except 2 baths per hour.
fBased on 4.5 gpm and in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec
maximum velocity.
hNine gpm based on in. hot water supply running full open at 6 ft/sec maximum velocity.
iBased on Table 8.1, General Purpose Hot Water Requirements for Various Kitches
Uses (gph).
use figure.
Nursing/Inter
149
Worksheet 8.A(M)User GroupExample

A
Fixture
Qty.
Bathroom group
tub/shower &
1,2
lavatoryb,c
Public lavatoryb
1
b
Private lavatory
1
Single bowl sinkb
1
Double bowl sinkb
1
Bathtube
4
Showerb
1
Flushing rim sinkf
5
Floor receptorf
5
Small hydro-tubd
(less than 378.5 L) 3
Large hydro-tubd
(more than 378.5 L) 3
Laundry tubf
5
Residential washing
machinef
5
Residential
dishwasherf
5
Commercial
dishwasherj
9
Triple compartment
sink per fauceth,i 7,8
Commercial kitchen
single sinkh,i
7,8
Commercial kitchen
double sinkh,i
7,8
Commercial kitchen
prerinseg
6
Hose station or
cart/can washh
7
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
0.16
0.03
0.13
0.16
0.16
0.44
0.16
0.28
0.28
10
10
4
1
1
10
10
1
1
Based on
0.95 Tub Size
Based on
0.95 Tub Size
0.28
1
0.28
*l
*
*
*
*
*
*
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
0.28
3
Equip.
0.44 used
*
*
0.57 k
340.65
0.57
113.55
0.57
227.10
0.16
170.33
0.57
10
TOTALS:
User Group Totals (UF Totals); Transfer to Worksheet 8.B
(Continued)
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(Worksheet 8.A[M] Example continued)

Note: L/sec calculation is for a semi-instantaneous water heating system. L/h
calculation is for a storage type water heating system.
bBased on ANSI Standard of 0.16 L/sec for showerheads, 0.16 L/sec for sinks,
0.13 L/sec for lavatories, and 0.03 L/sec for public lavatories.
eSame as d except 2 baths per hour.
fBased on 0.28 L/sec and DN15 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/sec
maximum velocity.
h0.57 L/sec based on DN20 hot water supply running full open at 1.83 m/sec
maximum velocity.
Uses (L/h).
use figure.
Nursing/Inter
151
Table 8.1General Purpose Hot Water Requirements

for Various Kitchen Uses
This table, which supplies information on water usage for various kitchen uses, should be used for the dietary and food service
user group.

Requirements for Various Kitchen Uses
Equipment
GPH
L/H
Vegetable sink
45
170.33
Single compartment sink
30
113.55
60
227.10
90
340.65
180
681.30
45
170.33
240
908.40
40
151.40
Bar sink
30
113.55
18.93
Lavatories (each)
Source: Values are extracted from Dunn et al. [1959] 1989. Chapter 4. ASPE Data
Book. Table 9.
Note: Requirements are for water at 140F (60C).
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Table 8.2Usage Factors for User Groups

This table provides the recommended usage factors for use with
Worksheet 8.A. The following discussion gives the background of
how these numbers were determined. (They represent a consensus of opinion of a group of experienced designers; however,
designers should use their best judgment when working with
these figures).

Nursing/Intermediate Care Facility User Groups
Resident
Area
GPM (L/Sec)
GPH (L/H)
0.10
0.30
Nurses
Station
0.05
0.50
Hydrotherapy
Dietary
& Food
Service
Central
Bathing
Misc.
Areas
0.25
0.90
0.40
0.90
0.25
0.90
0.05
0.10
Retirement Home User Groups

GPM (L/Sec)
GPH (L/H)
Resident Rooms
Laundry
Misc. Areas
0.10
0.40
0.50
0.75
0.05
0.10
Note: Based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h peak period.
General
The gpm (L/sec) figure is based on the possibility that every hot
water using fixture will be operated in any 1 min (sec). The gph
(L/h) figure is based on the possibility that every hot water using fixture will be operated during a 1-h period.
These figures are based on a peak usage hour with a 3-h
peak period.
Nursing/Intermediate care facility
Resident area
Many residents in nursing care areas are not ambulatory and
require staff assistance to use the toilet/bathing facilities.
Residents of intermediate care areas generally are ambulatory and thus can use the shower facilities without assistance.
The lavatory is a fixture that is heavily used by the staff.
The 0.10 (10%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is based
Nursing/Inter
153
on the fact that not all residents use their fixtures during the
same minute. Also, fixtures in this user group flow less water
per minute than fixtures elsewhere and are used for short
periods of time.
the fact that fixtures in this user group use less water than
fixtures elsewhere and are used for short periods of time.
Nurses station
This user group is in use 24 h a day but typically is used
most heavily during shift changes. This is because of the
preparation necessary before residents can be aided.
on the relationship between the staff and residents. During a
peak 3-h period of hot water use, the resident area is used
more heavily than the nurses station. Since many residents
need assistance using the bathing/shower facilities, staff
members are in the resident area aiding residents and not at
the nurses station using the fixtures there.
The 0.5 (50%) usage factor for the gph (L/h) is also based
on these same issues, but because of the time staff members
spend at the nurses station organizing/distributing medicines and doing other work, the hand washing fixtures there
are used extensively.
Hydrotherapy
When in operation, this area is a large water user. The therapy
staff can be split between the physical therapy and the hydrotherapy areas.
on the cyclical use of the hydrotherapy tubs and on the assumption that staff members are also doing physical therapy.
the assumption that during the peak usage time, almost all of
the fixtures in this area are in use. This assumes that the
staff schedules the water therapies during one time and the
physical therapies during another.
This area is a large water user. Depending on the size of the
facility, the usage of water for cooking and for cleaning may over-
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lap.
The 0.40 (40%) usage factor for the gpm (L/sec) is
based on the assumption that cleaning (washing of dishes,
etc.) does not occur in the same minute as food preparation. Also, it assumes that the sinks are filled and then
work is done using an intermittent, not a steady, water supply.
the assumption that most of the area fixtures are used during one of the hours of the facilitys peak usage time.
Central bathing
When in operation, this area is a large water user. Staff members set a schedule for bathing nonambulatory residents, and
during that time only one bathing fixture is used. The worst
case scenario is when the residents are assisted by staff. This
is because the staff are on a schedule and bathe the residents based on that schedule.
on the use of one tub at a time in each room (assuming each
room has a shower, a residential tub, and a non-ambulatory
residents bathing tub). Also taken into consideration was
the time needed for the staff to get the residents and to dry
them off.
the fact that during peak usage time almost all of the fixtures
in this area are used.
Miscellaneous areas
The rest of the facility uses water, but not during the facilitys
peak usage time and not as much as those areas already
discussed. This is because most of the staff are not in the
miscellaneous areas. These areas should be taken into account, though, because water using fixtures are available and
used there.
on the fact that a very small number of the fixtures are used
during 1 min of the facilitys peak usage time.
the fact that most of the fixtures in these areas are not used
during the facilitys peak usage hour.
Nursing/Inter
155
Retirement home
Resident rooms
The residents of a retirement home are ambulatory and do not
require staff assistance to use the toilet/bathing facilities. As
noted earlier, this type of facility is similar to an apartment
building, but its residents are of a uniform age group.
on the fact that when the shower is in use, the rooms
lavatory and kitchen sink are not in use during the same
minute, and not all residents are using the fixtures.
the fact that the kitchen sink and either the shower or the
lavatory are used during an hour of peak usage time.
Laundry
The laundry area of a retirement home is smaller than one
for a typical apartment building. This is because the usage
time for a retirement home laundry is more spread out over
the course of the day since residents typically do not work.
on the assumption that when one washer starts its filling
cycle another is being filled with clothes, and the second
machines cycle begins when the first washer is still filling.
Though the two washers fill at the same time, it is assumed
that only half of the other washers are in use in the peak
moment. Also, when a resident is using the washers, the fixtures in his/her apartment are not in use.
most of the washers being used during a peak usage period.
Also, there is the possibility that a resident may leave the
laundry room and go back to his/her room and use the fixtures there.
Miscellaneous areas
Though the rest of the facilitys fixtures use water, they are
not heavily used fixtures. That is because, if the facility is
separate from the nursing care facility, the staff is small. If it
is attached to the nursing care facility, staff members are
generally in the other areas. Miscellaneous areas should be
taken into account, though, because water using fixtures are
available and used there.
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on the assumption that only a very small number of the fixtures are used during any 1 min of the facilitys peak usage
time.
the assumption that most of the fixtures in these areas are not
used during the facilitys peak usage hour.
QUESTIONS FOR OWNER OR CLIENT

Nursing/Intermediate Care Facility
Resident areas/Nurses stations
Hydrotherapy
1. What are the number and sizes of the tubs in the area?
4. What is the desired fill time for each tub?
5. Are the tubs fully filled for cleaning between therapies?
1. What is the number of meals provided for each mealtime/
day?
2. How many dishwashers are there and what are the type, size,
gallons (liters) per cycle, cycles per hour, and temperature
required for each?
3. What are the type and number of sinks, prerinses, etc., in
the area?
Nursing/Inter
157
used and what temperatures are desired?
Central bathing
1. What are the hours of scheduled bathing and the typical starting time?
2. What is the number of tubs/showers?
3. What is the number of nonambulatory resident bathing tubs,
and what are their types and water demands?
4. Is there a desired temperature of the water the staff uses to
bathe residents?
Laundry
1. What are the number and sizes of the washing machines in
per hour?
3. What are the start time and the hours the department is in
use?
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., administration and maintenance)
1. If there are areas with showers, determine the flow rates of
the shower heads.
2. What are the water temperatures needed in these areas?
3. What is the acceptable time delay between the hot tap opening and the delivery of acceptable water (due to the length of
the branch piping)?
Retirement Home
Resident areas/apartments
1. Are resident rooms single or double bedroom units?
2. Is the facility set up so that the spouse of a person in nursing
or intermediate care has priority use?
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3. What is the flow from shower heads or the tub flow/

capacities?
4. Do the apartments have dishwashers/ washing machines or
the possibility of the addition of such in the future?
Laundry
1. What are the number and sizes of the washing machines in
2. What are the start time and the hours the room is available
for use?
3. What water temperatures are used/needed?
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., maintenance)
1. If there are areas with showers, determine the flow rate of the
shower heads.
2. What water temperatures are used/needed in these areas?
EXAMPLE: 48-BED NURSING/INTERMEDIATE

CARE AND RETIREMENT HOME
The facility in question has a 48-resident-bed nursing/intermediate care unit with an attached 24-single-bedroom retirement
home. It is a complete care, 24 h/day facility with a laundry. The
laundry facility has its own water heater due to the elevated temperature and load entailed.
Description of User Groups

Nursing/intermediate care facility
Resident area
The facility has 32 nursing care beds and 16 intermediate
care beds. It has a three-wing layout with nursing care residents in one wing and intermediate care beds in the other
two. (The second intermediate care wing is considered a swing
care wing; it also could be used for nursing care.) The rooms
are double resident rooms with a water closet and lavatory
Nursing/Inter
159
(2.0 gpm [0.13 L/sec] typical) in each. Each wing has a clean
utility room (single bowl sink, 2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec] typical), a
soiled utility room (double bowl sink, hand washing lavatory,
and flushing rim sink with bedpan washer), and a janitors
closet with receptor. (There are a total of 27 lavatories, 3 single
sinks, 3 double bowl sinks, 3 flushing rim sinks, and 3 floor
receptors in the resident area.)
Nurses station
A single nurses station provides service to the three wings.
The station has a medical drug dispensing room (single sink),
a staff toilet room (hand washing lavatory), and a sink for
general use.
Hydrotherapy
The hydrotherapy area has a hip/leg tub (100 gal [378.50 L]),
arms/hip/leg/back tub (110 gal [416.35 L]), a hands/elbows/
arms tub (25 gal [94.63 L]), and a hand washing lavatory.
The 25-gal (94.63-L) arms tank is filled using the hip/leg tub
valve.
The dietary department provides three hot meals a day and a
cold meal at night. It is a full-service department with the
following equipment: a triple compartment sink with prerinse,
a scrapping sink with prerinse, a dishwasher, a double sink
for food thawing, a sink for vegetable preparation, and a hand
washing lavatory. The department starts operation at 6:00
A.M. Through a discussion with the food service consultant,
the designer learned that the department makes 200 meals a
day. A water temperature of 140F (60C) is required at all
fixtures except the hand washing lavatory, where 110F (43C)
water is needed. The dishwasher requires 180F (82C) rinse
water and the 140F (60C) water will be boosted at the dishwasher with an electric booster heater.
Central bathing
One of the intermediate care wings has a tub room with one
bathtub and one shower for residents private or assisted use.
The tub rooms for the nursing care wing and the second intermediate care wing each have one bathtub and shower for
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private or assisted use and a specialized tub for

nonambulatory residents. (The second intermediate care wing
is considered a swing care wing; it also could be used for
nursing care.) Each tub room has a water closet and lavatory
for staff and resident use.
Laundry
The facility sends the bulk of its laundry out to an off-site
location. There are three residential type washers and dryers
for the residents personal use.
Miscellaneous areas
The administration area has two public restrooms each with
two lavatories (0.5 gpm [0.03 L/sec]). There also is a small
kitchenette with a sink (2.5 gpm [0.16 L/sec]).
The maintenance area has a cart wash and a service sink,
both of which use 140F (60C) water. The area also has male
and female staff locker rooms, each with one shower and two
lavatories.
Retirement home
The retirement home is a 24-unit complex attached to the nursing/intermediate care facility. It is designed for the spouses of
residents in the nursing care facility. Its hot water is supplied by
the nursing care facilitys system.
Resident rooms
Each unit has a kitchen area with a double bowl sink and the
capability for a dishwasher, and a bathroom with a tub/
shower and a lavatory.
Laundry
The complex has a laundry room with four residential type
washing machines and a laundry tub. The room is scheduled
to be open 24 h/day.
Miscellaneous areas
The complex has a lounge and social gathering area. There
are two toilet rooms in the area, each with a lavatory, and
Nursing/Inter
161
there is a single bowl sink in the lounge. A floor receptor is

located in a small room off the corridor.
Questions for Owner or Client

(This is a sample application of the questions from the previously
defined user group analysis. Answers to questions appear in boldface type.)
Resident areas/nurses stations
Semiprivate (double)
Central bathing
3. Determine the flow from the shower head or the tub flow/
capacity.
This is a new facility, thus, none exist.
Hydrotherapy
1. What is the number and what are the sizes of the tubs in
the area?
1 at 100 gal (378.50 L), 1 at 110 gal
(416.35 L), and 1 at 25 gal (94.63 L)
Two total
8:00 A.M. 5:00 P.M.
4. What is the desired fill time for each tub?
15 gpm (0.95 L/sec) valve is used, thus, fill time is
7 min.
5. Are the tubs fully filled for cleaning between
therapies?
Yes
103F (39C)
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No, but a 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec) lavatory is present.
1. What is the number of meals provided each mealtime/
day?
200 per day
2. How many dishwashers are there and what are the type,
size, gallons per cycle, cycles per hour, and temperature
required for each?
One, Hobart AM14, 1.2 gal per rack at 53 racks =
64 gal per cycle (56.78 L per rack at 53 racks =
3009.34 L per cycle), 1 cycle per h, 140F (60C).
3. What is the number of sinks, prerinses, etc. in the area
and what is the type of each?
Triple compartment sink w/prerinse, scrapping
sink w/prerinse, double sink for food thawing,
sink for vegetable prep, and a hand washing sink.
used and what temperatures are desired?
Yes, used after meals are served, 1400F (60C).
Central bathing
1. What are the hours of scheduled bathing and what is the
Staff-assisted baths are from 8:00 to 11:00 A.M.
3 days/week.
Ambulatory residents may use the bathing facilities during these times if they are scheduled and
at other times if that is acceptable to staff.
2. What is the number of tubs/showers?
There are three bathing rooms, each with one tub
and shower.
Each bathing room also has a hand washing lavatory, which could be used when the bath/shower is
in use.
3. What is the number of nonambulatory resident bathing
tubs, and what are the type and water demand of each?
Two total, 50 gal (189.25 L) each, to fill for bath
use.
Nursing/Inter
163
When the special bath is used, the other tub and

shower are not used.
The baths should be designed for 4 fills/h.
4. Is there a desired temperature for the water the staff uses
for bathing residents?
140F (60C) maximum for the baths
Laundry
Note: Since the fixtures in this area are for residents use and
will be monitored, their use is covered under Miscellaneous
Areas.
1. What is the number of the washing machines in the area
and what is the size of each (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons per hour per pound [liters per hour
per kilogram])?
Three residential style
Only intermediate care residents may use, with
limited supervision
per hour?
Nothing organized
3. What are the start time and the hours the room is in use?
The laundry room is open between 7:00 A.M. and
4:00 P.M.
Staff members desire some supervision and typically aid the residents in the use of the washers.
4. What are the temperatures of water used?
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., administration and maintenance)
1. If there are areas with showers, determine the flow rate of
the shower heads.
Two showers at 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) each, 4
lavatories at 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/sec) each
Four public lavatories at 0.5 gpm (0.03 L/sec) each
Kitchen sink at 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec)
Service sink and cart wash in maintenance
2. What are the water temperatures needed in these areas?
110F (43C) in administration and shower rooms
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140F (60C) in maintenance

Retirement home
Resident areas/Apartments
1. Are resident rooms single or double bedroom units?
Single
2. Is the facility set up such that the spouse of a person in
nursing or intermediate care has priority use?
Yes
3. What is the flow from the shower head or the tub flow/
capacity?
2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) shower head
4. Do the apartments have dishwashers/washing machines
or the capability of the addition of such in the future?
Dishwashers supplied by renters
Consider 24 in calculations
Laundry
1. What are the number and sizes of the washing machines
in the area (pound [kilogram] capacity and gallons per
hour per pound [liters per hour per kilogram])?
4 residential type
2. What are the start time and the hours the room is available for use?
Open 24 h/day
3. What are the water temperatures used/needed?
140F (60C)
Miscellaneous areas (e.g., maintenance)
1. If there are areas with showers, determine the flow rate of
the shower heads.
None
2. What are the water temperatures used/needed in these
areas?
No special temperatures
User Group Worksheets, 48-Bed Nursing/Intermediate
Nursing/Inter
165
Care and Retirement Home

Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Patient Area

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Private Lavatory
27
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
4
54
110
___________
GPM GPH
2.5
7.5
7.5
Double Bowl Sink
2.5
7.5
7.5
Flushing Rim Sink
4.5
13.5
13.5
Floor Receptor
4.5
13.5
13.5
27
27
69
Other
___________
GPM GPH
216
Single Bowl Sink
TOTALS:
140
___________
GPM GPH
231
0.1
0.3
0.1
0.3

6.9
69.3
2.7
8.1
Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Patient Area

A
(L/Sec = A B
Fixture
41
Min ___________
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
Private Lavatory
27
0.13
3.51 842.4
Single Bowl Sink
0.16
0.48
28.8
Double Bowl Sink
0.16
0.48
28.8
Flushing Rim Sink
0.28
0.84
50.4
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.84
50.4
TOTALS:
4.47 900
1.68 100.8
0.1
0.1
0.3

0.45 270
0.17
30.24
0.3
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Nurses Station

166
Domestic W
Water
A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink
2.5
TOTALS:
13
0.05
0.5

0.4
6.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Nurses Station

A
Fixture
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.13
31.2
Single Bowl Sink
0.16
0.32
19.2
TOTALS:
0.64
50.4
0.05

0.03
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
0.50
25.2
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Nursing/Inter
167

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Private Lavatory
Large Hydro-Tub
More Than
100 Gal
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
2
(4 fills) 15
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
30
420
30
420
TOTALS:
0.25
0.9
0.25

0.5
7.2
7.5
0.9
378

A
Fixture
Private Lavatory
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
1
0.13
Large Hydro-Tub
2
More Than 378.5 L (4 fills) 0.95
0.13
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
39
___________
L/Sec L/H
30.28
TOTALS:
0.13
30.28
0.25
0.90

0.03
27.25
1.9
798
1.9
798
0.25
0.90
0.48 718.2
168
Domestic W
Water

A
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Private Lavatory
Commercial
Dishwasher
64
Triple Compartment
Sink Per Faucet
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
8
7
64
90 GPHb
18
180
30 GPHb
30
60 GPHb
60
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse
2.5
45 GPHb
90
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
10
90
57
514
TOTALS:
0.4
0.9
0.4

0.8
7.2
22.8

0.9
463
Other
___________
GPM GPH
Nursing/Inter
169

A
(L/Sec = A B
Fixture
41
Min ___________
Private Lavatory
0.13
Commercial
Dishwasher
0.44
64
Triple Compartment
Sink Per Faucet
0.57
340.65 L/hb
1.14
681.30
Commercial Kitchen
Single Sink
0.57
113.55 L/hb
0.57
113.55
Commercial Kitchen
Double Sink
0.57
227.10 L/hb
0.57
227.10
Commercial Kitchen
Pre-rinse
0.16
170.33 L/hb
0.32
340.66
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
0.57
0.57
342
0.13
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
31.2
0.44 1689.6
10
TOTALS:
0.13
31.2
0.40
0.90

0.05
28.08

3.6
0.40
3394.21
0.90
1.44 3054.79
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
170
Domestic W
Water
Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Central Bathing

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Private Lavatory
24
Bathtub
10
21
210
Shower
Specialized Bathtub
2.5
15
10
7.5
200gphb 30
TOTALS:
64.5

0.25
16.1
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
75
400
709
0.9
638

bThis value is in total gph and does not reflect min use/h.
Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Central Bathing

A
Fixture
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.39
Bathtub
0.44
10
1.32
Shower
0.16
10
0.48
Specialized Bathtub
0.95
757 L/hb 1.9
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
93.6
792
288
1514.00
TOTALS:
4.09 2687.6
0.25

1.02 2418.84
0.90

bThis value is in total L/h and does not reflect min use/h.
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Nursing/Inter
171

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Public Lavatory
0.5
Private Lavatory
Single Bowl Sink

Shower
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
10
20
10
40
2.5
2.5
10
2.5
25
50
110
___________
GPM GPH
Flushing Rim Sink
4.5
4.5
4.5
Floor Receptor
4.5
4.5
4.5
Laundry Tub
4.5
4.5
4.5
Residential
Washing Machine
4.5
13.5
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
81
10
TOTALS:
19.5
113
22.5
140
___________
GPM GPH
90
90
90
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1

1.0
11.3
1.1
0.5
Other
___________
GPM GPH
172
Domestic W
Water

A
Fixture
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
0.12
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
Private Lavatory
0.13
0.65 156
Single Bowl Sink
0.16
0.16
Shower
0.16
10
Flushing Rim Sink
0.28
0.28
16.8
Floor Receptor
0.28
0.28
16.8
Laundry Tub
0.28
0.28
16.8
Residential
Washing Machine
0.28
0.84 302.4
Hose Station or
Cart/Can Wash
0.57
10
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
72
9.6
0.32 192
0.57 342
TOTALS:
1.25 429.6
1.70 352.8
0.57 342
0.05
0.10
0.05
0.10
0.05

0.06
42.96
0.09
35.28
0.03
0.10
34.2
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Nursing/Inter
173
Retirement home
Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Resident Rooms

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
24
2.5
10
60
600
Double Bowl Sink
24
2.5
60
60
Residential
Dishwasher
24
4.5
TOTALS:
120

0.1
12
660
0.4
264
110
___________
GPM GPH
108
324
108
324
0.1
10.8
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
0.4
130
Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Resident Rooms

A
Fixture
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Bathroom Group
Tub/Shower &
Lavatory
24
0.16
10
3.84 230.4
Double Bowl Sink
24
0.16
3.84 230.4
Residential
Dishwasher
24
0.28
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
6.72 1209.6
TOTALS:
7.68 460.8
6.72 1209.6
0.10
0.40 0.10
0.40

0.77 184.32 0.67
483.84
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
174
Domestic W
Water
Worksheet 8.AUser Group: Laundry

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
Laundry Tub
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
4.5
4.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
4.5
Residential Washing
Machine
TOTALS:
0.5

18
108
22.5
113
0.75
11.3
84.4
Worksheet 8.A(M)User Group: Laundry

A
(L/Sec = A B
Fixture
41
Min ___________
Laundry Tub
0.28
0.28
Residential Washing
Machine
0.28
1.12 403.2
TOTALS:
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
16.8
1.40 420
0.50
0.75
0.7
315
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
Nursing/Inter
175

A
Fixture
Qty. GPM
105
Min ___________
Use/H GPM GPH
Public Lavatory
0.5
10
Single Bowl Sink
2.5
Floor Receptor
4.5
1
2.5
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH
10
2.5
12.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
4.5
TOTALS:
3.5
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):0.05
0.1
0.05
0.1

0.2
1.3
0.2
0.5

A
Fixture
(L/Sec = A B
41
Min ___________
Public Lavatory
0.03
10
0.06
Single Bowl Sink
0.16
0.16
Floor Receptor
0.28
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
36
9.6
45.6
0.28
16.8
0.28
16.8
TOTALS:
0.22
Usage Factors (UF) (Refer to Table 8.2):0.05
0.10
0.05
0.10

0.01
4.56
0.01
1.68
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other
___________
L/Sec L/H
176
Domestic W
Water
User Group Totals Worksheet, 48-Bed Nursing/

Intermediate Care and Retirement Home

User Group
105
___________
GPM GPH
110
___________
GPM GPH
140
___________
GPM GPH
Other
___________
GPM GPH

PATIENT AREAS
6.9
69.3
NURSES STATION
0.4
6.5
HYDROTHERAPY
0.5
7.2
DIETARY &
FOOD SERVICE
0.8
CENTRAL BATHING
16.1
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
1.0
2.7
8.1
7.2
22.8
341
0.5
23.3
350
7.5
378
7.5
378
638
11.3
1.1
9.0
Retirement home
RESIDENT ROOMS
12
264
LAUNDRY
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
SUBTOTALS:
0.2
1.3
37.9 1005
10.8
130
11.3
84.4
0.2
0.5
26.1
232
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
140F)b
0.61
0.61
0.67
0.67
0.59
0.59
TOTALSc

Subtotals
Hot Water Multiplier
GPM
23.1
613
17.5
155.4
23.3
350
4.4
223

GPH
68.3 1341
Nursing/Inter
177

User Group
41
___________
L/Sec L/H
43
___________
L/Sec L/H
60
___________
L/Sec L/H
Other (39)
___________
L/Sec L/H

PATIENT AREAS
0.45
NURSES STATION
0.03
270
25.2
HYDROTHERAPY
0.03
27.25
DIETARY &
FOOD SERVICE
0.05
28.08
CENTRAL BATHING
1.02 2418.84
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
0.06
42.96
0.77
184.32
0.17
30.24
0.48 718.2
1.44 3054.79
0.09
35.28 0.03
34.2
Retirement home
RESIDENT ROOMS
LAUNDRY
0.67 483.84
0.7
315
MISCELLANEOUS
AREAS
0.01
SUBTOTALS:
2.42 3001.21
1.64 866.04 1.47 3088.99
0.48 718.2
0.61
0.67
0.59
4.56
0.01
1.68
HOT WATER
MULTIPLIER, P
(Water Heater Temp.
60C)b
0.61
0.67 1
0.59
TOTALSc

Subtotals
Hot Water Multiplier
L/Sec
1.48 1830.74
1.10 580.25 1.47 3088.99
L/H
0.28 423.74 4.33 5923.72

Jail and Prison Housing Units
179
JAIL AND PRISON

HOUSING UNITS
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to help the designer understand
and deal with the problems of designing water heating systems
for jail and prison housing units. It is important that the designer recognize that each building is unique and work closely
with the owner, architect, and government authorities to determine how a building will operate. A buildings operation will affect
when and for how long the peak hot water demand will occur.
The first part of this chapter discusses generally some of the
design criteria and areas of special concern involved in designing
for jail and prison housing units. The second part gives two practical examples of sizing methodology, one for jails and one for
prisons.
GENERAL
The design criteria used to design hot water systems for
jail housing units differ from those used for prison housing units.
This difference is due to the fact that the facilities are used for
different purposes. Jails are used primarily to house people
awaiting trial or serving short sentences. Prisons are used to house
convicted criminals serving long prison terms. This difference
affects the prisoners daily routines, which, in turn, determine
when the facilities peak hot water demands occur.
It is required that hot water temperature for the showers and
lavatories in jails and prisons be limited to between 100 and
180
Domestic W
Water
110F (38 and 43C). This temperature range has been established to prevent inmates from using hot water as a weapon.1
The generally used standard temperature is 105F (41C). Pushbutton type self-closing or timed-control valves are used to deliver
hot water of this temperature to the showers and lavatories. Occasionally an owner will require that a shower control valve that
allows some inmate control of shower water temperature be provided. New security type valves provide this feature. Hot water at
the design temperature must be furnished at the fixture because
of the lower-than-usual water temperature and the self-closing
features of inmate control valves.
The designer should take into consideration that the typical
life of a jail or prison is 50 to 100 years and that any system
installed must be accessible for replacement or repair.
Large jail facilities and all prisons have central laundry facilities and central kitchens. The hot water systems for the laundry
and kitchen areas should be separate from those for housing because these areas have very different hot water demands. For
instance, the temperature of the hot water delivered will be higher,
between 140 and 180F (60 and 82C). If a centralized water heating system is used for the general purpose and kitchen/laundry
water, then a fail-safe water tempering system must be installed
for the general purpose water.
Hot Water Demand

The usual fixtures requiring hot water found in housing units
are showers and lavatories. Some units also have small kitchens
or serving areas, which may have additional sinks and small dishwashers. Such serving areas are project specific. In jails, very
often one or two residential type washing machines are required
for each housing unit pod (a group of 10 to 20 cells). The typical
housing unit is composed of multiple pods, with each cell opening onto a day room. Currently it is recommended that there be
one shower for every eight inmates and a lavatory in each
cell. 2 The number and location of the showers are decided by
the architect in coordination with the owner and according to
specific code requirements. The shower operation is the factor
that determines the required sizes of the water heater and storage tank.
1American Corrections Association, Adult Corrections Institutions, 3d ed.
2 Ibid.
181
Primary considerations
1. The standard recommendation of eight inmates per shower
was made so that all inmates could shower during a 1-h period. This arrangement allows an average of 7 min for each
inmate to shower. About half that time is taken up by drying
and switching inmates, leaving only about 3.5 min of actual
water usage per inmate.
2. Showers are the main factor affecting water heater size. Allowance should be made for the many lavatories in housing
units when sizing the storage tank.
3. The efficiency of storage systems varies from manufacturer to
manufacturer, but 65 to 80% is a good efficiency range to use
until you have actual data on the tank and system specified.
JAIL EXAMPLE
This is an example of a jail housing unit with six pods of 24 cells
each (one inmate per cell) and three showers per pod. Assume
that the hot water generated is 140F (60C) and the incoming
water temperature is 50F (10C).
Questions
1. Will the inmates be required to shower at a specific time?
No
2. Will all the cell pods release their inmates for showering within
the same hour?
Yes. (This means that the design must accommodate a
1-h recovery period.)
3. Will the shower duration per inmate be limited?
Yes, to 7 min per inmate, with 3.5 min of water usage
4. Does the facility anticipate double bunking inmates, either
now or in the future?
No
Calculations for Jail Housing Units

The ratio of 140 to 50F (60 to 10C) water flowing at the shower
can be calculated using the mixed-water formula, Equation 1.7,
from Chapter 1:
182
Domestic W
Water
P =
(Tm Tc)
(Th Tc)
where
P = Percentage of mixture that is hot water
Tm= Temperature of mixed water = 105F (41C)
Th = Temperature of hot water = 140F (60C)
Tc = Temperature of cold water = 50F (10C)
P =
105 50
55
=
= 0.61
140 50
90
( P = 4160 1010 = 5031 = 0.61)

With each shower flowing 2.5 gpm (0.13 L/sec),
2.5 gpm 0.61 = 1.53 gpm will be 140F hot water
(0.13 L/sec 0.61 = 0.08 L/sec will be 60C hot water)
8 inmates 3.5 min = 28 min of water flowing per
shower during the peak hour
6 pods 3 showers per pod = 18 showers total
18 showers 28 min = 504 min
504 min 1.53 gpm = 771.12 gal 140F hot water per
peak hour demand
(504 min 0.10 L/sec 60 sec/min = 3024 L 60C hot
water per peak hour demand)
At this time a judgment will have to be made by the designer as
to whether or not the auxiliary equipment will be operating
during the peak hour. For this example, we will assume it will
not.
Auxiliary Equipment Demand

Door type dishwasher with internal heater = 69 gph
(261.17 L/h)
183
Single compartment sink = 30 gph (113.55 L/h)

Clothes washing machines, 1 per pod 6 pods = 6
6 2 loads @ 20 gal/load = 240 gph
(6 2 loads @ 75.7 L/load = 908.40 L/h)
Auxiliary equipment demand for 140F water = 339 gph
(Auxiliary equipment demand for 60C water =
1283.12 L/h)
Assuming that operation of the auxiliary equipment does not
coincide with the peak hour demand, sizing the heater and storage tank to handle the additional load will not be necessary. The
heater size required for inmate showering is more than twice the
size needed for the auxiliary equipment demand.
Recommendation
Heater sizing
Two heaters should be selected, each sized to serve between 60
and 100% of the total demand. In prison housing units some
redundancy in the water heating system is necessary. The level
of redundancy should be discussed with the facilitys owners.
Storage tank sizing
If the water heater is sized to meet the recovery required to handle
the peak shower demand, the storage tank may be sized to handle
approximately 50% of the shower demand during the period of
peak use. The storage tank should be large enough to prevent
the heater from cycling on and off more than four times per hour
during off-peak hours. This requirement necessitates finding a
balance between excessive tank size and short cycling.
Calculation
771.12 gph 0.50 = 385.6 gal
(2.93 m3/h 0.50 = 1.47 m3/h)
385.6
= 481.6 gal storage tank size
0.80
184
Domestic W
Water
1470 L
= 1837.5 L storage tank size
0.80
The auxiliary equipment demand of 339 gph (1283.12 L/

h) will have the greatest influence on the amount of cycling
done by the heater during off-peak hours.
339 gph
= 5.56 gpm average flow of 140F water
60
1283.12 L/h
= 0.36 L/sec average flow of 60C water
60 60
5.56 gpm 15 min = 83.4 gal

(0.36 L/sec 60 sec/min 15 min = 324 L)
83.4
0.80 = 104.25 gal storage
324 L = 405 L storage

0.80
The selected size of a 481.6-gal (1837.5-L) storage tank is

more than adequate to meet this demand.
PRISON EXAMPLE
This is an example of a housing facility for 384 inmates. It has
four wings (96 inmates per wing) and each wing has four stories
(24 inmates per wing per story). A central kitchen and laundry
are located in a separate building. Shower areas are provided on
every floor of every wing, and each of these areas has three shower
heads.
Design Criteria and Assumptions

1. Inmate lavatories and showers will be supplied with 105F
(41C) circulated hot water. Showers are to have 2.5 gpm
(0.16 L/sec) flow restrictors and lavatories 2.0 gpm (0.13 L/
sec) flow restrictors.
2. There will be separate systems for the kitchen and laundry
areas.
3. The water temperature for the laundry area will be 180F
(82C) and for the kitchen area 140F (60C), plus there will
be a separate loop of 105F (41C) water for the hand washing lavatories and toilets located in the kitchen area .
185
4. Water at 140F (60C) will be supplied to the dishwasher.

The dishwasher will have a separate booster heater to raise
water temperature to the 180F (82C) required for the final
rinse cycle.
5. The storage tank capacity varies considerablyfrom 0% for
instantaneous heaters to more than100%. Check to determine if the owner has a preference. Remember, most owners
already operate existing jails or prisons; they may have established design parameters. The initial cost of equipment,
the unit performance, and operating costs are also factors to
be considered when sizing the storage tank.
6. Look for additional support facilities, such as the barber shop,
pantries, or an emergency medical clinic.
7. Although operating hours for the laundry area are generally
from 8:00 A.M. to 5:00 P.M., review operational times and
schedules with the owner.
8. Sources of heat: The selection of steam, natural gas, or electricity will have an enormous impact on the type of heater
and on energy consumption.
Note: A central steam generation plant may favor an instantaneous type steam-to-hot-water converter with minimum hot
water storage for surges. Remember, redundancy in heaters
is always required for jails and prisons to allow for problems
created by inmates. The cost of generating and distributing
steam is also a factor to be considered.
9. The method to use for sizing the water heater and storage
tank may be determined by the owner/operator of the facility.
10. One inmate per cell equals 384 inmates. A question that
should be asked is whether the owner plans to expand in the
future by putting more than one inmate in each cell.
Questions
1. Will the inmates be required to shower at a specific time?
No
2. Will the shower duration per inmate be limited or do inmates
have control over when they shower?
Showers are limited to 7 min per inmate, with 3.5 min
of water usage per shower.
3. Will all of the cell pods release their inmates for show-
186
Domestic W
Water
ering within the same hour?

Yes. (This means that the design must accommodate a
1-h recovery period.)
4. Does the facility anticipate double bunking the inmates now
or in the future?
No
5. Does the facility have a work-release program?
Yes
6. What is the time allocated for the work-release inmates to
shower prior to leaving for their duties in the workrelease
program?
One hour, at the same approximate time as the other
inmates.
Calculations for Inmate Housing Units

Refer to the calculations done for the jail example (page 170) for
the methodology for determining the 1.53 gpm (0.1 L/sec) flow
per shower head and the operation time of 28 min per shower.
48 showers 28 min = 1344 min
1344 min 1.53 gpm = 2056 gal of 140F hot water for
peak hour demand
(1344 min 0.096 L/sec 60 sec/min = 7741.44 L/h of
60C hot water for peak hour demand)
Storage Tank Sizing

In this example, inmate lavatories will have the only impact on
tank sizing because the kitchen and laundry will have separate
systems.
If the water heater is sized to meet the recovery required to
handle the peak shower demand, the storage tank may be sized
to handle approximately 50% of the shower demand during the
period of peak use. The storage tank should be large enough to
prevent the heater from cycling on and off more than four times
per hour during off-peak hours. This requirement necessitates
finding a balance between excessive tank size and short cycling.
187
Calculation
2056 gph 0.50 = 1028 gal 140F hot water
(7.74 m3/h 0.50 = 3.87 m3 60C hot water)
1028 gal
= 1285 gal storage tank size
0.80 eff.
3870 L
= 4837.5 L storage tank size
0.80 eff.
Kitchen Considerations
1. The item that has the greatest effect on hot water demand is
the dishwasher. Some central kitchens do not have dining
areas, in which case all meals are shipped to the housing
units in bulk for distribution and the dishwashers are in the
housing units.
2. The temperature of the hot water going to kitchen lavatories
should not exceed 110F (43C) for safety reasons.
3. Check to see if the dishwasher has a booster heater
and determine the type of energy used (steam or electricity).
This information will help you decide whether or not to generate 180F (82C) water.
Note: Some dishwashers on the market use chemicals for
disinfecting, thus the higher water temperature is not required.
4. After dishwashers, compartment sinks are the next largest
user of 140F (60C) hot water. The higher temperature is
required to cut through grease on pots and pans. Some threecompartment sinks have booster heaters in the rinse tank to
maintain the higher temperature.
5. Other kitchen items that use hot water are the prerinse for
the dishwasher, the vegetable sinks, and the cart washdown
hose bibs.
6. Always check the kitchen consultants plans for hot water
requirements.
7. Refer to the Hospitals chapter for additional information on
kitchens.
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Domestic W
Water
Laundry Considerations
1. Review the laundry consultants plans and determine the type
of washing machine/extractor used. Prison laundries are similar to hospital laundries in that they process sheets, pillow
cases, and uniforms. The size and number of machines are
normally decided by the owner or the consultant.
2. Inmates each generate about 30 lb (13.61 kg) of laundry a
week. This consists of 1 pillowcase, 2 sheets, 1 towel, and
uniforms.
3. Additionally, prison laundries usually handle the uniforms
of the correctional officers.
4. Sometimes prison laundries do laundry for outside hospitals
as a prison industry.
5. Consider the feasibility of a heat recovery system that uses
the wash-water discharge. The laundry consultant can probably advise you about this.
6. Laundry equipment suppliers are the only reliable source of
information on the hot water demands and required
temperaures of their washers. They can tell you how many
gallons (liters) of water the machines require and the maximum number of cycles per hour they will operate.
7. Washers demand their hot water fast. It is not unusual for a
2-in. (DN50) hot water line to be connected to the larger washers. Therefore, larger than normal storage capacity is needed
to handle the surges in hot water demand. One rule of thumb
is to provide 75% of the maximum hourly demand in storage;
dont provide less than 50% of that amount.
8. In 1992 a new federal law (Bloodborne Pathogen) was passed
to protect workers against the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and hepatitis B virus (HBV). All detention facilities
are now under this new federal regulation. A major/critical
new standard was created by the law: When an officers uniform becomes contaminated with blood products, the officer
cannot leave his workplace with the uniform on. The facility
must clean that uniform and reissue it to the officer. The
law states further that inmate labor cannot be used when
handling blood contaminated items.
A washer and dryer for the aforementioned are required to
achieve compliance with the law. They should be located in a
space that is under the direct supervision of an officer so the
security of the officers uniforms will not be jeopardized.
Industrial Facilities
10
189
INDUSTRIAL
FACILITIES
INTRODUCTION
Industrial facility is such a general term that it would be impossible to describe each specific type. For the purposes of this
manual, the term will mean a location where any or all of the
general activities described below take place and where domestic
hot water is used for personnel washing as required by code and
for other purposes considered unrelated to process or product
that are described in this chapter. The use of hot water for process or product preparation is outside the scope of this work.
EXAMPLES OF INDUSTRIALS
1. Manufacturing facilities are places where products are created, repaired, or assembled from parts or materials received
at or produced within the same facility. The products are
then finished, tested, packaged, and stored or distributed.
2. Pharmaceutical facilities are locations where products concerning medicine or drugs are created or produced from
materials or ingredients that are purified, combined, or produced in the same facility. The products are then tested,
packaged, and stored.
3. Pilot plants are facilities where experimental manufacturing
and production techniques for new products are tested on a
small scale. These plants can be either located separately or
included within larger facilities.
190
Domestic W
Water
4. Food product facilities are places where edible food products

are received or created from ingredients that are received,
purified, prepared, or produced in the same facilities. The
products are then tested, packaged, and stored. Such facilities include dairies, slaughter houses, and food preparation
facilities.
5. Chemical processing plants are facilities where products are
purified or created from ingredients received, manufactured,
or produced within the facilities. The products are then chemically combined, mixed together, or processed at these same
facilities; tested, packaged, and stored.
6. Steel mills, foundries, and mining, ore processing, and petroleum refinery facilities are places where naturally occurring
or refined raw materials are received or recovered, then
shaped, altered, processed, or refined, and finally packaged
and stored or distributed.
7. Printing and publishing facilities are places where all types of
reading material, photographs, etc., are received, created, assembled, and produced; then bound, packaged, and stored.
8. Central utility generating facilities are places where power is
generated and include such facilities as fossil fuel, nuclear
power, hydroelectric, steam-producing, and co-generation facilities.
9. Laboratories, including biology, chemistry, and physics research
and development, experimental, and testing laboratories. Excluded are laboratories used exclusively for educational
purposes and those within educational facilities.
10. Warehouses are facilities where products, equipment, or components are stored while awaiting either shipment or use by
the facility.
11. Fluid treatment facilities are places where fluids are received
and then treated or purified prior to distribution or disposal.
Such facilities include sewage, industrial, and potable water
treatment plants.
GENERAL DESIGN CRITERIA

The work done in industrial facilities is separated into workday
hours or shifts of varying lengths, depending on the nature of
the workplace. A majority of the hot water usage by workers directly engaged in production within a given facility occurs at the
beginning and end of their shifts or workdays and during lunch
191
periods and breaks. The use of hot water for other general purposes is spread throughout the workday and is occasionally
needed for emergency purposes such as spill cleanup.
AREAS WITHIN INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES

Washrooms and Toilets
Routinely, washrooms and toilet rooms are provided in separate
areas for a facilitys general production staff, its production staff
supervisors, and its administrative/office staff.
Hot water use in the toilet areas provided for the administrative/office staff is the same as that in the toilet areas of an office
building. The two toilet areas have the same characteristics of
use. The number and types of fixture required are governed by
the applicable plumbing code.
The washrooms and toilet areas for production personnel and
supervisors require different design criteria because their use is
affected by work shifts. The production personnel toilet areas
usually consist of locker rooms, toilet rooms, wash-up facilities,
and showers. The number of the various types of fixture usually
is not covered in the applicable code, therefore, judgment and
prior experience are required to make this decision. Consideration must be given to the number of people using the areas
when shifts change and to whether their work is clean or dirty.
(Dirty work makes the clothes and person of the average production worker dirty and occurs in such facilities as foundries and
steel mills.) Another consideration is whether code or client policy
requires that production personnel shower prior to leaving the
facility.
Wash Fixtures
The wash fixtures for production personnel are often single, large
fixtures with multiple wash stations. These fixtures are manufactured in various standard configurations, such as circle,
semicircle, and quarter circle, and in various sizes.
Spray heads ranging from 0.5 to 0.75 gpm/station (0.03 to
0.05 L/sec/station) are available for light and heavy industrial
facilities. Some individual wash stations are not capable of independent operation, which means that the entire fixture would
have to be turned on if just one person were washing.
192
Domestic W
Water
Where no client preference exists, the following general design

criteria should be used to select fixtures:
1. Twenty min should be allowed at the end of a shift for wash
up and showers.
2. Wash fixtures must be provided for all shift personnel. These
fixtures can be either individual lavatories or group wash fountains. A generally accepted ratio of one wash station or lavatory
for every six people can be used as a starting point to decide
the number of fixtures, with any fraction increasing the number of fixtures by one. Where no guidance is given, one station
should be provided for every 5 to 12 people, the figure chosen
depending on the number of people there are.
3. Where individual wash up is anticipated, individual lavatories
are preferable to group wash fountains because when just one
person is washing up at a time, wash fountain spray heads
provide much more water than is necessary.
Showers
If not governed by local code, shower heads should each be limited to a flow rate of 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec). Generally, males are
provided with group showers, while females are given the privacy
of individual shower stalls. All new and renovated installations
should be Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) compliant.
The number of shower heads is based on the number of people
expected to use the washroom at each change of shift. If no code
requirements are provided, use the clients preference. Allow for
a total of about 20 min for a shift to complete showering. In
laboratories, offices, and other similar facilities, when showers
are provided adjacent to toilet rooms (as compared to toilets adjacent to lockers and washrooms), they usually are used by
personnel finishing some form of exercise (such as jogging or
training on facility-provided equipment) during lunch time prior
to returning to work.
SELECTION OF EQUIPMENT
Water Heater
When an instantaneous system is used, the most critical factor
to consider when selecting a water heater capable of meeting the
expected load is the minimum flow rate. No diversity factor should
193
be used for dirty facilities.

The shower room is considered a dump load, which means
that almost the entire storage and recovery volume is used during the shower period. Experience has shown that 20 min is
usually enough time to allow for an entire shift to shower. Each
shower is assumed to last 5 min.
Example 10.1
A foundry with 100 shift workers assigned to an area will be
used to select a storage tank and an instantaneous heater.
First we select the storage type heater: One hundred people
require the use of a wash fountain. Figuring 8 people per station,
12.5 or 13 stations are needed. If we provide 12 stations (two 6station units) and allow a 20-min time frame, that gives each
person 1.6 min of wash timenot quite enough to wash hands.
Because of the dirty working conditions in a foundry, use two 8station units, which will allow 3.2 min per person washing time.
For the showers, assume that 20% of the workers will take showers and that 5 heads are required. To calculate the necessary
heater capacity, add the two requirements:
For a 20-min period of time, two 8-wash station units require 5
gpm (0.32 L/sec) each.
5 gpm 20 min = 100 gal for each station
(0.32 L/sec 60 sec/min 20 min = 384 L for each station)
100 gal 2 stations = 200 gal
(384 L 2 stations = 768 L)
For a 5-min period of time, 5 showers flow at 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec).
2.5 gpm 5 min = 12.5 gal per shower
(0.16 L/sec 60 sec/min 5 min = 48 L)
12.5 gal 5 showers = 62.5 gal
(48 L 5 showers = 240 L)
The storage type water heater selected should have a recovery and storage capacity of delivering 262.5 gal (994 L) in 20
min. If this is the only purpose of the heater, the safest (but not
necessarily the most economical) selection would be to store the
entire required amount of water (plus 30% additional gal) in,
say, a 341-gal (1291-L) storage tank and recover the amount of
water slowly over a 6-h period.
Next, we select the instantaneous heater. Wash station use is
194
Domestic W
Water
10 gpm (0.63 L/sec) and shower use is 12.5 gpm (0.79 L/sec).
The instantaneous heater should be sized to handle a demand of
22.5 gpm (1.42 L/sec).
Storage Tank
Systems that require close temperature control and flow a large
amount of hot water at a steady rate over an extended period of
time do not require large storage tanks. If a large storage tank is
provided, there is a good probability that the water temperature
will be lowered, which may be unacceptable. It would be better to
select a relatively small storage tank to act as a stabilizer against
demand surges, have a water heater recovery rate approximately
equal to demand, and use a blending valve. This arrangement
will ensure a steady supply of hot water at a constant temperature, which will allow for good modulation.
FACILITY-SPECIFIC DESIGN ISSUES

Meat and Food Processing Facilities
Meat, food, and other such processing facilities are required by
the FDA to have their work areas and equipment sanitized each
day with 180F (82C) hot water. The amount of water used to do
this depends on the amount of time allotted for cleanup, the
number of people simultaneously cleaning up, and the number
and flow rates of the wash-down stations. The extended period of
time usually required for cleanup is too long to be considered a
dump load. In addition, there should not be a significant drop in
the temperature of the wash water during this period. This type
of hot water use usually requires a high recovery rate to provide
enough water at the accepted temperature. A storage tank will
help to lower the instantaneous flow rate of the heater and balance the swing loads caused by the cleanup operation. If
temperature is critical, the designer may want to store hotter
water and supply the system through a tempering valve.
Manufacturing Facilities
Manufacturing work is divided into two types, dirty work and
clean work. (See explanation under Washrooms and Toilets
above.) Workers engaged in clean activities generally do not take
showers at the end of a shift, whereas many workers emerging
195
from a dirty workplace do shower prior to going home.
Pharmaceutical Facilities
Pharmaceutical facilities include many different areas, such as
production areas, clean rooms, sterile areas, and often laboratories and animal facilities associated with the testing and quality
control of products. In general, there is little use of potable hot
water in the production areas. Because spills may contain biological matter or chemicals not permitted to be treated as regular
waste, spills are cleaned up with mops or rags, which are then
placed in receptacles for proper disposal. Where sterility is required, special antibacterial cleaners are used. These are sprayed
on exposed piping, walls, floors, and ceilings and wiped up by
hand. Large accidental spills of liquid product are often cleaned
up with dedicated wet vacuum equipment, which is carried on
carts that do not leave the areas where they are stored. In noncritical areas, hose stations often are provided for room wash
down. These are usually supplied with cold water and steam, or
hot and cold water. Potentially harmful bacteria are isolated in
special areas of the facility where bacteria kill drainage systems
are in place. The equipment and piping for clean in place and
steam in place systems do not use domestic hot water.
Laboratory sinks generally do not use much hot water. When
only laboratory sinks are considered, the use of standard code
obtained water fixture units leads to oversized systems. Glass
and small equipment washers and sterilizers often do use hot
water. Where sterility is required, a final rinse of purified water,
which does not use potable water as feedwater, will be used.
Small wash sinks or lavatories are provided at the entrances to
clean and sterile rooms for personnel to use for washing prior to
putting on sterile or clean clothing. These sinks are used primarily by production personnel at the beginning and end of shifts,
but visitors and inspectors also must wash up.
Animal facilities often use a large amount of hot water for
cage washing and room wash down. Another potential hot water
use is for a slurry system, which disposes of shredded bedding.
Animal facilities usually have routines with set times for the cages
and rooms to be cleaned. Animal areas with integral cage washing machines should be provided with dedicated hot water
generators.
It is common to wash and sterilize vials, stoppers, and bottles
196
Domestic W
Water
prior to use or reuse. When the washing of relatively large quantities of glassware is required, it is common practice to have a
prewash area to remove most of the gross contaminants prior to
placement in a sterile washing machine. Another arrangement is
to use potable hot water for prewashing and distilled or purified
water for the final sterile wash.
Food Product Facilities

Food product facilities use hot water for the washing of rooms
and exposed piping and the cleaning of equipment. Cleaning is
done during preplanned and scheduled downtime. The amount
of hot water used depends on the number of operators engaged
in the cleaning and the type of cleaning apparatus used. The hot
water temperature is generally 180F (82C).
Chemical Processing Facilities

Chemical processing facilities often require that personnel wear
protective clothing to guard against contamination by the chemicals present during a normal workday. Experience suggests that
many of these facilities are involved in dirty work and that most
of the personnel take showers at the end of a shift prior to leaving for home. Often potable hot water is used for the rinsing of
protective suits and the decontamination of small parts and equipment.
Facilities that Process Raw Materials

This category includes facilities involved in such diverse processes
as oil refinery, mineral separation and enrichment, coal processing, and paper milling. Experience suggests that many of these
facilities are dirty workplaces and that personnel take showers
at the end of a shift prior to leaving for home.
Printing and Publishing Facilities

Printing facilities usually are divided into printers of newspapers, of magazines, of books, and of miscellaneous other materials.
They provide showers for plant personnel. Often photo labs, which
can use large quantities of hot water, are included.
197
Central Utilities
In fossil fuel power plants, toilet rooms typically are located adjacent to areas where workers normally are required to be present
for extended periods of time. These areas can be far apart, and
each location may require an individual water heater. Central
locker rooms with wash-up fixtures and toilets are provided.
Nuclear power plants must be separated from all other facilities primarily for safety reasons. The control room of a nuclear
power plant must have the fixtures and piping secured and designed to withstand the movement and oscillation of an
earthquake that is twice the magnitude of the largest earthquake
recorded in the area. Decontamination to remove low levels of
radiation from both personnel and equipment will be provided.
This often involves personnel taking cold showers first to close
the pores of the skin to prevent radioactive particles from entering the body. After readings of acceptable levels of radiation are
achieved, hot showers may be taken. In equipment decontamination areas sinks and scrub brushes with detergent are used to
remove low levels of radioactive deposits from equipment. Water
is used in these areasand could be used in significant volumes
and at significant flow rates during planned shutdowns and emergency situations. A complete list of potential problems should be
given in a facilitys safety analysis report, which describes all
normal operating and potential emergency operating conditions.
Laboratories
General laboratory rooms almost always have sinks. Hot water
use at these sinks is usually light. Washers and sterilizers for
glassware and small equipment are located in different parts of
the laboratory complex and use hot water at random intervals.
To ensure an ample supply of hot water, a worst case scenario
(based on discussions with the owner) should be used to calculate storage and recovery capacity. Animal facilities are discussed
above, under pharmaceutical facilities.
Warehouses
Warehouses require hot water use only in toilet rooms. Separate
toilet rooms usually are provided for staff and drivers (who are
nonstaff). The toilet rooms for drivers often are used heavily for
short periods of time.
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Domestic W
Water
Fluid Treatment Facilities

Most general areas of fluid treatment facilities have no special
requirements for the use of potable hot water. These facilities
usually include testing laboratories. Refer to the discussion of
such in the laboratories section, above. Generally no hot water
use is necessary in the production areas where water and waste
are treated, although shower facilities are required in sewage treatment plants.
MISCELLANEOUS USES OF HOT WATER

Photo Processing
There are two types of photo processing in general use. One involves the use of self-contained automatic machines, which develop
film and produce prints from negatives. These machines require a
minimum amount of water and produce a minimum amount of
waste. The other type is conventional manual processing.
The film and print development systems of conventional processing use relatively large amounts of hot water for the final
rinsing of film and prints. Since such a wide variety of equipment
exists, exact requirements must be obtained from the equipment
manufacturer and/or the client.
Black and white photo processing involves the use of warm
water ranging in temperature from 68 to 78F (20 to 26C) and
has a tolerance of 2. Color photo processing involves the use of
water ranging in temperature from 68 to 94F (20 to 34C), depending on the film and the processing technique, and has a
tolerance of only 0.5. Developing and printing equipment is usually provided with sensitive and accurate integral mixing valves.
Ready-Mix Concrete
Hot water is used to make concrete when the air temperature falls
below 30F (1C). When the ambient temperature is between 0
and 30F (18 and 1C), hot water is used to bring the mixture to
a temperature of about 65F (18C). When the ambient temperature is below 0F (18C), it is used to bring the mixture to 70F
(21C). The higher temperatures are necessary to prevent the concrete from freezing before it sets and to allow proper hydration of
the mixture. The added heat also gives the concrete a greater early
strength. Hot water also serves to warm aggregate in cold weather
199
to prevent it from freezing into chunks. Along with air temperature, the size of the aggregate used affects the desired temperature.
Be aware, though, that water that is too hot may produce flash
setting of the concrete.
The amount of water used to mix concrete is determined by
weight. A generally accepted rule is that half the weight of the
cement (not including sand or aggregate) should be water. That
is approximately 11 gal (41.64 L) of water per 90 lb (40.82 kg) of
cement or 30 gal (113.56 L) of water to make 1 yd3 (0.765 m3) of
cement. Aggregate also has some moisture in it, and accepted
practice allows 5 gal (18.93 L) for this moisture. This means that
an actual figure of 25 gal (94.64 L) of water is required to make 1
yd3 (0.765 m3) of concrete. Be aware that concrete trucks are
provided with water tanks with capacities of 150 gal (567.81 L)
to add water to the mix when required.
It is recommended practice to load trucks with about q of
the proper amount of water at the batch plant and to add the
rest of the water during the trip to the site. Once the water is
added, a maximum delivery time of 1 h is allowed. It is common practice to store hot water at 180F (82C), with individual
plants using their own methods for correctly proportioning the
hot and cold water for each batch to meet specific requirements.
As a guide, Table 10.1 gives storage tank sizes in relation to the
successive fast filling of trucks of various sizes. Table 10.2 gives
suggested recovery capacities for the water heating equipment of
trucks of different sizes at various filling intervals.
Table 10.1 Tank Size Selection Chart

Capacity of Trucks
No. of
Trucks
Filling in
Succession
1
2
3
4
5
6
6 yd3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(gal)
(gal)
300
600
900
1200
1500
1800
350
(2)350
1000
1500
2000
2000
8 yd3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(gal)
(gal)
350
700
1050
1400
1750
2100
400
750
1000
1500
2000
2000
l0 yd3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(gal)
(gal)
400
800
1200
1600
2000
2400
500
1000
1500
2000
2000
2000a
l2 yd3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(gal)
(gal)
450
900
1350
1800
2250
2700
500
1000
1500
2000
(2)1500
(2)1500
Source: Courtesy of A. O. Smith Water Products.

aWhere generating equipment is based on a 5-min truck load interval, use two 1,500-gal
storage tanks installed in parallel.
200
Domestic W
Water
Table 10.1(M) Tank Size Selection Chart

Capacity of Trucks
4.4 m3
________________
No. of
Vol. of
Sugg.
Trucks
Water
Tank
Filling in Required
Size
Succession
(L)
(L)
6.3 m3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(L)
(L)
7.3 m3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(L)
(L)
8.8 m3
________________
Vol. of
Sugg.
Water
Tank
Required
Size
(L)
(L)
1200
1350
1350
1500
1500
2000
1 700
2000
2300
(2)1350
2700
3000
3000
4000
3 400
4000
3400
4000
4000
4000
4600
6000
5 100
6000
4500
6000
5300
6000
6100
8000
6 800
8000
5700
8000
6600
8000
8000
8000
8 500
(2)6000
9000
8000a
10 200
(2)6000
6800
8000
8000
8000

aWhere generating equipment is based on a 5min truck load interval, use two 6000L
storage tanks installed in parallel.
Table 10.2 Hot Water Requirements after Initial Loading

Truck Capacities
6 yd3
____________________
8 yd3
10 yd3
12 yd3
____________________ ____________________ ____________________
Time
GPH ____________
Min. Input
GPH ____________
Min. Input
GPH
Min. Input
GPH ____________
Min. Input
____________
Between
Fills
Hot
Gas
Oil
Hot
Gas
Oil
Hot
Gas
Oil
Hot
Gas
Oil
(min) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH) Watera (Btu/h) (GPH)
10
1800 2,630,000 18.9
2100 3,060,000
22.0
2400 3,510,000
25.2
2700 3,940,000
28.4
1050 1,530,000
11.0
1200 1,750,000
12.6
1350 1,970,000
14.2
20
900 1,315,000
9.4
35
515
752,000
5.4
600
875,000
9.2
685 1,000,000
7.2
762 1,112,000
8.0
50
360
525,000
3.8
420
612,000
6.4
480
5.0
540
5.7
700,000
788,000

Note: If uninsulated storage tanks are in cold rooms, allowance in recovery capacity should
be made for standby loss.
a180F final temperature; cold water temperature assumed to be 40F with a 140F temperature rise.
201
Table 10.2(M) Hot Water Requirements after Initial Loading

Truck Capacities
4.4 m3
____________________
Time
L/H ____________
Min. Input
Between
Fills
Hot
Gas
Oil
(min) Watera (W)
(L/h)
6.3 m3
7.3 m3
8.8 m3
____________________ ____________________ ____________________
L/H
Min. Input
____________
Hot
Gas
Oil
Watera (W)
(L/h)
L/H
Hot
Watera
Min. Input
L/H ____________
Min. Input
____________
Gas
Oil
Hot
Gas
Oil
(W)
(L/h) Watera (W)
(L/h)
10
6813
770 590 71.5
7949
896 580
83.3
9084 1 028 430
95.4 10 220 1 154 420 107.5
20
3407
385 295 35.6
3974
448 290
41.6
4542
47.7
512 750
5 110
577 210
53.8
35
1949
220 336 20.4
2271
256 375
34.8
2593
293 000
27.3
2 884
325 816
30.3
50
1363
153 825 14.4
1590
179 316
24.2
1817
205 100
18.9
2 044
230 884
21.6

Note: If uninsulated storage tanks are in cold rooms, allowance in recovery capacity should
be made for standby loss.
a82C final temperature; cold water temperature assumed to be 4C with a 78C temperature rise.
11
SPORTS ARENAS
AND STADIUMS
INTRODUCTION
This chapter is meant to guide the designer through the procedures and methodology needed to perform the design of domestic
hot water systems and the decisionmaking for water heater selections for sports arenas and stadiums. There are many functions
performed in sports arenas and stadiums that must be accounted
for in the design and selection process. Remember that no two
facilities will be alike.
Areas that may be encountered in sports arenas and stadiums that require domestic hot water include the following:
Home team showers (may need multiple team/different
sports facilities),
Visitor team showers (may need multiple team/different
sports facilities),
Club house commercial laundries,
Home team laundry room,
Visitor team laundry room,
Concessionaires laundry room,
Concessions,
Grounds service area,
Janitors closets,
Private suites,
Kitchens,
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Public toilets,
Private toilets,
Administration areas,
Training rooms,
Stadium club bar,
First aid rooms,
Staff toilets for ticket booths,
Photo labs,
Emergency eyewash, and
Emergency showers.
GATHERING INFORMATION
Before proceeding with any design, the designer must go on a
fact finding mission to gather the information needed to perform
the design. Following are some sample questions that may need
to be asked. The designer needs to develop a list of questions for
each particular project.
1. What are the system demands for the restrooms, concession
areas, locker rooms, training areas, kitchen, dinning areas,
and laundry areas?
2. What water temperatures are desired or required for this
project120, 140, 160 or 180F (49, 60, 71, or 82C)?
3. What are the duration of peak demands and the length of
time between each peak for all fixtures requiring domestic
hot water?
4. How many showers are available? How many people will use
them? What are the estimated peak period of area operation,
the average shower time, the next peak hour demand after
the initial peak demand, the maximum gpm, and the delivered temperature at shower heads. It is important to remember
the potential of dump loads in some areas, such as the team
showers, where the players can be expected to shower as
quickly as possible after the game. Consideration must also
be given for multi-game play and events on the same day.
This presents the designer with a challenge to provide the
most cost-effective recovery-to-storage ratio.
5. In the training room areas, what kind of hot water using equipment/fixtures will be used? How often will they be used and
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205
what will be the peak operational time? Determine the number of fills per hour per equipment and the quantity of hot
water required for each piece of equipment.
6. In the kitchen and concession areas, what kinds of equipment/fixtures will be used and what will be the total peak
operational period? Is normal operational time prior to, during, and/or after game activities?
7. What are the local codes that apply on this project?
8. Are utilities, such as water and electricity, and fuels available for this project? What are their relative costs? Can they
be obtained on an uninterruptible basis?
9. Will the owner have a residence in the facility?
10. Will this facility have a building management system?
11. What is the projected facility usageyear-round, summer, or
months usedand what is the projected downtime between
events?
12. What is the temperature of the domestic water service into
the facility?
13. What are the special equipment needs, such as for ice resurfacing (e.g., Zambonis)?
SYSTEM DESIGN
Design Considerations
Once the designer has gathered all the information and answered
all the necessary questions, and the owner has approved the floor
plans, the next step is to calculate the hot water demand and
evaluate the types of systems that would be appropriate for the
project. Following are other design considerations the designer
should consider:
1. It is very important to establish the entire pipe routing with
the approved floor plans.
2. Some energy codes restrict the use of hot water in certain
areas.
3. Consider using security type showerheads in the players home
and visitors shower rooms.
4. Mount shower heads at a minimum of 6 ft 6 in. in home and
visitors shower rooms.
5. Consider using metering or infrared faucets in public areas.
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6. If the local health department requires hot water in public

areas, consider using tempered water.
7. Remember the shower and therapy loads are nearly always
the main criteria for sizing the hot water system.
8. Usually concession areas are located on the upper levels of
the facility and many times cannot be served economically
from the central system. The designer should consider that
the concession loads be designed as a separate system or
that an individual system be designed for each concession.
The characteristics of some systems are noted below.
Water Heating System Temperature
On a central hot water distribution system, the temperature

may be designed for 120 to 140F (49 to 60C).
For point-of-use applications, the temperature is set for 110

to 120F (43 to 49C).
Kitchens use 140F (60C) [use of a booster heater for the

dishwasher for 180F (82C) may be required].
Commercial laundries normally use 140 or 160F (60 or 71C).

Check with the owner or operator. Booster heaters may be
required to accomplish higher water temperatures.
Food service areas normally use 140F (60C). Booster heaters maybe be required to accomplish higher water
temperatures. Check with the owner or operator.
Showers normally require 120F (49C) to the fixture (minimum) if a pressure balancing or thermostatic mixing valve is
installed to provide an operating differential.
Note: When supplying lower temperature water, be sure

that the temperature is above the dew point of the flue gas
for fossil fuel systems to avoid condensation. This is a growing problem because of the higher equipment efficiencies
available.
Design Traps to Avoid

1. In the design of a hot water system, especially a central system
where there may be long runs of piping, the designer should
look for areas in the facility that will have expansion joints
connecting segments of the building structure. At these points
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207
consider using some type of expansion joint in the piping system to prevent the pipe from breaking due to building
movement. There may also be a need for intermediate expansion joints for long runs of piping at other areas of the building.
2. Care should be taken to make sure that the hot water pipes
and water heaters are in areas that are accessible for service.
Too often, limited space is provided for equipment.
3. Do not run hot water piping in areas subject to freezing. If it
is absolutely necessary to do so, provide heat tape or some
other method of eliminating the freezing problem and slope
all affected piping to drain.
4. Consider that the usable storage capacity of a vertical storage tank may be 75 to 80%. Check with the tank
manufacturer. For large tanks, installing a tank-circulating
pump to circulate the water continually can increase the percentage of usable storage capacity. Horizontal tank usable
storage capacity may be up to 10% less than that of a vertical
tank.
5. Insulate all the hot water piping supply and circulating pipes
in the system in accordance to local, state, and federal codes.
6. Make sure to coordinate with the appropriate discipline on
voltage and phase for electric water heaters and combustion
air requirements and flue routing for fossil-fuel fired water
heaters.
7. Check for seismic requirements.
Types of System
To meet diverse heating requirements, one or more of the following system configurations may be considered.
Central hot water system
In the central hot water system, the designer can establish a
primary hot water piping loop of a 120 to 140F (49 to 60C)
throughout the facility. Through the use of mixing stations, the
temperature can be reduced to accommodate specific equipment
or fixtures to satisfy their hot water requirements. The central
system can serve the showers, concessions, kitchen, public
restrooms, training rooms, laundry rooms, and first aid rooms.
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Distributed hot water system

It may be advantageous in the design to provide several small hot
water systems throughout the facility, each with its own hot water piping system and heater. This type of system may offer
flexibility and redundancy if one system goes down. It may be
desirable to connect these systems with valved crossover lines
that can be opened in the event that one system is down and it is
necessary to backfeed temporarily an inoperable system with an
operable system.
Point of use
In isolated areas, such as private bathrooms, ticket booths, and
private suites, the point-of-use electric type water heater could
be used. This installation may save on piping and insulation.
Special Considerations: Commercial Laundries

The laundry areas will have a significant amount of hot water
demand. They should be designed so that each has a separate
hot water system with its own water heater and storage tank.
Having the laundry on a separate hot water system allows flexibility in the operation of the laundry and will not rob large
quantities of hot water from the central system, as it would if the
laundries were tied into that system.
Some central systems can include the laundry areas on the
system because the laundry rooms will not operate at the same
time as the showers and training rooms operate.
Note: With all systems, make sure there is a place to take
the discharge from the relief valve(s) that conforms to the
local codes.
Assumptions
On most projects, the designer will not get all the questions answered and, therefore, will have to make some assumptions in
the design and piping layout. It is good practice to note all these
assumptions in a letter to the owner and architect for their review and comments. Look for opportunities to find a central
location for the hot water heaters, keeping in mind accessibility
and simple piping layouts.
Design the showers for a 2.5 or 3.0 gpm (0.16 or 0.19 L/sec)
demand. Be aware of regulations affecting the selection of the
flow rate.
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Table 11.1 represents most of the plumbing fixtures and equipment for these types of facility that require hot water.
Table 11.1 Fixture/Equipment Table

Location
Type of
Fixture
Hot Water Temp.

at the Fixture
F
Private suites
Lavatory
Bar sink
105
120
41
49
First aid rooms
Lavatory
105
41
Sink
120
49
Staff ticket booth
Lavatory
105
41
Training room
Sink
120
49
Lavatory
105
41
Whirlpool
110
43
Hydrotherapy
110
43
140160
6071
Sink
120
49
Column showers/
showers
110
43
Lavatory
105
41
Fertilizers/pesticides Emergency
storage rooms
eyewash
80
27
Public toilets
Lavatory
105
41
Break rooms
Sink
120
49
Concessions
Sink
120
49
Kitchens
Sinks /lavatories
Dishwasher
120/105
140180
49/41
6082
Laundry
Shower
Washing
machines
roomsa
Private toilets
Remarks
Check with
operator
Check with
local health
dept. for
requirements
Check with
local health
dept. for
requirements
a Showers with pressure-balanced and/or thermostatic shower valves having

both hot and cold water connections should have a hot water temperature supplying the valve that is hot enough to ensure proper operation of the valve.
Pressure-balanced/thermostatic valves offer a level of safety. It is recommended
that combination check stops be installed.
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SYSTEM SIZING
Sizing Parameters
Before proceeding with examples, we must set some parameters
for domestic hot water loads (showers):
1. Determine the number of shower heads.
2. Determine the number of people showering.
3. Allow a minimum of 5 min/shower.
4. Determine the expected length of time for showers to operate, as follows:
(11.1) no. of people
min/shower = total expected time
no. of shower heads
of shower operation if
all people shower
during peak period.
5. Determine total gpm (L/sec) flow rate for showers, as follows:
(11.2) no. of shower heads gpm flow rate = total gpm flow rate
for showers
6. Determine the temperature of water, F (C), to be used at the
shower head.
7. Determine the gallons (liters) of hot water demand for showers at the required temperature and time of operation, as
follows:
(11.3) total shower total shower = gal (L) required at desired
time
gpm (L/sec)
temperature, F (C), for
showering peak demand of
determined minutes
8. Estimate turnaround time. Be sure to add turnaround time
when determining the total time during which hot water is
used.
Note: Add a little time in for turnaround. Use a diversity factor
where applicable. Evaluate the system to determine if there
will be a dump load, with most of the demand being utilized in
a fraction of an hour. If this is the case, be sure to calculate
recovery on the basis of gallons per hour (liters/hour). For
example, if the system requires 200 gal (757 L) in 30 min, the
recovery rate will be 400 gph (1514 L/h).
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Example 11.1 Football Stadium

The facility is a professional football stadium, and the following
information is given to the designer:
1. 150 lavatories.
2. 40 shower heads. (Assume 2.50 gpm [0.16 L/sec] per shower
head, 5 min/shower, 100 people to shower, 110F [43C] water
at shower head, 40F [4.4C] incoming water temperature,
and 140F [60C] stored water.)
3. 6 service sinks.
4. 2 kitchen sinks.
5. 6 sinks.
6. 2 laundry tubs.
7. 4 hydrotherapy tubs.
8. 2 whirlpools.
9. 4 commercial washing machines.
10. 1 commercial dishwasher.
The first step is to determine the demand for the information
given, in gph.
A table showing all the fixtures that require hot water with
their demands, in gph, should be developed. Some of the gph for
the fixtures shown in the table below are taken from Chapters 1,
4, 6, and 8, and from equipment manufacturers.
Hot Water Demand Table (Example 11.1)

Quantity Fixture Type
150
40
6
1
6
2
4
2
4
1
10
Lavatories
Showers heads
Service sinks
Kitchen sinks
(double comp.)
Bar sinks
Laundry tubs
Hydrotherapy tubs
Whirlpools
Commercial washing
machines
Bradley wash fountains
GPH
L/H
Total GPH (L/H)
4
150b
15
681
20
60
76
227
600 (2,271)
6000 or 1250
gals for 12.5 min.c
120 (454)
60 (227)
30
20
100a
100a
80a
113.6
76
378.5
378.5
303
180 (681)
40 (151)
400 (1514)
200 (757)
320 (1211)
50a
10
189
38
50 (189)
100 (378.5)
a Information obtained from manufacturer of equipment.

b 2.5 gpm (167 L/sec) 60 min.
c 40 heads 2.5 gpm = 100 gpm; 12.5 min peak load 100 gpm = 1250 gal at
110F required in 12.5 min peak load (40 heads 0.19 L/sec = 7.6 L/sec; 12.5
min 7.6 L/sec 60 sec/min = 5678 L at 43C required in 12.5 min peak load)
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The system is designed to be a central system with a primary

loop set for a temperature of 140F (60C), and the following requirements are needed.
Calculations (for water heater to serve showers, hydrotherapy tubs, and whirlpools)
100 people
= 2.5 people/head
40 shower heads
2.5 people/head 5 min/person = 12.5 min minimum for
shower peak demand
40 shower heads 2.5 gpm = 100 gpm
12.5 min 100 gpm = 1250 gal of 110F water required to
be available in 12.5 min at the
shower heads. Shower demand to
be hour after hour.
(40 shower heads 0.19 L/sec = 7.6 L/sec
12.5 min 7.6 L/sec = 5678 L of 43C water required to be
available in 12.5 min at the shower
heads. Shower demand to be hour
after hour.)
Total gph (L/h) for hydrotherapy tubs and whirlpools
equals 600 gph (2271 L/h) (from hot water demand table).
Notes:
1. Shower time could vary; the 12.5 min in this example is
the bare minimum, based on a 5-min average shower. The
designer needs to find out as much as possible about
expected use.
2. Allow 1 fill/h for hydrotherapy tubs and whirlpools. For
this example, the demands will be met by storage. Should
2 fills/h be required, the designer must have the total
gph (L/h) recovery of hydrotherapy tubs and whirlpools
2 to meet the second fill within 30 min.
How is the shower load to be met? We will use a combination of storage and recovery, keeping in mind that we must
allow for storage tank draw efficiency. For example, if we decide to meet the total demand with storage: 1250 gal (5678 L)
at 110F (43C) at the shower head, 600 gal (2271 L) at 110F
(43C) for hydrotherapy tubs and whirlpools, stored water
temperature at 140F (60C). Using the mixed water temperature formula in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7):
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110 40F
70F
=
= 0.7
140 40F
100F
43 4.4C = 38.6C
( 60
4.4C
55.6C
= 0.7
Therefore,
1850 gal 0.7 = 1295 gal of 140F water
(7949 L 0.7 = 5564.5 L of 60C water)
This is the amount that must be supplied to the tempering
stations for the showers and hydrotherapy tubs and whirlpools.
Storage tank size (for showers, hydrotherapy tubs, and
whirlpools)
To determine the tank size required, divide 1295 gal (5564.5 L)
of 140F (60C) water by the percent of usable storage. If we
assume 80% usable storage, then we should select a tank
with a capacity of approximately 1619 gal (6954 L).
Note: The percent usable storage capacities of tanks vary.
Contact your local tank manufacturer for specific information.
Recovery requirements (for showers, hydrotherapy tubs,
and whirlpools)
This is to be determined based on the frequency and duration
of the shower plus additional equipment load requirements.
energy output = 1295 gph 8.33 lb/gal (140 40F)
= 970,862 Btu/h
[energy output = 5564.5 L/h 1 kg/L (60 4.4C)
= 309 386 kJ/h output]
If a heater has a thermal efficiency of 80%, then input
must be 1,213,577 Btu/h (386 733 kJ/h) if 1295 gph
(5564.5 L) are used each hour.
Water heater requirements (based on hour after hour for
shower operation):
recovery = 1295 gph (5564.5 L/h) at
40 to 140F (4.4 to 60C)
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storage = 1619 gal (6954 L)

Notes:
1. Storage requirement capacity remains the same even
though peak demand time may vary. The designer may
choose to increase or decrease storage or recovery, balancing the two as necessary to arrive at a cost-effective
system that will fit into the space available.
2. If showers are required hour after hour, then the minimum recovery must be the shower load demand recovered
over a period of 1 h. If the second hour is not required but
the third hour is, the recovery can be reduced by 50%. If
neither the second nor the third hour is required, then
the recovery can be 33% of shower and additional equipment load requirements.
Example 11.2 Baseball Stadium

The following information is given to the designer. The facility is a
baseball stadium that is to be designed to have separate domestic
hot water systems for the home team and the visiting team.
Loop no. 1 (home team)
1. 9 showers heads. (Assume 2.5 gpm/shower head, 5 min/
shower, 45 people to shower, 110F [43C] water at shower
head, 40F [4.4C] incoming water temperature and 140F
[60C] stored water.)
2. 7 lavatories.
3. 1 whirlpool.
4. 1 arm tub.
5. 2 washers.
6. 1 laundry sink.
7. 1 pantry sink.
8. 3 service sinks
9. 10 wash fountains.
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9
9
Lavatories
Showers heads
3
1
Service sinks
Kitchen sinks
(double comp.)
Pantry sinks
Laundry sinks
Arm tubs
Whirlpools
Commercial washing
machines
Wash fountains
1
1
1
1
2
6
GPH
L/H
Total GPH (L/H)
4
150b
15
681
10
60
38
227
36 (136)
1350 or 500 gals (5110
or 1893 L)
for 25 minc
30 (113.6)
60 (227)
6
8
35a
100a
120a
23
30
132.5
378.5
454
10
38
6 (23)
8 (30)
35 (132.5)
100 (378.5)
240 (908.5)
60 (227)
a Information obtained from manufacture of equipment.

b 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) 60 min
c 9 heads 2.5 gpm = 22.5 gpm; 25 min peak load 22.5 gpm = 562.5 gal at
110F required in a 25 min peak load (9 heads 0.16 L/sec = 1.42 L/sec; 25 min
peak load 1.42 L/sec 60 sec/min = 2129 L at 43C required in a 25 min peak
load)

Calculations (for water heater to serve showers, arm tub,
and whirlpool)
45 people
= 5 people/head
9 shower heads
5 people/head 5 min/person = 25 min minimum for
shower peak demand
9 shower heads 2.5 gpm = 22.5 gpm
25 min 22.5 gpm = 562.5 gal of 110F water required
to be available in 25 min at the
shower heads. Shower demand to
be hour after hour.
(9 shower heads 0.16 L/sec = 1.4 L/sec
25 min 1.4 L/sec 60 sec/min = 2129 L of 43C
water required to be available in 25 min at the
shower heads. Shower demand to be hour after
hour.)
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total gph (L/h) for arm tub and whirlpool = 135 gph
(511 L/h) (from the hot water demand table)
Notes:
1. Shower time could vary; the 25 min in this example is the
bare minimum.
2. Allow 1 fill/h for arm tubs and whirlpools for this example. The demand will be met by storage. Should 2 fills/
h be required, the designer must have the total gph (L/h)
recovery of arm tubs and whirlpools 2 to meet the second fill within 30 min.
allow for storage tank draw efficiency. If we decide to meet
total demand with storage: 562.5 gal (2129 L) at 110F (43C)
at the shower head and 135 gal (511 L) at 110F (43C) for
arm tubs and whirlpool, stored water temperature at 140F
(60C). Using the mixed water temperature formula in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7):
110 40F = 70F = 0.7
140 40F
100F
43 4.4C
38.6C
=
( 60
4.4C
55.6C
= 0.7
Therefore,
697.5 gal 0.7 = 488.25 gal of 140F water
(2640 L 0.7 = 1848 L of 60C water)
This is the amount that must be supplied to the tempering stations for the showers, arm tub, and whirlpool.
To determine the tank size required, divide 488.25 gal
(1848 L) of 140F (60C) water by the percent usable storage
capacity. If we assume 80% usable storage capacity, then we
should select a tank with a capacity of approximately 610 gal
(2309 L).
Note: Percent usable storage capacities vary. Contact your
tank manufacturer for specific information.
Recovery requirements
This is to be determined based on the frequency and duration
of the shower plus additional equipment load requirements. If
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217
showers are required hour after hour, then minimum recovery

must be the shower load demand recovered over a period of 1
h. If the second hour is not required but the third hour is, the
recovery can be reduced by 50%. If neither the second nor the
third hour is required, then the recovery can be 33% of shower
and additional equipment load requirements.
energy output = 488.25 gph 8.33 lb/gal
(140 40F)
= 406,712.25 Btu/h
[energy output = 1848 L/h 1 kg/L (60 4.4C)
If a heater has a thermal efficiency of 80%, then the input
must be 508,390.3 Btu/h (128 436 kJ/h) if 488.25 gph (1848
L/h) are used each hour.
shower operation)
recovery = 488.25 gph at 40 to 140F
(1848 L/h at 4.4 to 60C)
Note: Storage requirement capacity remains the same even
though peak demand time may vary. The designer may choose
to increase or decrease storage or recovery, balancing the two
as necessary to arrive at a cost-effective system that will fit
into the space available.
Loop no. 2 (visiting team)
1. 10 showers heads. (Assume 2.5 gpm/shower head, 5 min/
shower, 40 people to shower, 110F [43C] water at shower
head, 40F [4.4C] incoming water temperature, and 140F
[60C] stored water.)
2. 12 lavatories.
3. 1 whirlpool.
4. 1 arm tub.
5. 1 washer.
6. 1 laundry sink.
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7. 1 pantry sink.
8. 2 service sinks.
9. 6 wash fountains.

12
10
2
1
1
1
6
1
GPH
L/H
Total GPH (L/H)
Lavatories
Showers heads
5
150b
19
568
Service sinks
Laundry sinks
Commercial washing
machines
Whirlpool
Wash fountains
Arm tub
10
8
120a
38
30
454
60 (227)
1500 or 500 gal (5678
or 1893 L) for 20 minc
20 (76)
8 (30)
240 (454)
100a
10
35a
378.5
38
132.5
100 (378.5)
60 (227)
35 (132.5)
a Information obtained from manufacture of equipment.

b 2.5 gpm (0.16 L/sec) 60 min
c 10 heads 2.5 gpm = 25 gpm; 20 min peak load 25 gpm = 500 gal at 110F
required in a 25 min peak load (10 heads 0.16 L/sec = 1.6 L/sec ; 20 min peak
load 1.6 L/sec 60 sec/min = 1893 L at 43C required in a 25 min peak load)

Calculations (for water heater to serve showers, arm tub,
and whirlpool)
40 people
= 4 people/head
10 shower heads
4 people/head 5 min/person = 20 min minimum for
shower peak demand
10 shower heads 2.5 gpm = 25 gpm
(10 shower heads 0.16 L/sec = 1.6 L/sec)
20 min 25 gpm = 500 gal of 110F water required to
be available in 20 min at the
shower heads
(20 min 1.6 L/sec = 1893 L of 43C water required to
be available in 20 min at the
shower heads)
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219
total gph for arm tub and whirlpool = 135 gph

(total L/h for arm tub and whirlpool = 511 L/h)
Notes:
1. Shower time could vary; the 20 min in this example is the
bare minimum.
2. Allow 1 fill/h for the arm tub and whirlpool in this example. Meet the demands by storage. Should 2 fills/h be
required, the designer must have the total gph (L/h) recovery of the arm tub and whirlpool 2 to meet the second
fill within 30 min.
allow for the percent usable storage capacity of the tank.
If we decide to meet the total demand with storage: 500
gal (1893 L) at 110F (43C) at the shower head and 135 gal
(511 L) at 110F (43C) for arm tub and whirlpool stored water temperature at 140F (60C). Using the mixed water
temperature formula in Chapter 1 (Equation 1.7):
110 40F
70F
=
= 0.7
140 40F
100F
43 4.4C
38.6C
=
(60
4.4C
55.6C
= 0.7
Therefore,
635 gal 0.7 = 444.5 gal of 140F water
(2404 L 0.7 = 1683 L of 60C water)
This is the amount that must be supplied to the tempering stations for the showers, arm tub, and whirlpool.
Storage tank size
To determine the tank size required, divide 435 gal (1647 L)
of 140F (60C) water by the percent usable storage capacity.
If we assume 80% usable storage capacity, then we should
select a tank with approximately 543.75 gal (2058 L).
Note: Percent usable storage capacities vary. Contact your
tank manufacturer for specific information.
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Recovery requirements
This is determined based on the frequency and duration of
the showers plus additional equipment load requirements. If
showers are required hour after hour, then minimum recovery must be the shower load demand recovered over a period
of 1 h. If the second hour is not required but the third hour
is, the recovery can be reduced by 50%. If neither the second
nor the third hour is required, then the recovery can be 33%
of shower and additional equipment load requirements.
energy output = 435 gph 8.33 lb/gal (140 40F)
= 362,355 Btu/h output
[energy output = 1647 L/h 1 kg/L (60 4.4C)
If a heater has a thermal efficiency of 80%, then the input
must be 452,944 Btu/h (114 467 kJ/h) if 488.25 gph (1848
L/h) are used each hour.
shower operation)
recovery = 435 gph (1647 L/h) at
40 to 140F (4.4 to 60C)
Note: Storage requirement capacity remains the same even
though peak demand time may vary. The designer may choose
to increase or decrease storage or recovery, balancing the two
as necessary to arrive at a cost-effective system that will fit
into the space available.
Laundries
12
221
LAUNDRIES
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to guide the designer through
the procedure of designing a domestic water heating system
for a commercial/institutional/industrial laundry.
The designer is charged with identifying the variables and
calculating the demand affecting such a system. The procedure
presented here will help predict the amount of hot water required
to meet both the hourly demand and momentary peak demands
of a laundry. Before completing the final design, the designer
should verify the laundry equipment requirements with the equipment manufacturers.
SYSTEM DESIGN QUESTIONS

1. Will the laundry hot water system be separate from or
combined with other systems?
2. Will the laundry demand occur at the same time as other
demands for hot water?
3. What will the laundrys hot water usage be (gallons per hour
[liters per hour] and gallons per pound [liters per kilogram] of
laundry)?
4. How many washers will there be and what is the pound (kilogram) capacity of each?
5. What is the maximum flow rate per machine (gallons per
minute [liters per second])?
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6. What is the average cycle time of each washer?

7. How many cycles will there be per hour?
8. What hot water temperature is required?
9. What hours does the owner expect to operate the laundry?
10. What fuels are available?
11. What is the minimum temperature of the supply water?
12. Is there a heat recovery system available to preheat the water
for the laundry?
STORAGE
Unless otherwise directed by the owner, assume that all the washers will operate simultaneously. Provide an amount of hot water
storage equivalent to 50 to 75% of the hourly demand. Evaluate
the operating characteristics of the washers before deciding on
the amount of storage.
RECOVERY
The water heating system should be designed for full recovery of
the hourly demand.
EXAMPLE 12.1
A hospital laundry has three 135-lb (61-kg) and two 75-lb (34kg) washers which use 160F (71C) water for sanitation and blood
removal. The washer manufacturers data indicate that all washers require 2 gal (7.57 L) of hot water per hour per pound (kilogram).
(3 135 lb) + (2 75 lb) = 555 lb total capacity
[(3 61 kg) + (2 34 kg) = 251 kg total capacity]
555 lb 2 gph/lb = 1110 gph of 160F water
(251 kg 7.6 L/h = 1907.6 L/h of 71C water)
The laundry equipment manufacturer suggests usable storage of
between 50 and 75% of hourly demand. For this example, well
choose 60%.
60% 1110 gal = 666 gal
Laundries
223
(60% 1907.6 L = 1145 L)

A tank with a percent usable storage volume of 75% is selected.
666 gal
= 888 gal
75%
L
= 1527 L)
(1145
75%
Select the nearest standard size tank, giving consideration to the
space allotted for the tank.
Miscellaneous Facilities
13
225
MISCELLANEOUS
FACILITIES
RELIGIOUS FACILITIES
Kitchen
Many religious facilities have assembly areas, usually with adjacent kitchens. These kitchens range from full, commercial type
facilities to minimal rooms where general food warming and preparation will occur.
If there will be a dishwasher in the kitchen, it may be a major
determinant of the size of the water heater. If there will be a
commercial dishwasher and it has a hot water rinse cycle (in lieu
of a chemical rinse), a booster heater may be required to provide
the sanitizing temperature (180F [82C]) required (residential
and some institutional type dishwashers have a built-in heater).
If the capacity of the dishwasher is not available, the hot water
requirements for the dishwasher can be estimated from Chapter
4, Table 4.5.
If the kitchen will have a utensil cleaning sink (sometimes
called a pots and pan sink) and a hand washing sink, Table 4.4
in Chapter 4 can be used to determine the kitchen demand.
Baptistries
Baptismal fonts that range in size from 400 to 1200 gal (1514 to
4543 L) are required to be maintained at near skin temperature,
between 94 and 105F (34 and 41C); use 100F (38C) for design
purposes. Depending on the use of the font, the water will either
be maintained in the font or filled and drained for each use.
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When the water is maintained in the font, the application is

similar to a small swimming pool. The water is circulated between the font and the heater by a small pump. The size of the
water heater is dependent on the time required to raise the water
to the desired temperature; due to heat loss, the water heater
will also have to maintain the temperature.
When the font is drained and filled for each use, the application is similar to the filling of a large tub. The hot water can be
provided by the buildings domestic water heating system or a
dedicated water heating system. A dedicated system can have a
variety of designs, such as an instantaneous heater, a storage
tank combination or a dedicated tank. The critical element is the
recovery capacity required to meet temperature requirements and
fill rate.
When one water heater is used for kitchen use and the baptismal font, the recovery rate for these functions may not be
concurrent. These functions normally happen at different times;
therefore, the higher of the two recovery rates can be used to
select the water heater.
Toilet Rooms
The toilet room usage can be sporadic but will produce intermittent heavy loads. Depending on the size and location of the toilet
room, hot water can be supplied by the buildings domestic water heating system or from a point-of-use heater.
Other Considerations
The designer needs to evaluate additional hot water usage, such
as gymnasiums, pools, activity rooms, meeting rooms, classrooms,
day-care facilities, residences, and administrative offices.
GROCERY AND CONVENIENCE STORES

There are many sizes and types of grocery and convenience store.
Grocery stores are defined to include a selection of the following
departments: bakery; deli; meat; produce; and specialty areas,
such as floral or food service.
The designer, working with the owner or architect, must identify all the potential uses of hot water. Grocery and convenience
227
stores have the usual facilities, such as kitchens, toilets, and

cleaning areas. Some special areas the designer should be aware
of include:
Food preparation,
Utensil cleaning,
Thawing of food,
Tray cleaning,
Can wash,
Cleanup,
Hand washing,
Wash down, and
Sanitizing of food preparation areas.
The cleaning process is usually done in the late afternoon or
evening and must be able to remove the fat, grease, flour, etc.
Each food preparation department will usually have at least one
hot water hose bibb or mixing faucet to use for wash down. Because the wash down hot water load is significant, it is important
to obtain the specifications for the wash down equipment (e. g.,
water hose, mixing faucet, flow rate, and pressure) and the wash
down procedures. The hot water demand load for wash down
and cleanup is generally not concurrent with the other hot water
demand loads in the building. Based on the location and layout
of the different departments, consideration should be given to
using smaller water heaters for each department.
Toilet Rooms
Many times toilet rooms are located in remote areas of the grocery story, away from the food preparation areas. Consideration
should be given to providing a point-of-use water heater.
Other Considerations
Due to the quantity of refrigeration equipment in this type of
facility, the designer should consider the opportunity for heat
reclamation. This is a common method of preheating water in a
grocery store and can be a substantial energy saving factor.
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RETAIL CENTERS
There are two primary considerations for retail centers or shopping malls: the large anchor or department store and the smaller
general retail establishments. For determining hot water demand
in large anchor stores, the designer needs to consider the inclusion of a restaurant, administrative offices, and general facilities.
Concepts for many of these areas can be found throughout this
manual.
For the general retail establishment, hot water is primarily
for use in toilet rooms and demand is driven by hand washing.
The number and type of plumbing fixtures, including those using hot water, are governed by local building codes. Each tenant
will usually have, and be responsible for, his/her own domestic
hot water system. For general public use toilet rooms, a point-ofuse water heater may be appropriate.
FAST FOOD RESTAURANTS

The designer is encouraged to consult the owner to determine
the exact hot water requirements.
There are usually one or two 3-compartment stainless steel
sinks for either food preparation or utensil cleaning. Many times
the 3-compartment stainless steel sinks are used for both food
preparation and utensil cleaning. Often the utensil cleaning sink
has special size bowls to allow cleaning of the large trays. The
size of the bowl and the size of each stainless steel sink vary
greatly. Most health departments require one or two hand washing sinks, one in the customer service area and one in the food
preparation area.
There are many sizes and types of fast food establishment.
These establishments have the usual requirements, such as kitchens, toilets, and cleaning areas. Areas the designer should be
aware of include:
Food preparation,
Utensil cleaning,
Thawing of food,
Cleanup, and
Hand washing.
The cleaning process is conducted after business hours and
229
must be able to remove the fat, grease, flour, etc. The food preparation area usually has at least one hot water hose bibb or mixing
faucet to use for wash down and cleanup. The hot water demand
load for wash down and cleanup is generally not concurrent with
the other hot water demands.
Toilet Rooms
Typically all hot water demands are met by a single heater. However, a point-of-use water heater should be considered for the
public toilet rooms in fast food establishments.
OFFICE BUILDINGS
The number and type of plumbing fixtures required for an office
building are governed by local building codes. Hot water demand
is usually determined by the quantity of hand washing fixtures.
Based on the location and size of loads in a building, a single
water heater can serve an individual fixture, a toilet room, multiple toilet rooms, or the entire building.
Special tenant requirements (e.g., mini health clubs, food service, day care, cleaning, retail shops, medical and/or dental offices)
should be considered individually. In many instances, the tenant
is responsible for his or her own domestic hot water system.
Section
II
EQUIPMENT
The material presented in the majority of chapters in this section
is drawn from information and documents received from numerous manufacturers. In order to provide balanced, unbiased, and
complete coverage, ASPE made every effort possible to solicit information from all applicable equipment manufacturers. The
chapters reflect that effort to the extent that manufacturers responded. For some chapters, such as Chapter 17, there was only
limited manufacturer input, and the limitations of the material
in these chapters are obvious.
Manufacturers may submit additional information, data, documents, and new innovations for this section at any time. All
submitted materials will be considered and incorporated as appropriate. As new editions of this work in progress are issued
in future years, this equipment section will develop into a complete compendium of domestic water heating equipment
possibilities to assist the design engineer.
Recirculating Domestic Hot W

ater Systems
Water
14
233
RECIRCULATING
DOMESTIC HOT
WATER SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
It has been determined through field studies that the correct
sizing and operation of water heaters depend on the appropriateness of the hot water maintenance system. If the hot water
maintenance system is inadequate, the water heater sizing criteria
are wrong and the temperature of the hot water distributed to
the users of the plumbing fixtures is below acceptable standards.
Additionally, a poorly designed hot water maintenance system
wastes large amounts of energy and potable water and creates
time delays for those using the plumbing fixtures. This chapter
addresses the criteria for establishing an acceptable time delay
in delivering hot water to fixtures and the limitations of the length
between a hot water recirculation system and plumbing fixtures.
It also discusses the temperature drop across a hot water supply
system, types of hot water recirculation system, and pump selection criteria, and gives extensive information on the insulation of
hot water supply and return piping.
BACKGROUND
In the past, the plumbing engineering community considered the
prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures either a requirement for a
project or a matter of no concern. The plumbing engineers decision was based primarily on the type of facility under consideration
and the developed length from the water heater to the farthest
fixture. Previous reference material and professional common
practices have indicated that, when the distance from the water
heater to the farthest fixture exceeds 100 ft (30.48 m) water should
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be circulated. However, this recommendation is subjective, and,

unfortunately, some engineers and contractors use the 100-ft
(30.48-m) criterion as the maximum length for all uncirculated,
uninsulated, dead-end hot water branches to fixtures in order to
cut the cost of hot water distribution piping. These long,
uninsulated, dead-end branches to fixtures create considerable
problems, such as a lack of hot water at fixtures, inadequately
sized water heater assemblies, and thermal temperature escalation in showers.
The 100-ft (30.48-m) length criterion was developed in 1973
after the Middle East oil embargo, when energy costs were the
paramount concern and water conservation was given little consideration. Since the circulation of hot water causes a loss of energy
due to radiation and convection in the circulated system and such
energy losses have to be continually replaced by water heaters,
the engineering community compromised between energy loss and
construction costs and developed the 100-ft (30.48-m) maximum
length criterion.
LENGTH AND TIME CRITERIA

Recently, due to concern about not only energy conservation but
also the extreme water shortages in parts of the country, the 100ft (30.48-m) length criteria has changed. Water wastage caused by
the long delay in obtaining hot water at fixtures has become as
critical an issue as the energy losses caused by hot water temperature maintenance systems. To reduce the wasting of cooled
hot water significantly, the engineering community has reevaluated the permissible distances for uncirculated, dead-end branches
to periodically used plumbing fixtures. The new allowable distances
for uncirculated, dead-end branches represent a trade-off between
the energy utilized by the hot water maintenance system and the
cost of the insulation, on the one hand, and the cost of energy to
heat the excess cold water makeup, the cost of wasted potable
water, and extra sewer surcharges, on the other hand. Furthermore, engineers should be aware that various codes now limit the
length between the hot water maintenance system and plumbing
fixtures. They also should be aware of the potential for liability if
an owner questions the adequacy of their hot water system design.
What are reasonable delays in obtaining hot water at a fixture? For anything beside very infrequently used fixtures (such as
those in industrial facilities or certain fixtures in office buildings),
a delay of 0 to 10 sec is normally considered acceptable for most

ater Systems
Water
235
residential occupancies and public fixtures in office buildings. A

delay of 11 to 30 sec is marginal but possibly acceptable, and a
time delay longer than 31 sec is normally considered unacceptable and a significant waste of water and energy. Therefore, when
designing hot water systems, it is prudent for the designer to
provide some means of getting hot water to the fixtures within
these acceptable time limits. Normally this means that there
should be a maximum distance of approximately 25 ft (7.6 m)
between the hot water maintenance system and each of the plumbing fixtures requiring hot water, the distance depending on the
water flow rate of the plumbing fixture at the end of the line and
the size of the line. (See Tables 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3.) The plumbing designer may want to stay under this length limitation because
the actual installation in the field may differ slightly from the
engineer's design, and additional delays may be caused by either
the routing of the pipe or other problems. Furthermore, with the
low fixture discharge rates now mandated by national and local
laws, it takes considerably longer to obtain hot water from nontemperature maintained hot water lines than it did in the past,
when fixtures had greater flow rates. For example, a public lavatory with a 0.50 or 0.25 gpm (0.03 or 0.02 L/sec) maximum
discharge rate would take an excessive amount of time to obtain
hot water from 100 ft (30.48 m) of uncirculated, uninsulated hot
water piping. (See Table 14.3.) This table gives conservative approximations of the amount of time it takes to obtain hot water
at a fixture. The times are based on the size of the line, the fixture flow rate, and the times required to replace the cooled off
hot water, to heat the pipe, and to offset the convection energy
lost by the insulated hot water line.
Table 14.1 Water Contents and Weight of Tube or

Piping per Linear Foot
Nominal
Diameter
(in.)a
1
1
1
Copper
Pipe
Type L
Copper
Pipe
Type M
Steel Pipe
Schedule
40
CPVC Pipe
Schedule
40
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
0.012
0.025
0.043
0.065
0.093
0.285
0.445
0.655
0.884
1.14
0.013
0.027
0.045
0.068
0.100
0.204
0.328
0.465
0.682
0.940
0.016
0.028
0.045
0.077
0.106
0.860
1.140
1.680
2.280
2.720
0.016
0.028
0.045
0.078
0.106
0.210
0.290
0.420
0.590
0.710
aPipe sizes are indicated for mild steel pipe sizing.
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Table 14.1(M) Water Contents and Weight of Tube or

Piping per Meter
Copper
Pipe
Type L
Nominal
Diameter
(mm)a
Water
(L)
Wgt.
(kg)
Copper
Pipe
Type M
Water
(L)
Steel Pipe
Schedule
40
Wgt.
(kg)
Water
(L)
CPVC Pipe
Schedule
40
Wgt.
(kg)
Water
(L)
Wgt.
(kg)
DN15
0.045
0.129
0.049
0.204
0.061
0.390
0.061
0.099
DN20
DN25
DN32
DN40
0.095
0.163
0.246
0.352
0.202
0.297
0.401
0.517
0.102
0.170
0.257
0.379
0.328
0.465
0.682
0.940
0.106
0.170
0.291
0.401
0.517
0.762
1.034
1.233
0.106
0.170
0.295
0.401
0.132
0.191
0.268
0.322

Water Flow Rates
Maximum Flow Ratesa
Fittings
Lavatory faucet
Public non-metering
Public metering
Sink faucet
Shower head
Bathtub faucets
Single-handle
Two-handle
Service sink faucet
Laundry tray faucet
Residential washing machine
aUnless otherwise noted.
GPM
L/Sec
2.0
0.5
0.25 gal/cycle
2.5
2.5
1.3
0.03
0.946 L/cycle
0.16
0.16
2.4 minimum
4.0 minimum
4.0 minimum
4.0 minimum
1.87 aver
7.5 aver
0.15 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.12 aver
0.47 aver

ater Systems
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237

Hot Water to a Fixture
Delivery Time (sec)
Fixture Flow
Rate (gpm)
Piping
Length (ft)
0.5
1.5
2.5
4.0
10
25
10
25
10
25
10
25
Copper
Pipe
in.
in.
25
48a
63a
119a
8
16
21
40a
5
10
13
24
3
6
8
15
Steel Pipe
Sched. 40
in.
in.
63a
91a
157a
228a
21
30
52a
76a
13
18
31a
46a
8
11
20
28
CPVC Pipe
Sched. 40
in.
in.
64a
95a
159a
238a
21
32
53a
79a
13
19
32a
48a
8
12
20
30
Note: Table based on various fixture flow rates, piping materials, and dead-end
branch lengths. Calculations are based on the amount of heat required to heat
the piping, the water in the piping, and the heat loss from the piping. Based on
water temperature of 140F and an air temperture of 70F.
aDelays longer than 30 sec are not acceptable.

Delivery Time (sec)
Fixture Flow
Rate (L/sec)
Piping
Length (m)
0.03
0.10
0.16
3.1
7.6
3.1
7.6
3.1
7.6
0.25
3.1
7.6
Copper
Pipe
DN15
DN22
25
48a
63a
119a
8
16
21
40a
5
10
13
24
3
6
8
15
Steel Pipe
Sched. 40
DN15
DN20
63a
91a
157a
228a
21
30
52a
76a
13
18
31a
46a
8
11
20
28
CPVC Pipe
Sched. 40
DN15
DN20
64a
95a
159a
238a
21
32
53a
79a
13
19
32a
48a
8
12
20
30
water temperature of 60C and an air temperture of 21.1C.
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RESULTS OF DELAYS IN DELIVERING

HOT WATER TO FIXTURES
As mentioned previously, when there is a long delay in obtaining
hot water at the fixture, there is significant wastage of potable
water as the cooled hot water supply is simply discharged down
the drain unused. Furthermore, plumbing engineers concerned
about total system costs should realize that the cost of this wasted,
previously heated water must include: the original cost for obtaining potable water, the cost of previously heating the water,
the final cost of the waste treatment of this excess potable water,
which results in larger sewer surcharges (source of supply to end
disposal point), and the cost of heating the new cold water to
bring it up to the required temperature. Furthermore, if there is
a long delay in obtaining hot water at the fixtures, the faucets
are turned on for long periods of time to bring the hot water
supply at the fixture up to the desired temperature. This can
cause the water heating system to run out of hot water and make
the heater sizing inadequate, because the heater is unable to
heat all the extra cold water brought into the system through the
wastage of the water discharged down the drain. In addition, this
extra cold water entering the hot water system reduces the hot
water supply temperature. This exacerbates the problem of insufficient hot water because to get a proper blended temperature
more lower temperature hot water will be used to achieve the
final mixed water temperature. (See Chapter 1, Table 1.1.) Additionally, this accelerates the downward spiral of the temperature
of the hot water system.
Another problem resulting from long delays in getting hot
water to the fixtures is that the fixtures operate for longer than
expected periods of time. Therefore, the actual hot water demand
is greater than the demand normally designed for.
Therefore, when sizing the water heater and the hot water
piping distribution system, the designer should be aware that
the lack of a proper hot water maintenance system can seriously
impact the required heater size.
METHODS OF DELIVERING REASONABLY

PROMPT HOT WATER SUPPLY
Hot water maintenance systems are as varied as the imaginations of the plumbing engineers who create them. They can be
grouped into three basic categories, though any actual installa-

ater Systems
Water
239
tion may be a combination of more than one of these types of

system. The three basic categories are
1. Circulation systems.
2. Self-regulating heat trace systems.
3. Point-of-use water heaters (include booster water heaters).
Circulation Systems for Commercial, Industrial, and

Large Residential Projects
A circulation system is a system of hot water supply pipes and
hot water return pipes with appropriate shutoff valves, balancing valves, circulating pumps, and a method of controlling the
circulating pump. The diagrams for six basic circulating systems
are shown in Figures 14.1 through 14.6.
Fixture 14.1 Upfeed Hot Water System with Heater at

Bottom of System.
* See text for requirements for strainers.
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Figure 14.2 Downfeed Hot Water System with Heater at

Top of System.
Figure 14.3 Upfeed Hot Water System with Heater at

Bottom of System.

ater Systems
Water
241

Top of System.
Figure 14.5 Combination Upfeed and Downfeed Hot Water System

with Heater at Bottom of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the upfeed
systems shown in Figures 14.1 and 14.3.
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Figure 14.6 Combination Downfeed and Upfeed Hot Water System

with Heater at Top of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the downfeed
Self-Regulating Heat Trace

Over approximately the last 20 years, self-regulating heat trace
has come into its own because of the problems of balancing circulated hot water systems and energy loss in the return piping.
For further discussion of this topic, see Chapter 15.
Point-of-Use Heaters
This concept is applicable when there is a single fixture or group
of fixtures that is located far from the temperature maintenance
system. In such a situation, a small, instantaneous, point-of-use
water heateran electric water heater, a gas water heater, or a
small under-fixture storage type water heater of the magnitude
of 6 gal (22.71 L)can be provided. (See Figure 14.7.) The pointof-use heater will be very cost-effective because it will save the
cost of running hot water piping to a fixture that is a long distance away from the temperature maintenance system. The

ater Systems
Water
243
plumbing engineer must remember, however, that when a water

heater is installed there are various code and installation requirements that must be complied with, such as those pertaining to T
& P relief valve discharge.
Instantaneous electric heaters used in point-of-use applications can require a considerable amount of power, and may require
240 or 480 V service.
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN CIRCULATED HOT

WATER MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
The following are some of the potential problems with circulated
hot water maintenance systems that must be addressed by the
plumbing designer.
Figure 14.7 Instantaneous Point-of-Use Water Heater

Piping Diagram.
Source: Courtesy of Chronomite Laboratories, Inc.
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Water
Water Velocities in Hot Water Piping Systems

For copper piping systems, it is very important that the circulated hot water supply piping and especially the hot water return
piping be sized so that the water is moving at a controlled velocity. High velocities in these systems can cause pinhole leaks in
the copper piping in as short a period as six months or less.
Balancing Systems
It is extremely important that a circulated hot water system be
balanced for its specified flows, including all the various individual loops within the circulated system. Balancing is required
even though an insulated circulated line usually requires very
little flow to maintain satisfactory system temperatures. If the
individual hot water circulated loops are not properly balanced,
the circulated water will tend to short-circuit through the closest
loops, creating high velocities in that piping system. Furthermore, the short-circuiting of the circulated hot water will result
in complaints about the long delays in getting hot water at the
remotest loops. If the hot water piping is copper, high velocities
can create velocity erosion which will destroy the piping system.
Because of the problems inherent in manually balancing hot
water circulation systems, many professionals incorporate factory preset flow control devices in their hot water systems. While
the initial cost of such a device is higher than the cost of a manual
balancing valve, a preset device may be less expensive when the
field labor cost for balancing the entire hot water system is included. When using a preset flow control device, however, the
plumbing designer has to be far more accurate in selecting the
control device's capacity as there is no possibility of field adjustment. Therefore, if more or less hot water return flow is needed
during the field installation, a new flow control device must be
installed and the old one must be removed and discarded.
Isolating Portions of Hot Water Systems

It is extremely important in circulated systems that shutoff valves
be provided to isolate an entire circulated loop. This is done so
that if individual fixtures need modification, their piping loop can
be isolated from the system so the entire hot water system does
not have to be shut off and drained. The location of these shutoff
valves should be given considerable thought. The shutoff valves
should be accessible at all times, so they should not be located in

ater Systems
Water
245
such places as the ceilings of locked offices or condominiums.
Maintaining the Balance of Hot Water Systems

To ensure that a balanced hot water system remains balanced
after the shutoff valves have been utilized, the hot water return
system must be provided with a separate balancing valve in addition to the shutoff valve or, if the balancing valve is also used
as the shutoff valve, the balancing valve must have a memory
stop. (See the discussion of "balancing valves with memory stops"
below.) With a memory stop on the valve, plumbers can return a
system to its balanced position after working on it rather than
have the whole piping system remain unbalanced, which would
result in serious problems.

Hot Water Loops
The designer should provide a check valve on each hot water return line where it joins other hot water return lines. This is done
to ensure that a plumbing fixture does not draw hot return water
instead of hot supply water, which could unbalance the hot water
system and cause delays in obtaining hot water at some fixtures.
A Delay in Obtaining Hot Water at Dead-End Lines

Keep the delay in obtaining hot water at fixtures to within the
time (and branch length) parameters given previously to avoid
unhappy users of the hot water system and to prevent lawsuits.
FLOW BALANCING DEVICES

The following are the more common types of balancing device.
Fixed Orifices and Venturis

These can be obtained for specific flow rates and simply inserted
into the hot water return piping system. (See Figure 14.8.) However, extreme care should be taken to locate these devices so they
can be removed and cleaned out, as they may become clogged
with the debris in the water. It is recommended, therefore, that a
strainer with a blowdown valve be placed ahead of each of these
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Figure 14.8 Fixed Orifices and Venturi Flow Meters.

Source: Courtesy of Gerand Engineering Co.

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247
devices. Additionally, a strainer with a fine mesh screen can be

installed on the main water line coming into the building to help
prevent debris buildup in the individual strainers. Also, a shutoff
valve should be installed before and after these devices so that an
entire loop does not have to be drained in order to service a strainer
or balancing device.
Factory Preset Automatic Flow Control Valves

The same admonition about strainers and valves given for "fixed
orifices and venturis" above applies to the installation and location of these devices. (See Figure 14.9.)
Figure 14.9 Preset Self-Limiting Flow Control Cartridge.

Source: Courtesy of Griswold Controls.
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Flow Regulating Valves

These valves can be used to determine the flow rate by reading
the pressure drop across the valve. They are available from various manufacturers. (See Figure 14.10.)
Figure 14.10 Adjustable Orifice Flow Control Valve.

Source: ITT Industries. Used with permission.
Balancing Valves with Memory Stops

These valves can be adjusted to the proper setting by installing
insertable pressure measuring devices (Petes Plugs, etc.) in the
piping system, which indicate the flow rate in the pipe line. (See
Figure 14.11.)

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Figure 14.11 Adjustable Balancing Valve with Memory Stop.

Source: Courtesy of Milwaukee Valve Co.
SIZING HOT WATER RETURN PIPING SYSTEMS

AND RECIRCULATING PUMPS
The method for selecting the proper size of the hot water return
piping system and the recirculating pump is fairly easy, but it
does require engineering judgment. First, the plumbing engineer
has to design the hot water supply and hot water return piping
systems, keeping in mind the parameters for total developed
length,1 prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures, and velocities in
pipe lines. The plumbing engineer has to make assumptions about
the sizes of the hot water return piping.
After the hot water supply and hot water return systems are
designed, the designer should make a piping diagram of the hot
1See American Society of Plumbing Engineers, 2000, Cold-water systems, Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2, for piping sizing methods.
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water supply system and the assumed return system showing

piping sizing and approximate lengths. From this piping diagram
the hourly heat loss occurring in the circulated portion of the hot
water supply and return systems can be determined. (See Table
14.4 for minimum required insulation thickness and Table 14.5
for approximate piping heat loss.)
Next determine the heat loss in the hot water storage tank if
one is provided. (See Table 14.6 for approximate tank heat loss.)
Calculate the total hot water system energy loss (tank heat loss
plus piping heat loss) in British thermal units per hour (watts).
This total hot water system energy loss is represented by q in
Equation 14.1 below. Note: Heat losses from storage type water
heater tanks are not normally included in the hot water piping
Table 14.4 Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness

Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (in.)
Runouts
2 in. or
Lessa
1 in. or Less
12 in.
24 in.
5 & 6 in.
8 in. or
Larger
Note: Data based on fiberglass insulation with all-service jacket. Data will change depending on actual type of insulation used. Data apply to recirculating sections of hot water
systems and the first 3 ft from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 12 ft in length).
For lengths longer than 12 ft, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Table 14.4(M) Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness

Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (mm)
Runouts
DN32 or
Lessa
DN25 or
Less
DN32DN50
DN65DN100
DN125 & DN150
DN200 or
Larger
13
25
25
40
40
40
systems and the first 0.9 m from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 3.7 m in length). For
lengths longer than 305 mm, use required insulation thickness shown in table.

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251
Table 14.5 Approximate Insulated Piping Heat Loss

and Surface Temperature
Nominal
Pipe Size
(in.)
1
1
1
2 or less
2
2
3
4
6
8
10
Insulation
Thickness
(in.)
Heat Loss
(Btu/h/
linear ft)
1
1
1
1
1
a
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8
10
10
13
13
24 or less
16
12
16
19
27
32
38
Surface
Temperature
(F)
68
69
69
70
69
74
70
67
68
69
69
69
69
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 65F and annual average
wind speed of 7.5 mph.
aUncirculating hot water runout branches only.

Loss and Surface Temperature
Nominal
Pipe Size
(mm)
DN15
DN20
DN25
DN32
DN40
DN50 or less
DN50
DN65
DN80
DN100
DN150
DN200
DN250
Insulation
Thickness
(mm)
25
25
25
25
25
13a
25
38
38
38
38
38
38
Heat Loss
(W/m)
7.7
9.6
9.6
12.5
12.5
23.1 or less
15.4
11.5
15.4
18.3
26.0
30.8
36.5
Surface
Temperature
(C)
20
21
21
21
21
23
21
19
20
21
21
21
21
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 18C and annual average
wind speed of 12 km/h.
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with Various Insulation Thicknesses
Insulation
Thickness
(in.)
1
1
2
3
3
Tank
Size
(gal)
50
100
250
500
1000
Approx. Energy Loss

from Tank at Hot
Water Temperature
140F (Btu/h)a
468
736
759
759
1273
Source: From Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association
(SMACNA) Table 2 data.
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 6.5 Btu/h/
ft2 of tank surface.

Insulation
Thickness
(mm)
25.4
25.4
50.8
76.2
76.2
Tank
Size
(L)
200
400
1000
2000
4000
Approx. Energy Loss

from Tank at Hot
Water Temperature
60C (W)a
137
216
222
222
373
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 1.9 W/m2 of
tank surface.
system heat loss because the water heater capacity takes care of
this loss, whereas pumped hot water has to replace the piping
convection losses in the piping system.
(14.1)
q = 60rwcT
[q = 3600rwcT]

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253
where
60
3600
q
r
w
c
T
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
min/h
sec/h
piping heat loss, Btu/h (kJ/h)
flow rate, gpm (L/sec)
weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/L)
change in heated water temperature (temperature of leaving water minus temperature of
incoming water, represented in this manual as
Th Tc, F [K])
Therefore
= c (gpm 8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/h)(F temperature
drop)
= 1(gpm) 500 F temperature drop
[q = c (L/sec 1kg/L)(3600 sec/h)(K temperature drop)
= 1(L/sec) 15 077 kJ/L/sec/K K temperature
drop]
q
(14.2) gpm
system heat loss (Btu/h)

500 F temperature drop
L/sec
system heat loss (kJ/h)

15 077 K temperature drop
In sizing hot water circulating systems, the designer should

note that the greater the temperature drop across the system,
the less water is required to be pumped through the system and,
therefore, the greater the savings on pumping costs. However, if
the domestic hot water supply starts out at 140F (60C) with,
say, a 20F (6.7C) temperature drop across the supply system,
the fixtures near the end of the circulating hot water supply loop
could be provided with a hot water supply of only 120F (49C).
In addition, if the hot water supply delivery temperature is 120F
(49C) instead of 140F (60C), the plumbing fixtures will use
greater volumes of hot water to get the desired blended water
temperature (see Chapter 1, Table 1.1). Therefore, the recommended hot water system temperature drop should be of the
magnitude of 5F (3C). This means that if the hot water supply
starts out from the water heater at a temperature between 135
and 140F (58 and 60C), the lowest hot water supply temperature provided by the hot water supply system could be between
130 and 135F (54 and 58C). With multiple temperature distri-
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bution systems, it is recommended that the recirculation system

for each temperature distribution system be extended back to
the water heating system separately and have its own pump.
Using Equation 14.2, we determine that, if there is a 5F (3C)
temperature drop across the hot water system, the number to
divide into the hot water circulating system heat loss (q) to obtain the minimum required hot water return circulation rate in
gpm (L/sec) is 2500 (500 5F), (45 213 [15 071 3C]).
For a 10F (6C) temperature drop that number is 5000 (from
Equation 14.2, 500 10F = 5000) (90 426 [from Equation 14.2,
15 071 6C = 90 426]). However, this 10F (6C) temperature
drop may produce hot water supply temperatures that are lower
than desired.
After Equation 14.2 is used to establish the required hot water return flow rate, in gpm (L/sec), the plumbing designer can
size the hot water return piping system based on piping flow rate
velocities and the available pump heads. It is quite common that
a plumbing designer will make wrong initial assumptions about
the sizes of the hot water return lines to establish the initial heat
loss figure (q). If that is the case, the plumbing engineer will have
to correct the hot water return pipe sizes, redo the calculations
using the new data based on the correct pipe sizing, and verify
that all the rest of the calculations are now correct.
EXAMPLE 14.1CALCULATION TO DETERMINE

REQUIRED CIRCULATION RATE
1. Assume that the hot water supply piping system has 800 ft
(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5,
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter). To find the
total heat loss, multiply length times heat loss per foot (meter):
800 ft 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h supply piping
losses
(244 m 12.5 W = 3050 W supply piping losses)
2. Assume that the hot water return piping system for the
system in no. 1 above has 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in.
(DN15) piping and 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in. (DN20)
pipe. From Table 14.5 determine the heat loss per linear foot
(meter):
100 ft 8 Btu/h/ft = 800 Btu/h piping loss

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255
(30.5 m 7.7 W/m = 235 W piping loss)

100 ft 10 Btu/h/ft =
30.5 m 9.6 W/m =
1000 Btu/h piping loss

293 W piping loss

528 W piping loss
3. Determine the hot water storage tank heat loss. Assume the
system in no. 1 above has a 200-gal (757-L) hot water storage
tank. From Table 14.6 determine the heat loss of the storage
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the hot water systems total heat losses by totaling the various losses:
A. Hot water supply piping losses
B. Hot water return piping losses
C. Hot water storage tank losses
Total system heat losses
10,400 Btu/h
1,800 Btu/h
759 Btu/h
12,959 Btu/h
Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 12,200 Btu/h

[A. Hot water supply piping losses
3050 W
527 W
222 W
3799 W
Total system piping heat losses (A + B) = 3577 W]

From Equation 14.2, using a system piping loss of
12,200 Btu/h (3577 W) and a 5F (3C) temperature
drop,
12,200 Btu/h
= 4.88 gpm (say 5 gpm)
5F temperature difference 500
required hot water
return circulation rate
3577 W
3C temp. difference 4188.32 kJ/m3
= 0.29 (say 0.3) L/sec

required hot water
Recalculation of Hot Water System Losses

(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter):
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800 ft 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h piping loss

(244 m
12.5 W/m = 3050 W piping loss)
(DN15) pipe, 25 ft (7.6 m) of average in. (DN22) pipe, and
75 ft (22.9 m) of average 1 in. (DN28) pipe. From Table 14.5,
[30.5 m 7.7 W/m =
7.6 m 9.6 W/m =
22.9 m 9.6 W/m =
235 W piping loss

73 W piping loss
220 W piping loss
528 W piping loss]
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the systems total heat losses:
A. Hot water supply losses
B. Hot water return losses
10,400 Btu/h
1,800 Btu/h
759 Btu/h
12,959 Btu/h

[A. Hot water supply losses
3050 W
528 W
222 W
3800 W

Note: The recalculation determined that the hot water system
heat losses remained unchanged and that 4.88 (say 5) gpm (0.29
[say 0.3] L/sec) is the flow rate that is required to maintain the 5F
(3C) temperature drop across the hot water supply system.

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257
It should be stated that engineers use numerous rules of

thumb to size hot water return systems. These rules of thumb
are all based on assumptions, however, and are not recommended.
It is recommended that the engineer perform the calculations for
each project to establish the required flow rates because, with all
the various capacities of the pumps available today, exact sizing
is possible, and any extra circulated flow caused by the plumbing engineer using a rule of thumb equates to higher energy costs,
to the detriment of the client.
ESTABLISHING THE HEAD CAPACITY OF THE

HOT WATER CIRCULATING PUMP
The hot water return circulating pump is selected based on the
required hot water return flow rate (in gpm [L/sec]), calculated
using Equation 14.2, and the systems pump head. The pump
head is normally determined by the friction losses through only
the hot water return piping loops and any losses through balancing valves. The hot water return piping friction losses usually do
not include the friction losses that occur in the hot water supply
piping. The reason for this is that the hot water return circulation
flow is needed only to keep the hot water supply system up to the
desired temperature when there is no flow in the hot water supply
piping. When people use the hot water at the fixtures, there is
usually sufficient flow in the hot water supply piping to keep the
system hot water supply piping up to the desired temperature
without help from the flow in the hot water return piping.
The only exception to the rule of ignoring the friction losses
in the hot water supply piping is a situation where a hot water
return pipe is connected to a relatively small hot water supply
line. "Relatively small" here means any hot water supply line that
is less than one pipe size larger than the hot water return line.
The problems created by this condition are that the hot water
supply line will add additional friction to the head of the hot
water circulating pump, and the hot water circulating pump flow
rate can deprive the last plumbing fixture on this hot water supply line from obtaining its required flow. It is recommended,
therefore, that in such a situation the hot water supply line supplying each hot water return piping connection point be increased
to prevent these potential problems, i.e., use in. (DN22) hot
water supply piping and in. (DN15) hot water return piping, or
1 in. (DN28) hot water supply piping and in. (DN22) hot water
return piping, etc.
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When selecting the hot water circulating pumps head, the

designer should be sure to calculate only the restrictions encountered by the circulating pump. A domestic hot water system
is normally considered an open system (i.e., open to the atmosphere). When the hot water circulating pump is operating,
however, it is assumed that the piping is a closed system. Therefore, the designer should not include static heads where none
exists. For example, in Figure 14.1, the hot water circulating
pump has to overcome only the friction in the hot water return
piping not the loss of the static head pumping the water up to
the fixtures because in a closed system the static head loss is
offset by the static head gain in the hot water return piping.
HOT WATER CIRCULATING PUMPS

Most hot water circulating pumps are of the centrifugal type and
are available as either in-line units for small systems or basemounted units for large systems. Because of the corrosiveness of
hot water systems, the pumps should be bronze, bronze fitted,
or stainless steel. Conventional, iron bodied pumps, which are
not bronze fitted, are not recommended.
CONTROL FOR HOT WATER CIRCULATING

PUMPS
There are three major methods commonly used for controlling
hot water circulating pumps: manual, thermostatic (aquastat),
and time clock control. Sometimes more than one of these methods are used on a system.
1. A manual control runs the hot water circulating pump continuously when the power is turned on. A manual control
should be used only when hot water is needed all the time,
24 h a day, or during all the periods of a building's operation.
Otherwise, it is not a cost-effective means of controlling the
circulating pump because it will waste energy.
Note: The method for applying the on demand concept for
controlling the hot water circulating pump is a manual control.
It can be used very successfully for residential and commercial
applications.
2. A thermostatic aquastat is a device that is inserted into the
hot water return line. When the water in the hot water return
system reaches the distribution temperature, it shuts off the

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259
circulating pump until the hot water return system temperature drops by approximately 10F [5.5C]. With this method,
when there is a large consumption of hot water by the plumbing fixtures, the circulating pump does not operate.
3. A time clock is used to turn the pump on during specific
hours of operation when people are using the fixtures. The
pump would not operate, for example, at night in an office
building when nobody is using the fixtures.
4. Often an aquastat and a time clock are used in conjunction
so that during the hours a building is not operating the time
clock shuts off the circulating pump, and during the hours
the building is in use the aquastat shuts off the pump when
the system is up to the desired temperature.
AIR ELIMINATION
In any hot water return circulation system it is very important
that there be a means of eliminating any entrapped air from the
hot water return piping. Air elimination is not required in the hot
water supply piping because the discharge of water from the fixtures will eliminate any entrapped air. If air is not eliminated
from the hot water return lines, however, it can prevent the proper
circulation of the hot water system. It is imperative that a means
of air elimination be provided at all high points of a hot water
return system. The plumbing engineer must always give consideration to precisely where the air elimination devices are to be
located and drained. For example, they should not be located in
the unheated attics of buildings in cold climates. If the plumbing
engineer does not consider the location of these devices and where
they will drain, the result may be unsightly piping in a building
or extra construction costs.
INSULATION
The use of insulation is very cost-effective. It means paying one
time to save the later cost of significant energy lost by the hot
water supply and return piping system. Also, insulation decreases
the stresses on the piping due to thermal expansion and contraction caused by changes in water temperature. Furthermore,
the proper use of insulation eliminates the possibility of someone getting burned by a hot, uninsulated water line. See Table
14.5 for the surface temperatures of insulated lines (versus 140F
[60C] for bare piping).
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It is recommended that all hot water supply and return piping be insulated. This recommendation exceeds some code
requirements. See Table 14.4 for the minimum required insulation thicknesses for all systems.
If the insulated piping is installed in a location where it is
subjected to rain or other water, the insulation must be sealed
with a watertight covering that will maintain its tightness over
time. Wet insulation not only does not insulate, it also releases
considerable heat energy from the hot water piping, thus wasting energy. Furthermore, the insulation on any outdoor lines that
is not sealed watertight can be plagued by birds or rodents, etc.,
pecking at the insulation to use it for their nests. In time, the
entire hot water supply and/or return piping will have no insulation. Such bare hot water supply and/or return piping will waste
considerable energy and can seriously affect the operation of the
hot water system and water heaters.
The minimum required insulation thicknesses given in Table
14.4 are based on insulation having thermal resistivity (R) in the
range of 4.0 to 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.028 to 0.032 m2
[C/W] mm) on a flat surface at a mean temperature of 75F
(24C). Minimum insulation thickness shall be increased for
materials having R values less than 4.0 ft2 h (F/Btu) in.
(0.028 m2 [C/W] mm) or may be reduced for materials having
R values greater than 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/
W] mm).
1. For materials with thermal resistivity greater than 4.6 ft2 h
(F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insulation thickness may be reduced as follows:
4.6 Table 14.4 thickness

= New minimum thickness
Actual R

Actual R
2. For materials with thermal resistivity less than 4.0 ft2 h

(F/Btu) in. (0.028 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insulation thickness shall be increased as follows:

Actual R

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261
Actual R
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, an inappropriate hot water recirculation system
can have serious repercussions for the operation of the water
heater and the sizing of the water heating system. In addition, it
can cause the wastage of vast amounts of energy, water, and
time. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the plumbing designer to
design a hot water recirculation system so that it conserves natural
resources and is in accordance with the recommendations given
in this chapter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning

Engineers. 1993. Pipe sizing. Chapter 33 in Fundamentals Handbook.
2.

Engineers. 1993. Thermal and water vapor transmission data.
Chapter 22 in Fundamentals Handbook.
3.

Engineers. 1995. Service water heating. Chapter 45 in Applications Handbook.
4.

Engineers. Energy conservation in new building design. ASHRAE
Standards, 90A1980, 90B1975, and 90C1977.
5.

Engineers. Energy efficient design of new low rise residential buildings. ASHRAE Standards, 90.21993.
6.

Engineers. New information on service water heating. Technical
Data Bulletin. Vol. 10, No. 2.
7.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Plumbing fixture fittings. ASME A112.18.1M1989.
8.
American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Cold water systems. Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2.
9.
American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Piping systems.

Chapter 10 in ASPE Data Book.
10. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Position paper on

hot water temperature limitations.
11. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water
262
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Water
systems. Chapter 4 in ASPE Data Book.

12. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1990. Insulation. Chapter 12 in ASPE Data Book.
13. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1990. Pumps. Chapter
11 in ASPE Data Book.
14. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Energy conservation in plumbing systems. Chapter 7 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 1.
15. American Water Works Association. 1985. Internal corrosion of
water distribution systems. Research Foundation cooperative research report.
16. Cohen, Arthur. Copper Development Association. 1978. Copper for
hot and cold potable water systems. Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning Magazine. May.
17. Cohen, Arthur. Copper Development Association. 1993. Historical
perspective of corrosion by potable waters in building systems.
Paper no. 509 presented at the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers Annual Conference.
18. Copper Development Association. 1993. Copper Tube Handbook.
19. International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials.
1985. Uniform Plumbing Code Illustrated Training Manual.
20. Konen, Thomas P. 1984. An experimental study of competing systems for maintaining service water temperature in residential
buildings. In ASPE 1984 Convention Proceedings.
21. Konen, Thomas P. 1994. Impact of water conservation on interior
plumbing. In Technical Proceedings of the 1994 ASPE Convention.
22. Saltzberg, Edward. 1988. The plumbing engineer as a forensic engineer. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
23. Saltzberg, Edward. 1993. To combine or not to combine: An in
depth review of standard and combined hydronic heating systems
and their various pitfalls. Paper presented at the American Society
of Plumbing Engineers Symposium, October 2223.
24. Saltzberg, Edward. 1996. The effects of hot water circulation systems on hot water heater sizing and piping systems. Technical
presentation given at the American Society of Plumbing Engineers
convention, November 36.
25. Saltzberg, Edward. 1997. In press. New methods for analyzing hot
water systems. Plumbing Engineer Magazine.
26. Saltzberg, Edward. 1997. In press. Prompt delivery of hot water at
fixtures. Plumbing Engineer Magazine.
27. Sealine, David A., Tod Windsor, Al Fehrm, and Greg Wilcox. 1988.
Mixing valves and hot water temperature. In Technical Proceedings
of the 1988 ASPE Convention.

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Water
263
28. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association. 1982. Retrofit of Building Energy Systems and Processes.
29. Steele, Alfred. Engineered Plumbing Design. 2d ed.
30. Steele, Alfred. 1988. Temperature limits in service hot water systems. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
31. Wen-Yung, W. Chan, and Milton Meckler. 1983. Pumps and pump
systems. In American Society of Plumbing Engineers Handbook.
Section
II
EQUIPMENT
The material presented in the majority of chapters in this section
is drawn from information and documents received from numerous manufacturers. In order to provide balanced, unbiased, and
complete coverage, ASPE made every effort possible to solicit information from all applicable equipment manufacturers. The
chapters reflect that effort to the extent that manufacturers responded. For some chapters, such as Chapter 17, there was only
limited manufacturer input, and the limitations of the material
in these chapters are obvious.
Manufacturers may submit additional information, data, documents, and new innovations for this section at any time. All
submitted materials will be considered and incorporated as appropriate. As new editions of this work in progress are issued
in future years, this equipment section will develop into a complete compendium of domestic water heating equipment
possibilities to assist the design engineer.

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14
233
RECIRCULATING
DOMESTIC HOT
WATER SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
It has been determined through field studies that the correct
sizing and operation of water heaters depend on the appropriateness of the hot water maintenance system. If the hot water
maintenance system is inadequate, the water heater sizing criteria
are wrong and the temperature of the hot water distributed to
the users of the plumbing fixtures is below acceptable standards.
Additionally, a poorly designed hot water maintenance system
wastes large amounts of energy and potable water and creates
time delays for those using the plumbing fixtures. This chapter
addresses the criteria for establishing an acceptable time delay
in delivering hot water to fixtures and the limitations of the length
between a hot water recirculation system and plumbing fixtures.
It also discusses the temperature drop across a hot water supply
system, types of hot water recirculation system, and pump selection criteria, and gives extensive information on the insulation of
hot water supply and return piping.
BACKGROUND
In the past, the plumbing engineering community considered the
prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures either a requirement for a
project or a matter of no concern. The plumbing engineers decision was based primarily on the type of facility under consideration
and the developed length from the water heater to the farthest
fixture. Previous reference material and professional common
practices have indicated that, when the distance from the water
heater to the farthest fixture exceeds 100 ft (30.48 m) water should
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Water
be circulated. However, this recommendation is subjective, and,

unfortunately, some engineers and contractors use the 100-ft
(30.48-m) criterion as the maximum length for all uncirculated,
uninsulated, dead-end hot water branches to fixtures in order to
cut the cost of hot water distribution piping. These long,
uninsulated, dead-end branches to fixtures create considerable
problems, such as a lack of hot water at fixtures, inadequately
sized water heater assemblies, and thermal temperature escalation in showers.
The 100-ft (30.48-m) length criterion was developed in 1973
after the Middle East oil embargo, when energy costs were the
paramount concern and water conservation was given little consideration. Since the circulation of hot water causes a loss of energy
due to radiation and convection in the circulated system and such
energy losses have to be continually replaced by water heaters,
the engineering community compromised between energy loss and
construction costs and developed the 100-ft (30.48-m) maximum
length criterion.
LENGTH AND TIME CRITERIA

Recently, due to concern about not only energy conservation but
also the extreme water shortages in parts of the country, the 100ft (30.48-m) length criteria has changed. Water wastage caused by
the long delay in obtaining hot water at fixtures has become as
critical an issue as the energy losses caused by hot water temperature maintenance systems. To reduce the wasting of cooled
hot water significantly, the engineering community has reevaluated the permissible distances for uncirculated, dead-end branches
to periodically used plumbing fixtures. The new allowable distances
for uncirculated, dead-end branches represent a trade-off between
the energy utilized by the hot water maintenance system and the
cost of the insulation, on the one hand, and the cost of energy to
heat the excess cold water makeup, the cost of wasted potable
water, and extra sewer surcharges, on the other hand. Furthermore, engineers should be aware that various codes now limit the
length between the hot water maintenance system and plumbing
fixtures. They also should be aware of the potential for liability if
an owner questions the adequacy of their hot water system design.
What are reasonable delays in obtaining hot water at a fixture? For anything beside very infrequently used fixtures (such as
those in industrial facilities or certain fixtures in office buildings),
a delay of 0 to 10 sec is normally considered acceptable for most

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residential occupancies and public fixtures in office buildings. A

delay of 11 to 30 sec is marginal but possibly acceptable, and a
time delay longer than 31 sec is normally considered unacceptable and a significant waste of water and energy. Therefore, when
designing hot water systems, it is prudent for the designer to
provide some means of getting hot water to the fixtures within
these acceptable time limits. Normally this means that there
should be a maximum distance of approximately 25 ft (7.6 m)
between the hot water maintenance system and each of the plumbing fixtures requiring hot water, the distance depending on the
water flow rate of the plumbing fixture at the end of the line and
the size of the line. (See Tables 14.1, 14.2, and 14.3.) The plumbing designer may want to stay under this length limitation because
the actual installation in the field may differ slightly from the
engineer's design, and additional delays may be caused by either
the routing of the pipe or other problems. Furthermore, with the
low fixture discharge rates now mandated by national and local
laws, it takes considerably longer to obtain hot water from nontemperature maintained hot water lines than it did in the past,
when fixtures had greater flow rates. For example, a public lavatory with a 0.50 or 0.25 gpm (0.03 or 0.02 L/sec) maximum
discharge rate would take an excessive amount of time to obtain
hot water from 100 ft (30.48 m) of uncirculated, uninsulated hot
water piping. (See Table 14.3.) This table gives conservative approximations of the amount of time it takes to obtain hot water
at a fixture. The times are based on the size of the line, the fixture flow rate, and the times required to replace the cooled off
hot water, to heat the pipe, and to offset the convection energy
lost by the insulated hot water line.
Table 14.1 Water Contents and Weight of Tube or

Piping per Linear Foot
Nominal
Diameter
(in.)a
1
1
1
Copper
Pipe
Type L
Copper
Pipe
Type M
Steel Pipe
Schedule
40
CPVC Pipe
Schedule
40
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
Water
(gal/ft)
Wgt.
(lb/ft)
0.012
0.025
0.043
0.065
0.093
0.285
0.445
0.655
0.884
1.14
0.013
0.027
0.045
0.068
0.100
0.204
0.328
0.465
0.682
0.940
0.016
0.028
0.045
0.077
0.106
0.860
1.140
1.680
2.280
2.720
0.016
0.028
0.045
0.078
0.106
0.210
0.290
0.420
0.590
0.710
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Table 14.1(M) Water Contents and Weight of Tube or

Piping per Meter
Copper
Pipe
Type L
Nominal
Diameter
(mm)a
Water
(L)
Wgt.
(kg)
Copper
Pipe
Type M
Water
(L)
Steel Pipe
Schedule
40
Wgt.
(kg)
Water
(L)
CPVC Pipe
Schedule
40
Wgt.
(kg)
Water
(L)
Wgt.
(kg)
DN15
0.045
0.129
0.049
0.204
0.061
0.390
0.061
0.099
DN20
DN25
DN32
DN40
0.095
0.163
0.246
0.352
0.202
0.297
0.401
0.517
0.102
0.170
0.257
0.379
0.328
0.465
0.682
0.940
0.106
0.170
0.291
0.401
0.517
0.762
1.034
1.233
0.106
0.170
0.295
0.401
0.132
0.191
0.268
0.322

Water Flow Rates
Maximum Flow Ratesa
Fittings
Lavatory faucet
Public non-metering
Public metering
Sink faucet
Shower head
Bathtub faucets
Single-handle
Two-handle
Service sink faucet
Laundry tray faucet
Residential washing machine
aUnless otherwise noted.
GPM
L/Sec
2.0
0.5
0.25 gal/cycle
2.5
2.5
1.3
0.03
0.946 L/cycle
0.16
0.16
2.4 minimum
4.0 minimum
4.0 minimum
4.0 minimum
1.87 aver
7.5 aver
0.15 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.25 minimum
0.12 aver
0.47 aver

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Delivery Time (sec)
Fixture Flow
Rate (gpm)
Piping
Length (ft)
0.5
1.5
2.5
4.0
10
25
10
25
10
25
10
25
Copper
Pipe
in.
in.
25
48a
63a
119a
8
16
21
40a
5
10
13
24
3
6
8
15
Steel Pipe
Sched. 40
in.
in.
63a
91a
157a
228a
21
30
52a
76a
13
18
31a
46a
8
11
20
28
CPVC Pipe
Sched. 40
in.
in.
64a
95a
159a
238a
21
32
53a
79a
13
19
32a
48a
8
12
20
30
water temperature of 140F and an air temperture of 70F.

Delivery Time (sec)
Fixture Flow
Rate (L/sec)
Piping
Length (m)
0.03
0.10
0.16
3.1
7.6
3.1
7.6
3.1
7.6
0.25
3.1
7.6
Copper
Pipe
DN15
DN22
25
48a
63a
119a
8
16
21
40a
5
10
13
24
3
6
8
15
Steel Pipe
Sched. 40
DN15
DN20
63a
91a
157a
228a
21
30
52a
76a
13
18
31a
46a
8
11
20
28
CPVC Pipe
Sched. 40
DN15
DN20
64a
95a
159a
238a
21
32
53a
79a
13
19
32a
48a
8
12
20
30
water temperature of 60C and an air temperture of 21.1C.
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RESULTS OF DELAYS IN DELIVERING

HOT WATER TO FIXTURES
As mentioned previously, when there is a long delay in obtaining
hot water at the fixture, there is significant wastage of potable
water as the cooled hot water supply is simply discharged down
the drain unused. Furthermore, plumbing engineers concerned
about total system costs should realize that the cost of this wasted,
previously heated water must include: the original cost for obtaining potable water, the cost of previously heating the water,
the final cost of the waste treatment of this excess potable water,
which results in larger sewer surcharges (source of supply to end
disposal point), and the cost of heating the new cold water to
bring it up to the required temperature. Furthermore, if there is
a long delay in obtaining hot water at the fixtures, the faucets
are turned on for long periods of time to bring the hot water
supply at the fixture up to the desired temperature. This can
cause the water heating system to run out of hot water and make
the heater sizing inadequate, because the heater is unable to
heat all the extra cold water brought into the system through the
wastage of the water discharged down the drain. In addition, this
extra cold water entering the hot water system reduces the hot
water supply temperature. This exacerbates the problem of insufficient hot water because to get a proper blended temperature
more lower temperature hot water will be used to achieve the
final mixed water temperature. (See Chapter 1, Table 1.1.) Additionally, this accelerates the downward spiral of the temperature
of the hot water system.
Another problem resulting from long delays in getting hot
water to the fixtures is that the fixtures operate for longer than
expected periods of time. Therefore, the actual hot water demand
is greater than the demand normally designed for.
Therefore, when sizing the water heater and the hot water
piping distribution system, the designer should be aware that
the lack of a proper hot water maintenance system can seriously
impact the required heater size.
METHODS OF DELIVERING REASONABLY

PROMPT HOT WATER SUPPLY
Hot water maintenance systems are as varied as the imaginations of the plumbing engineers who create them. They can be
grouped into three basic categories, though any actual installa-

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tion may be a combination of more than one of these types of

system. The three basic categories are
1. Circulation systems.
2. Self-regulating heat trace systems.
3. Point-of-use water heaters (include booster water heaters).
Circulation Systems for Commercial, Industrial, and

Large Residential Projects
A circulation system is a system of hot water supply pipes and
hot water return pipes with appropriate shutoff valves, balancing valves, circulating pumps, and a method of controlling the
circulating pump. The diagrams for six basic circulating systems
are shown in Figures 14.1 through 14.6.
Fixture 14.1 Upfeed Hot Water System with Heater at

Bottom of System.
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Top of System.
Figure 14.3 Upfeed Hot Water System with Heater at

Bottom of System.

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Top of System.
Figure 14.5 Combination Upfeed and Downfeed Hot Water System

with Heater at Bottom of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the upfeed
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Figure 14.6 Combination Downfeed and Upfeed Hot Water System

with Heater at Top of System.
Note: This piping system increases the developed length of the HW system over the downfeed
Self-Regulating Heat Trace

Over approximately the last 20 years, self-regulating heat trace
has come into its own because of the problems of balancing circulated hot water systems and energy loss in the return piping.
For further discussion of this topic, see Chapter 15.
Point-of-Use Heaters
This concept is applicable when there is a single fixture or group
of fixtures that is located far from the temperature maintenance
system. In such a situation, a small, instantaneous, point-of-use
water heateran electric water heater, a gas water heater, or a
small under-fixture storage type water heater of the magnitude
of 6 gal (22.71 L)can be provided. (See Figure 14.7.) The pointof-use heater will be very cost-effective because it will save the
cost of running hot water piping to a fixture that is a long distance away from the temperature maintenance system. The

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plumbing engineer must remember, however, that when a water

heater is installed there are various code and installation requirements that must be complied with, such as those pertaining to T
& P relief valve discharge.
Instantaneous electric heaters used in point-of-use applications can require a considerable amount of power, and may require
240 or 480 V service.
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS IN CIRCULATED HOT

WATER MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
The following are some of the potential problems with circulated
hot water maintenance systems that must be addressed by the
plumbing designer.
Figure 14.7 Instantaneous Point-of-Use Water Heater

Piping Diagram.
Source: Courtesy of Chronomite Laboratories, Inc.
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Water Velocities in Hot Water Piping Systems

For copper piping systems, it is very important that the circulated hot water supply piping and especially the hot water return
piping be sized so that the water is moving at a controlled velocity. High velocities in these systems can cause pinhole leaks in
the copper piping in as short a period as six months or less.
Balancing Systems
It is extremely important that a circulated hot water system be
balanced for its specified flows, including all the various individual loops within the circulated system. Balancing is required
even though an insulated circulated line usually requires very
little flow to maintain satisfactory system temperatures. If the
individual hot water circulated loops are not properly balanced,
the circulated water will tend to short-circuit through the closest
loops, creating high velocities in that piping system. Furthermore, the short-circuiting of the circulated hot water will result
in complaints about the long delays in getting hot water at the
remotest loops. If the hot water piping is copper, high velocities
can create velocity erosion which will destroy the piping system.
Because of the problems inherent in manually balancing hot
water circulation systems, many professionals incorporate factory preset flow control devices in their hot water systems. While
the initial cost of such a device is higher than the cost of a manual
balancing valve, a preset device may be less expensive when the
field labor cost for balancing the entire hot water system is included. When using a preset flow control device, however, the
plumbing designer has to be far more accurate in selecting the
control device's capacity as there is no possibility of field adjustment. Therefore, if more or less hot water return flow is needed
during the field installation, a new flow control device must be
installed and the old one must be removed and discarded.
Isolating Portions of Hot Water Systems

It is extremely important in circulated systems that shutoff valves
be provided to isolate an entire circulated loop. This is done so
that if individual fixtures need modification, their piping loop can
be isolated from the system so the entire hot water system does
not have to be shut off and drained. The location of these shutoff
valves should be given considerable thought. The shutoff valves
should be accessible at all times, so they should not be located in

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245
such places as the ceilings of locked offices or condominiums.
Maintaining the Balance of Hot Water Systems

To ensure that a balanced hot water system remains balanced
after the shutoff valves have been utilized, the hot water return
system must be provided with a separate balancing valve in addition to the shutoff valve or, if the balancing valve is also used
as the shutoff valve, the balancing valve must have a memory
stop. (See the discussion of "balancing valves with memory stops"
below.) With a memory stop on the valve, plumbers can return a
system to its balanced position after working on it rather than
have the whole piping system remain unbalanced, which would
result in serious problems.

Hot Water Loops
The designer should provide a check valve on each hot water return line where it joins other hot water return lines. This is done
to ensure that a plumbing fixture does not draw hot return water
instead of hot supply water, which could unbalance the hot water
system and cause delays in obtaining hot water at some fixtures.
A Delay in Obtaining Hot Water at Dead-End Lines

Keep the delay in obtaining hot water at fixtures to within the
time (and branch length) parameters given previously to avoid
unhappy users of the hot water system and to prevent lawsuits.
FLOW BALANCING DEVICES

The following are the more common types of balancing device.
Fixed Orifices and Venturis

These can be obtained for specific flow rates and simply inserted
into the hot water return piping system. (See Figure 14.8.) However, extreme care should be taken to locate these devices so they
can be removed and cleaned out, as they may become clogged
with the debris in the water. It is recommended, therefore, that a
strainer with a blowdown valve be placed ahead of each of these
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Figure 14.8 Fixed Orifices and Venturi Flow Meters.

Source: Courtesy of Gerand Engineering Co.

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devices. Additionally, a strainer with a fine mesh screen can be

installed on the main water line coming into the building to help
prevent debris buildup in the individual strainers. Also, a shutoff
valve should be installed before and after these devices so that an
entire loop does not have to be drained in order to service a strainer
or balancing device.
Factory Preset Automatic Flow Control Valves

The same admonition about strainers and valves given for "fixed
orifices and venturis" above applies to the installation and location of these devices. (See Figure 14.9.)
Figure 14.9 Preset Self-Limiting Flow Control Cartridge.

Source: Courtesy of Griswold Controls.
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Flow Regulating Valves

These valves can be used to determine the flow rate by reading
the pressure drop across the valve. They are available from various manufacturers. (See Figure 14.10.)
Figure 14.10 Adjustable Orifice Flow Control Valve.

Source: ITT Industries. Used with permission.
Balancing Valves with Memory Stops

These valves can be adjusted to the proper setting by installing
insertable pressure measuring devices (Petes Plugs, etc.) in the
piping system, which indicate the flow rate in the pipe line. (See
Figure 14.11.)

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Figure 14.11 Adjustable Balancing Valve with Memory Stop.

Source: Courtesy of Milwaukee Valve Co.
SIZING HOT WATER RETURN PIPING SYSTEMS

AND RECIRCULATING PUMPS
The method for selecting the proper size of the hot water return
piping system and the recirculating pump is fairly easy, but it
does require engineering judgment. First, the plumbing engineer
has to design the hot water supply and hot water return piping
systems, keeping in mind the parameters for total developed
length,1 prompt delivery of hot water to fixtures, and velocities in
pipe lines. The plumbing engineer has to make assumptions about
the sizes of the hot water return piping.
After the hot water supply and hot water return systems are
designed, the designer should make a piping diagram of the hot
1See American Society of Plumbing Engineers, 2000, Cold-water systems, Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2, for piping sizing methods.
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water supply system and the assumed return system showing

piping sizing and approximate lengths. From this piping diagram
the hourly heat loss occurring in the circulated portion of the hot
water supply and return systems can be determined. (See Table
14.4 for minimum required insulation thickness and Table 14.5
for approximate piping heat loss.)
Next determine the heat loss in the hot water storage tank if
one is provided. (See Table 14.6 for approximate tank heat loss.)
Calculate the total hot water system energy loss (tank heat loss
plus piping heat loss) in British thermal units per hour (watts).
This total hot water system energy loss is represented by q in
Equation 14.1 below. Note: Heat losses from storage type water
heater tanks are not normally included in the hot water piping
Table 14.4 Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness

Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (in.)
Runouts
2 in. or
Lessa
1 in. or Less
12 in.
24 in.
5 & 6 in.
8 in. or
Larger
systems and the first 3 ft from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 12 ft in length).
For lengths longer than 12 ft, use required insulation thickness shown in table.
Table 14.4(M) Minimum Pipe Insulation Thickness

Required Insulation Thickness for Piping (mm)
Runouts
DN32 or
Lessa
DN25 or
Less
DN32DN50
DN65DN100
DN125 & DN150
DN200 or
Larger
13
25
25
40
40
40
systems and the first 0.9 m from the storage tank of uncirculated systems.
aUncirculated pipe branches to individual fixtures (not exceeding 3.7 m in length). For
lengths longer than 305 mm, use required insulation thickness shown in table.

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Table 14.5 Approximate Insulated Piping Heat Loss

and Surface Temperature
Nominal
Pipe Size
(in.)
1
1
1
2 or less
2
2
3
4
6
8
10
Insulation
Thickness
(in.)
Heat Loss
(Btu/h/
linear ft)
1
1
1
1
1
a
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
8
10
10
13
13
24 or less
16
12
16
19
27
32
38
Surface
Temperature
(F)
68
69
69
70
69
74
70
67
68
69
69
69
69
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 65F and annual average
wind speed of 7.5 mph.

Loss and Surface Temperature
Nominal
Pipe Size
(mm)
DN15
DN20
DN25
DN32
DN40
DN50 or less
DN50
DN65
DN80
DN100
DN150
DN200
DN250
Insulation
Thickness
(mm)
25
25
25
25
25
13a
25
38
38
38
38
38
38
Heat Loss
(W/m)
7.7
9.6
9.6
12.5
12.5
23.1 or less
15.4
11.5
15.4
18.3
26.0
30.8
36.5
Surface
Temperature
(C)
20
21
21
21
21
23
21
19
20
21
21
21
21
Note: Figures based on average ambient temperature of 18C and annual average
wind speed of 12 km/h.
252
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Insulation
Thickness
(in.)
1
1
2
3
3
Tank
Size
(gal)
50
100
250
500
1000
Approx. Energy Loss

from Tank at Hot
Water Temperature
140F (Btu/h)a
468
736
759
759
1273
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 6.5 Btu/h/
ft2 of tank surface.

Insulation
Thickness
(mm)
25.4
25.4
50.8
76.2
76.2
Tank
Size
(L)
200
400
1000
2000
4000
Approx. Energy Loss

from Tank at Hot
Water Temperature
60C (W)a
137
216
222
222
373
aFor unfired tanks, federal standards limit the loss to no more than 1.9 W/m2 of
tank surface.
system heat loss because the water heater capacity takes care of
this loss, whereas pumped hot water has to replace the piping
convection losses in the piping system.
(14.1)
q = 60rwcT
[q = 3600rwcT]

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253
where
60
3600
q
r
w
c
T
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
min/h
sec/h
piping heat loss, Btu/h (kJ/h)
flow rate, gpm (L/sec)
weight of heated water, lb/gal (kg/L)
change in heated water temperature (temperature of leaving water minus temperature of
incoming water, represented in this manual as
Th Tc, F [K])
Therefore
= c (gpm 8.33 lb/gal)(60 min/h)(F temperature
drop)
= 1(gpm) 500 F temperature drop
[q = c (L/sec 1kg/L)(3600 sec/h)(K temperature drop)
= 1(L/sec) 15 077 kJ/L/sec/K K temperature
drop]
q
(14.2) gpm
system heat loss (Btu/h)

500 F temperature drop
L/sec
system heat loss (kJ/h)

15 077 K temperature drop
In sizing hot water circulating systems, the designer should

note that the greater the temperature drop across the system,
the less water is required to be pumped through the system and,
therefore, the greater the savings on pumping costs. However, if
the domestic hot water supply starts out at 140F (60C) with,
say, a 20F (6.7C) temperature drop across the supply system,
the fixtures near the end of the circulating hot water supply loop
could be provided with a hot water supply of only 120F (49C).
In addition, if the hot water supply delivery temperature is 120F
(49C) instead of 140F (60C), the plumbing fixtures will use
greater volumes of hot water to get the desired blended water
temperature (see Chapter 1, Table 1.1). Therefore, the recommended hot water system temperature drop should be of the
magnitude of 5F (3C). This means that if the hot water supply
starts out from the water heater at a temperature between 135
and 140F (58 and 60C), the lowest hot water supply temperature provided by the hot water supply system could be between
130 and 135F (54 and 58C). With multiple temperature distri-
254
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bution systems, it is recommended that the recirculation system

for each temperature distribution system be extended back to
the water heating system separately and have its own pump.
Using Equation 14.2, we determine that, if there is a 5F (3C)
temperature drop across the hot water system, the number to
divide into the hot water circulating system heat loss (q) to obtain the minimum required hot water return circulation rate in
gpm (L/sec) is 2500 (500 5F), (45 213 [15 071 3C]).
For a 10F (6C) temperature drop that number is 5000 (from
Equation 14.2, 500 10F = 5000) (90 426 [from Equation 14.2,
15 071 6C = 90 426]). However, this 10F (6C) temperature
drop may produce hot water supply temperatures that are lower
than desired.
After Equation 14.2 is used to establish the required hot water return flow rate, in gpm (L/sec), the plumbing designer can
size the hot water return piping system based on piping flow rate
velocities and the available pump heads. It is quite common that
a plumbing designer will make wrong initial assumptions about
the sizes of the hot water return lines to establish the initial heat
loss figure (q). If that is the case, the plumbing engineer will have
to correct the hot water return pipe sizes, redo the calculations
using the new data based on the correct pipe sizing, and verify
that all the rest of the calculations are now correct.
EXAMPLE 14.1CALCULATION TO DETERMINE

REQUIRED CIRCULATION RATE
(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5,
determine the heat loss per linear foot (meter). To find the
total heat loss, multiply length times heat loss per foot (meter):
800 ft 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h supply piping
losses
(244 m 12.5 W = 3050 W supply piping losses)
(DN15) piping and 100 ft (30.5 m) of average in. (DN20)
pipe. From Table 14.5 determine the heat loss per linear foot
(meter):

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255
(30.5 m 7.7 W/m = 235 W piping loss)

100 ft 10 Btu/h/ft =
30.5 m 9.6 W/m =

293 W piping loss

528 W piping loss
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the hot water systems total heat losses by totaling the various losses:
A. Hot water supply piping losses
10,400 Btu/h
1,800 Btu/h
759 Btu/h
12,959 Btu/h

[A. Hot water supply piping losses
3050 W
527 W
222 W
3799 W

From Equation 14.2, using a system piping loss of
12,200 Btu/h (3577 W) and a 5F (3C) temperature
drop,
12,200 Btu/h
= 4.88 gpm (say 5 gpm)
5F temperature difference 500
required hot water
3577 W
3C temp. difference 4188.32 kJ/m3
= 0.29 (say 0.3) L/sec

required hot water
Recalculation of Hot Water System Losses

(244 m) of average size 1 in. (DN32) pipe. From Table 14.5
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Domestic W
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800 ft 13 Btu/h/ft = 10,400 Btu/h piping loss

(244 m
12.5 W/m = 3050 W piping loss)
(DN15) pipe, 25 ft (7.6 m) of average in. (DN22) pipe, and
75 ft (22.9 m) of average 1 in. (DN28) pipe. From Table 14.5,
[30.5 m 7.7 W/m =
7.6 m 9.6 W/m =
22.9 m 9.6 W/m =
235 W piping loss

73 W piping loss
220 W piping loss
528 W piping loss]
tank @ 759 Btu/h (222 W).
4. Determine the systems total heat losses:
A. Hot water supply losses
10,400 Btu/h
1,800 Btu/h
759 Btu/h
12,959 Btu/h

[A. Hot water supply losses
3050 W
528 W
222 W
3800 W

Note: The recalculation determined that the hot water system
heat losses remained unchanged and that 4.88 (say 5) gpm (0.29
[say 0.3] L/sec) is the flow rate that is required to maintain the 5F
(3C) temperature drop across the hot water supply system.

ater Systems
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257
It should be stated that engineers use numerous rules of

thumb to size hot water return systems. These rules of thumb
are all based on assumptions, however, and are not recommended.
It is recommended that the engineer perform the calculations for
each project to establish the required flow rates because, with all
the various capacities of the pumps available today, exact sizing
is possible, and any extra circulated flow caused by the plumbing engineer using a rule of thumb equates to higher energy costs,
to the detriment of the client.
ESTABLISHING THE HEAD CAPACITY OF THE

HOT WATER CIRCULATING PUMP
The hot water return circulating pump is selected based on the
required hot water return flow rate (in gpm [L/sec]), calculated
using Equation 14.2, and the systems pump head. The pump
head is normally determined by the friction losses through only
the hot water return piping loops and any losses through balancing valves. The hot water return piping friction losses usually do
not include the friction losses that occur in the hot water supply
piping. The reason for this is that the hot water return circulation
flow is needed only to keep the hot water supply system up to the
desired temperature when there is no flow in the hot water supply
piping. When people use the hot water at the fixtures, there is
usually sufficient flow in the hot water supply piping to keep the
system hot water supply piping up to the desired temperature
without help from the flow in the hot water return piping.
The only exception to the rule of ignoring the friction losses
in the hot water supply piping is a situation where a hot water
return pipe is connected to a relatively small hot water supply
line. "Relatively small" here means any hot water supply line that
is less than one pipe size larger than the hot water return line.
The problems created by this condition are that the hot water
supply line will add additional friction to the head of the hot
water circulating pump, and the hot water circulating pump flow
rate can deprive the last plumbing fixture on this hot water supply line from obtaining its required flow. It is recommended,
therefore, that in such a situation the hot water supply line supplying each hot water return piping connection point be increased
to prevent these potential problems, i.e., use in. (DN22) hot
water supply piping and in. (DN15) hot water return piping, or
1 in. (DN28) hot water supply piping and in. (DN22) hot water
return piping, etc.
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When selecting the hot water circulating pumps head, the

designer should be sure to calculate only the restrictions encountered by the circulating pump. A domestic hot water system
is normally considered an open system (i.e., open to the atmosphere). When the hot water circulating pump is operating,
however, it is assumed that the piping is a closed system. Therefore, the designer should not include static heads where none
exists. For example, in Figure 14.1, the hot water circulating
pump has to overcome only the friction in the hot water return
piping not the loss of the static head pumping the water up to
the fixtures because in a closed system the static head loss is
offset by the static head gain in the hot water return piping.
HOT WATER CIRCULATING PUMPS

Most hot water circulating pumps are of the centrifugal type and
are available as either in-line units for small systems or basemounted units for large systems. Because of the corrosiveness of
hot water systems, the pumps should be bronze, bronze fitted,
or stainless steel. Conventional, iron bodied pumps, which are
not bronze fitted, are not recommended.
CONTROL FOR HOT WATER CIRCULATING

PUMPS
There are three major methods commonly used for controlling
hot water circulating pumps: manual, thermostatic (aquastat),
and time clock control. Sometimes more than one of these methods are used on a system.
1. A manual control runs the hot water circulating pump continuously when the power is turned on. A manual control
should be used only when hot water is needed all the time,
24 h a day, or during all the periods of a building's operation.
Otherwise, it is not a cost-effective means of controlling the
circulating pump because it will waste energy.
Note: The method for applying the on demand concept for
controlling the hot water circulating pump is a manual control.
It can be used very successfully for residential and commercial
applications.
2. A thermostatic aquastat is a device that is inserted into the
hot water return line. When the water in the hot water return
system reaches the distribution temperature, it shuts off the

ater Systems
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259
circulating pump until the hot water return system temperature drops by approximately 10F [5.5C]. With this method,
when there is a large consumption of hot water by the plumbing fixtures, the circulating pump does not operate.
3. A time clock is used to turn the pump on during specific
hours of operation when people are using the fixtures. The
pump would not operate, for example, at night in an office
building when nobody is using the fixtures.
4. Often an aquastat and a time clock are used in conjunction
so that during the hours a building is not operating the time
clock shuts off the circulating pump, and during the hours
the building is in use the aquastat shuts off the pump when
the system is up to the desired temperature.
AIR ELIMINATION
In any hot water return circulation system it is very important
that there be a means of eliminating any entrapped air from the
hot water return piping. Air elimination is not required in the hot
water supply piping because the discharge of water from the fixtures will eliminate any entrapped air. If air is not eliminated
from the hot water return lines, however, it can prevent the proper
circulation of the hot water system. It is imperative that a means
of air elimination be provided at all high points of a hot water
return system. The plumbing engineer must always give consideration to precisely where the air elimination devices are to be
located and drained. For example, they should not be located in
the unheated attics of buildings in cold climates. If the plumbing
engineer does not consider the location of these devices and where
they will drain, the result may be unsightly piping in a building
or extra construction costs.
INSULATION
The use of insulation is very cost-effective. It means paying one
time to save the later cost of significant energy lost by the hot
water supply and return piping system. Also, insulation decreases
the stresses on the piping due to thermal expansion and contraction caused by changes in water temperature. Furthermore,
the proper use of insulation eliminates the possibility of someone getting burned by a hot, uninsulated water line. See Table
14.5 for the surface temperatures of insulated lines (versus 140F
[60C] for bare piping).
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It is recommended that all hot water supply and return piping be insulated. This recommendation exceeds some code
requirements. See Table 14.4 for the minimum required insulation thicknesses for all systems.
If the insulated piping is installed in a location where it is
subjected to rain or other water, the insulation must be sealed
with a watertight covering that will maintain its tightness over
time. Wet insulation not only does not insulate, it also releases
considerable heat energy from the hot water piping, thus wasting energy. Furthermore, the insulation on any outdoor lines that
is not sealed watertight can be plagued by birds or rodents, etc.,
pecking at the insulation to use it for their nests. In time, the
entire hot water supply and/or return piping will have no insulation. Such bare hot water supply and/or return piping will waste
considerable energy and can seriously affect the operation of the
hot water system and water heaters.
The minimum required insulation thicknesses given in Table
14.4 are based on insulation having thermal resistivity (R) in the
range of 4.0 to 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.028 to 0.032 m2
[C/W] mm) on a flat surface at a mean temperature of 75F
(24C). Minimum insulation thickness shall be increased for
materials having R values less than 4.0 ft2 h (F/Btu) in.
(0.028 m2 [C/W] mm) or may be reduced for materials having
R values greater than 4.6 ft2 h (F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/
W] mm).
1. For materials with thermal resistivity greater than 4.6 ft2 h
(F/Btu) in. (0.032 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insulation thickness may be reduced as follows:

Actual R

Actual R
2. For materials with thermal resistivity less than 4.0 ft2 h

(F/Btu) in. (0.028 m2 [C/W] mm), the minimum insulation thickness shall be increased as follows:

Actual R

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Water
261
Actual R
CONCLUSION
In conclusion, an inappropriate hot water recirculation system
can have serious repercussions for the operation of the water
heater and the sizing of the water heating system. In addition, it
can cause the wastage of vast amounts of energy, water, and
time. Therefore, it is incumbent upon the plumbing designer to
design a hot water recirculation system so that it conserves natural
resources and is in accordance with the recommendations given
in this chapter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.

Engineers. 1993. Pipe sizing. Chapter 33 in Fundamentals Handbook.
2.

Engineers. 1993. Thermal and water vapor transmission data.
Chapter 22 in Fundamentals Handbook.
3.

Engineers. 1995. Service water heating. Chapter 45 in Applications Handbook.
4.

Engineers. Energy conservation in new building design. ASHRAE
Standards, 90A1980, 90B1975, and 90C1977.
5.

Engineers. Energy efficient design of new low rise residential buildings. ASHRAE Standards, 90.21993.
6.

Engineers. New information on service water heating. Technical
Data Bulletin. Vol. 10, No. 2.
7.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers. Plumbing fixture fittings. ASME A112.18.1M1989.
8.
American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Cold water systems. Chapter 5 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 2.
9.
American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Piping systems.

Chapter 10 in ASPE Data Book.
10. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Position paper on

hot water temperature limitations.
11. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1989. Service hot water
262
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Water
systems. Chapter 4 in ASPE Data Book.

12. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1990. Insulation. Chapter 12 in ASPE Data Book.
13. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 1990. Pumps. Chapter
11 in ASPE Data Book.
14. American Society of Plumbing Engineers. 2000. Energy conservation in plumbing systems. Chapter 7 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 1.
15. American Water Works Association. 1985. Internal corrosion of
water distribution systems. Research Foundation cooperative research report.
16. Cohen, Arthur. Copper Development Association. 1978. Copper for
hot and cold potable water systems. Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning Magazine. May.
17. Cohen, Arthur. Copper Development Association. 1993. Historical
perspective of corrosion by potable waters in building systems.
Paper no. 509 presented at the National Association of Corrosion
Engineers Annual Conference.
18. Copper Development Association. 1993. Copper Tube Handbook.
19. International Association of Plumbing and Mechanical Officials.
1985. Uniform Plumbing Code Illustrated Training Manual.
20. Konen, Thomas P. 1984. An experimental study of competing systems for maintaining service water temperature in residential
buildings. In ASPE 1984 Convention Proceedings.
21. Konen, Thomas P. 1994. Impact of water conservation on interior
plumbing. In Technical Proceedings of the 1994 ASPE Convention.
22. Saltzberg, Edward. 1988. The plumbing engineer as a forensic engineer. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
23. Saltzberg, Edward. 1993. To combine or not to combine: An in
depth review of standard and combined hydronic heating systems
and their various pitfalls. Paper presented at the American Society
of Plumbing Engineers Symposium, October 2223.
24. Saltzberg, Edward. 1996. The effects of hot water circulation systems on hot water heater sizing and piping systems. Technical
presentation given at the American Society of Plumbing Engineers
convention, November 36.
25. Saltzberg, Edward. 1997. In press. New methods for analyzing hot
water systems. Plumbing Engineer Magazine.
26. Saltzberg, Edward. 1997. In press. Prompt delivery of hot water at
fixtures. Plumbing Engineer Magazine.
27. Sealine, David A., Tod Windsor, Al Fehrm, and Greg Wilcox. 1988.
Mixing valves and hot water temperature. In Technical Proceedings
of the 1988 ASPE Convention.

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Water
263
28. Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors National Association. 1982. Retrofit of Building Energy Systems and Processes.
29. Steele, Alfred. Engineered Plumbing Design. 2d ed.
30. Steele, Alfred. 1988. Temperature limits in service hot water systems. In Technical Proceedings of the 1988 ASPE Convention.
31. Wen-Yung, W. Chan, and Milton Meckler. 1983. Pumps and pump
systems. In American Society of Plumbing Engineers Handbook.
Self-Regulating Heat TTrace

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15
265
SELF-REGULATING
HEAT TRACE
SYSTEMS
INTRODUCTION
A hot water self-regulating heat trace system can be used for
prompt delivery of hot water at the fixtures. A heating cable system is one of several accepted methods of providing prompt
delivery of hot water. (See Chapter 14.)
Todays buildings are more architecturally complex than those
built a decade ago and make ever increasing demands on the interstitial space occupied by HVAC ductwork, mechanical piping,
communication wiring, and electrical conduits. This, combined
with the need to conserve energy and water, challenge engineers
to provide cost-effective, energy-efficient domestic hot water systems. Maintaining the temperature of a domestic hot water system
may entail establishing a means to continuously recirculate the
water via pumps, valves, and additional piping. An alternative
method is to use self-regulating heat trace systems.
Water conservation has become a major concern in the past
few years. The need to conserve water has led to requirements
for the use of low-flow fixtures, including faucets, showers, and
water closets. The water wastage that occurs when cooled water
is dumped down the drain while the user is waiting for hot water
to flow can no longer be tolerated. In addition to wasting a precious resource, this practice incurs extra energy costs to heat
the water and waste treatment costs to process the wasted water. The ability to keep a pipe warm close to the point of use is of
particular interest with the low-flow fixtures used today.
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Variables affecting the performance of a heat trace system

include: the system temperature range, time to tap, water wastage, and energy efficiency. Designers should consider these factors
along with installation and life-cycle costs when selecting the
proper hot water self-regulating heat trace system for a particular building.
SYSTEM DESCRIPTION
Electric heat tracing systems replace heat lost through the thermal insulation on hot water supply piping to maintain the water
at desired nominal temperatures, eliminating the need for insulated recirculation lines, pumps, and balancing valves. Preventing
the hot water from cooling also ensures that hot water is readily
available when it is needed.
An electrical heat tracing system is not a substitute for a
complete, efficient domestic hot water system. It does not eliminate the need for an efficient water heater. What a heat tracing
system does is provide another approach to the design and installation of a hot water system. It does this by simplifying the
hot water distribution system, thereby minimizing the amount of
piping required. Items such as additional piping and balancing
valves are unnecessary.
In a heat trace system, a self-regulating heating cable is attached directly to the hot water supply piping and insulated. A
self-regulating heating cable adjusts its power at each point along
its length to maintain nominal temperature throughout the piping system. Electrical energy input is controlled by the cables
construction to maintain the required water temperature at the
fixtures. No return piping or circulation pump is required.
Successful installation of a heat tracing system requires
coordination among the various tradespeople involved. Plumbers
and electrical and insulation contractors must be made aware of
the specific requirements affecting each others work.
The information in this chapter will help the designer understand electric heat tracing as it applies to hot water systems.
With this information, a designer should be able to:
1. Compare the merits of heat tracing and a recirculation system based on the requirements of a specific project.
2. Identify the extent of piping requiring heat tracing.

race Systems
267
3. Understand the role of thermal insulation in hot water heat

tracing.
4. In coordination with an electrical engineer, determine the circuit breaker/power requirements based on the estimated heat
tracing circuit lengths.
5. Translate the design requirements into a complete design for
a project.
All examples and descriptions in this chapter are based on
copper water piping with fiberglass thermal insulation and
other typical design conditions. While design parameters may
differ and pipe and insulation materials other than those discussed can be and frequently are equipped with heat tracing,
such jobs should be undertaken with the design assistance of a
qualified manufacturers representative.
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
Only Underwriters Laboratories, Inc., listed electric heat tracing
systems for hot water temperature maintenance should be used.
(Note: Thirty mA ground fault equipment protection is to be used
for all hot water heat tracing circuits.) These tested and approved
systems are based on self-regulating heating cables that are specifically designed for hot water temperature maintenance. (See
Figure 15.1.) Heat is delivered through a carbon matrix heating
element that responds to temperature changes. Whenever the
temperature in the heat traced piping begins to rise, the cable
automatically reduces its heat output. Conversely, when the water
temperature begins to drop the cable reacts by increasing its
heat output. This self-regulating feature occurs along the entire
length of a heat tracing circuit to ensure that each point receives
the amount of heat necessary to maintain thermal equilibrium.
Heating cables, self-regulating or otherwise, intended for pipe
freeze protection or general temperature maintenance should not
be used for hot water temperature maintenance, since their performance has not been matched to the requirements of hot water
applications.
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Figure 15.1 Construction of a Typical Heating Cable for

Hot Water Temperature Maintenance.
Source: Courtesy of Raychem Corporation.

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269
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A hot water temperature maintenance system (such as the one
shown in Figure 15.2) typically includes the following components:
1. Self-regulating heating cable.
2. Power connection kit.1
3. Tee/inline splice kit (permits 2 or 3 cables to be spliced together).
4. Cable end termination.
5. Attachment tape (secures cable to pipe, use at 12 to 24 in.
[305 to 610 mm] intervals).
6. Electric heat tracing label (peel and stick label that attaches
to insulation vapor barrier at 10 ft [3.05 m] intervals, or as
required by code or specification).
7. Fiberglass thermal insulation and vapor barrier.2
Figure 15.2 Components of a Hot Water Temperature

Maintenance System.
Source: Courtesy of Thermon Manufacturing Co.
Note: See System Components, above, for identification of numbered parts.
1Power connection kits do not include electrical junction boxes.

2All heat traced lines are to be thermally insulated with fiberglass. Refer to the
manufacturers insulation schedule for insulation information.
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IDENTIFYING THE PIPING REQUIRING HEAT

TRACING
Typically, main and branch lines that are inch (DN22) and
larger are the primary locations for the application of a hot water
heat tracing system. A heat traced line can maintain hot water to
every point of use. Systems with different pressure or temperature zones can easily be accommodated in the design and layout
of heating circuits.
Deciding how close to the point of use the heat tracing should
be installed depends on the following conditions:
1. The gallons per minute (liters per second) of the fixture.
2. The diameter of the runout line.
3. The number of times per day the fixture will be used.
4. The acceptable period of time to wait for hot water.
5. The acceptable level of water waste per fixture per use.
6. Any special requirements at the point of use.
Most new facilities require fixtures that limit the gpm (L/sec)
used by lavatories and showers. As a result, the length of uncirculated, non-heat traced piping has become increasingly
important. Table 15.1 shows the correlation of time to get hot
water (in seconds), to fixture flow rate, to length of in. (DN22)
diameter runout piping that is not temperature maintained.
Table 15.1 Time for Hot Water to Reach Fixture (sec)

Fixture
Flow Rate
Distance from End of Heat Tracing Circuit to

Point of Use (ft)
(gpm)
15
20
25
30
40
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
23
15
11
9
8
6
6
30
20
15
12
10
9
8
38
25
19
15
13
11
9
45
30
23
18
15
13
11
60
40
30
24
20
17
15

Note: Numbers based on use of in. nominal diameter type L copper tubing.
Calculations are based on the heat loss from the piping and do not include the
amount of heat required to heat the piping or the water in the piping. See Chapter
14 for these values.
Table 15.1(M) Time for Hot Water

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271
to Reach Fixture (sec)

Fixture
Flow Rate
(L/sec)
0.06
0.1
0.13
0.16
0.19
0.22
0.25
Distance from End of Heat Tracing Circuit to

Point of Use (m)
4.6
6.1
7.6
9.1
12.2
23
15
11
9
8
6
6
30
20
15
12
10
9
8
38
25
19
15
13
11
9
45
30
23
18
15
13
11
60
40
30
24
20
17
15

Note: Numbers based on use of DN22 nominal diameter type L copper tubing.
Calculations are based on the heat loss from the piping and do not include the
amount of heat required to heat the piping or the water in the piping. See Chapter
14 for these values.
While considering the time factor may be important for the

purposes of keeping users satisfied, there is a more critical issue. Even with low-flow fixtures, the amount of water wasted by
dumping water until the desired temperature is reached can be
significant. (See Table 15.2.)
Table 15.2 Water Wasted While Waiting for Hot Water

to Reach Fixture (oz)
Distance from End of Temperature Maintenance
Nom. Diam.
to Point of Use (ft)
Type L
Copper (in.) 15
20
25
30
40
48
64
80
97
129

Notes:
1. Remember to add up all the fixtures in a facility and to multiply by both the
waste number shown and the expected number of usages per day.
2. Numbers based on line diameter and distance from end of temperature
maintenance.
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Table 15.2(M) Water Wasted While Waiting for Hot

Water to Reach Fixture (mL)
Nom. Diam.
Type L
Copper
DN22
Distance from End of Temperature Maintenance

to Point of Use (m)
4.6
6.1
7.6
9.1
12.2
1420
1895
2365
2870
3815

Notes:
1. Remember to add up all the fixtures in a facility and to multiply by both the
waste number shown and the expected number of usages per day.
2. Numbers based on line diameter and distance from end of temperature
maintenance.
Heating cable systems do not require system balancing. Often
they are used in buildings with significant lengths of return piping relative to the lengths of supply piping or in hot water systems
requiring multiple circulation loops.
Heating cable systems may not be economical in buildings
with doughnut configurations and small amounts of return piping. Such systems still may be selected, however, if the designer
wishes to eliminate flow balancing.
Multiple Temperature Systems

For systems requiring multiple temperatures, heating cable can
be installed on the supply piping after the mixing valve to maintain the different temperatures independently.
Remodels and Additions

For buildings with existing return systems, heating cable systems can be installed in the additions so that hot water
temperature is maintained in the new piping without affecting
the performance of the existing hot water systems.

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273
COORDINATING DESIGN INFORMATION

To get the most from each heat tracing circuit, the designer should
establish the maximum circuit length based on the number of
circuit breakers available for the project. (Note: Maximum circuit
lengths vary according to the voltage and temperature selection.)
Regardless of a buildings shape and size, it is recommended that
the heat tracing circuits be organized to follow the layout of the
cable. For ease of identification during the layout process and for
effective communication, the designer should identify the piping
requiring heat tracing on the plumbing drawings. While indication of the heating cable, power connection, end termination,
and tee splice kits is given on the plumbing drawings, only the
power connection points need to be referenced on the electrical
drawings.
The symbols shown in Figure 15.3 are routinely used to indicate components of a heat traced hot water supply system.
Figure 15.3 Symbols Used to Indicate Components of a

Heat Traced Hot Water Supply System.
Note: The numerals inside the symbols refer to circuit numbers.
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DETERMINING THE TEMPERATURE TO

MAINTAIN
The desired temperatures for most applications are given in Table
15.3 along with the ambient temperature ranges of the space
surrounding the insulated pipe. The appropriate self-regulating
cable is chosen based on the desired maintenance temperature.
If temperatures differ from those shown, contact the manufacturer.
Table 15.3 Nominal Maintenance Temperatures, F (C)

Ambient
Range,
F (C)
7580
Hospitals,
Nursing Homes,
Prisons
Hospitals,
Hotels, Condos,
Prisons, Schools
Kitchens,
Laundries
105 (42)
(2427)
7280
120 (49)
140 (60)
(2227)
CHOOSING THE RIGHT CABLE

After determining the extent of the hot water supply piping to be
heat traced, the designer should decide the lengths to be maintained at 105, 120, and/or 140F (42, 49, and/or 60C). At this
point, the total length of each type of heating cable can be determined. Using the manufacturers published maximum circuit
length for the desired temperature cable, the designer can figure
the required number of circuits. These maximum circuit lengths
should not be exceeded; otherwise, there will be excessive electrical currents in the bus wires of the heating cable. The maximum
circuit length is the total length of cable that can be fed from a
single power connection point, inclusive of all splices, including
tees. Note that circuit lengths that are longer than these maximum lengths may require larger circuit breakers. The designer
must be sure to check with the electrical engineer the available
amperages of the branch circuit breakers supplying power to the
heat tracing. After the required number of circuits is determined,
that information should also be checked with the electrical engineer. This will ensure that the proper number of circuits has
been allotted in the power distribution system.

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275
THERMAL INSULATION
While frequently overlooked, thermal insulation plays a critical
role in ensuring that hot water is available at the point of use.
This is true for both recirculation and heat traced hot water
systems.
The standard design for heat traced piping (the design that
manufacturers design guides are based on) utilizes fiberglass thermal insulation with a kraft paper vapor barrier. Thicknesses range
from 1 to 2 in. (25.4 to 50.8 mm) based on line diameter. If a heat
traced hot water system is designed to use only one cable for each
temperature range, the thickness of the insulation will vary.
Manufacturers of hot water heat tracing systems have established insulation schedules that outline the thicknesses required
to keep the heat loss within the desired range. Note that in these
schedules the insulation on piping 1 in. (DN35) in diameter and
smaller is oversized to allow space for the heating cable.
After the installation of the heating cable and thermal insulation is completed, the piping is identified with stick-on labels to
note the presence of electric heat tracing. This labeling gives notice to facility maintenance workers that heating cable has been
installed under the insulation should any pipe maintenance or
renovations be required.
HEAT TRACING HOT WATER PIPING

The design of a heat tracing temperature maintenance system
for mains and branch lines can be done on the plumbing drawings. (See Figure 15.4.) By referring to the manufacturers heating
cable selection chart for the desired maintenance temperature,
the designer can determine the maximum heating cable circuit
length for circuit breakers of different sizes. Taking this information into account when laying out the hot water lines will ensure
optimum use of the circuit lengths.
Note, in Figure 15.4, that the main and branch lines are heat
traced and insulated while the short runouts are only insulated.
(Runouts that feed individual points of use typically contain less
than gal [1.89 L] of water. If the faucet flow rate is above 1
gpm [0.1 L/sec], hot water will reach the point of use within 10
sec.) If the distance between the branch line and the point of use
is much longer than 40 ft (12.19 m) or the flow rate is lower, the
potential for water wastage and the time required for hot water to
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Water
Figure 15.4 Partial Simplified System Typical of Hospitals,

Correctional Facilities, and Hotels.
reach the point of use may be beyond the levels considered acceptable for the facility. To remedy this situation, simply heat
trace closer to the point of use.
COMBINING HORIZONTAL MAINS WITH

SUPPLY RISERS
Designers of multilevel facilities often duplicate floor plans over
several levels, which simplifies the layout of electrical, HVAC,
and mechanical equipment. This practice also simplifies the layout
of hot water supply lines, unless there is a maze of recirculation
piping and balancing valves are required. Figure 15.5 shows a
layout typical of two to four-story facilities, such as hospitals,
research labs, correctional facilities, and campus dormitories.

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277
In this example, the supply main is located in the interstitial

space between the first-story ceiling and the second-story floor.
Because each story has roughly the same layout and water use
points are stacked, a riser and drop are used to supply water at
each plumbing location. Electric heat tracing is installed on the
horizontal mains and the risers. Since the distance between the
horizontal piping and the first-story runouts is minimal (less than
15 ft [4.57 m]), heating cable is not required beyond the horizontal
line connecting the main to the riser.
Since this example is of a four-story facility, it is recommended
that heating cable be installed up to the feed point for the third
story. The line feeding from level three to level four again is less
Figure 15.5 Typical Layout for 2 to 4-Story Hospitals, Research

Labs, Correctional Facilities, and Dormitories.
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than 15 ft (4.57 m), and under most conditions a line of this

length does not require heat tracing. Untraced lines should be
installed so as to prevent rapid heat loss between uses.
While this example is somewhat simplistic, the design principles it demonstrates can be applied to a project of any size.
HOT WATER HEAT TRACING TERMS

The following terms apply to all hot water heat tracing systems
and may aid in the selection of the appropriate system for each
project.
1. System temperature range. For a return system, this is the
allowable temperature drop to the end of the system plus any
additional variability caused by improper system balancing.
With return systems, there is a trade-off between desired system performance and the life-cycle cost of the system. For a
heating cable system, the system temperature range is the
range around the nominal maintenance temperature.
2. Unheated distance. This is the distance in feet (meters) between the last maintained leg of hot water piping and the
point of use. For example, if hot water temperature is maintained only for the main run, the distance from the main to
the point of use is the unheated distance.
3. Time to tap. This is the time required for hot water to reach
the fixture when the fixture is turned on. If the hot water
temperature is not maintained all the way to the fixture, the
cold water in the pipe must be drawn out before the user gets
hot water. The length of the wait is called time to tap. It is a
function of the unheated distance, the gpm (L/sec) flow rate,
and the diameter of the pipe.
Heat Exchangers
16
279
HEAT
EXCHANGERS
INTRODUCTION
The basic process behind the heating of water is heat exchange,
whereby heat from a hot substance (the heating medium) is given
to a colder substance or medium, in this case water. This heat
exchange between a heating medium and water usually takes
place in a piece of equipment called a heat exchanger that is
specifically designed and manufactured to efficiently and costeffectively transfer heat from one medium to another.
This section discusses the basic construction, operation, configuration, and selection of various types of heat exchanger and
offers insights into their advantages, disadvantages, and application.
CODES AND STANDARDS

Plumbing Codes
Over the last few years, some plumbing codes have been revised
to require double-wall protection in potable water systems. These
revisions address concern over the contamination of potable water during normal use or as a result of excess pressure by any
fluid that is flooded in a tank or heat exchanger. The possibility
of such contamination has led to the introduction of double-wall
heat exchangers to generate domestic hot water.
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Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association

The Tubular Exchanger Manufacturers Association (TEMA), of
Tarrytown, New York, has established heat exchanger standards
and nomenclature for industrial applications. It has assigned every
shell and tube device a three-letter designation, the letters referring to the specific type of stationary head at the front end, the
shell type, and the rear end head type, in that order. (A fully
illustrated description of all the shell and tube devices can be
found in the TEMA standards).
DEFINITIONS
Heating Medium
A heating medium is any substance used to heat another substance to a higher temperature. In the case of heat exchangers
used to heat domestic hot water, the heating mediums are generally fluids or fuels. There are exceptions to this rule, however,
such as electrical energy, which is used to heat a solid wire, or
element, which then directly transfers heat to the water by contact. Examples of heating mediums include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Steam.
Water.
Gas.
Oil.
Electricity.
Solar energy.
Geothermal energy.
Refrigerants.
Approach
The term approach is used to describe how close the outlet
temperature of the water to be heated comes to (or approaches)
the inlet temperature of a fluid heating medium.
Heat Exchanger
This term refers to a device specifically designed and constructed
to efficiently transfer heat energy from a hot substance to a colder
one.
Heat Exchangers
281
Countercurrent
This term is used to describe a situation where the liquid heating
medium in a heat exchanger flows in a direction opposite to that
of the fluid to be heated.
Temperature Cross
A temperature cross occurs when the liquid being heated has
an outlet temperature that falls between the inlet and outlet temperatures of the heating medium; this is possible only when flows
are 100% countercurrent.
TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGER

Heat exchangers have been used to heat water for domestic and
other purposes in commercial and industrial facilities for years.
In fact, the ever-increasing cost of energy has led to the increased
use of heat exchangers to extract and conserve energy that previously was wasted.
Commonly used types of heat exchanger include: plate type,
shell and tube, tube-in-tube, and tube-on-tube. However, only
the plate type and the shell and tube are discussed below.
Operating conditions, ease of access for inspection and maintenance, and compatibility with heating medium are some of the
variables engineers must consider when assessing heat exchanger
options. Others include:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Maximum pressure and temperature.

Heating or cooling applications.
Compatibility of the material with process fluids.
Cleanliness of the streams.
Approach temperature.
Certain exchangers operate better than others at different

temperature approaches. Plate and frame exchangers, for example, work well at a very close approach, in the order of 2F
(1C). For shell and tube exchangers, however, the lowest possible approach is in the order of 10F (5.5C).
As for cleanliness, shell and tube exchangers have tube diameters that can accommodate a certain amount of particulate
matter with very little clogging or fouling. Plate and frame exchangers, however, have narrow passageways, making them more
susceptible to damage from precipitation or particulate fouling.
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The most common type of heat exchanger, the shell and tube,
can be found in almost every type of application. In recent years,
the plate and frame has emerged as a viable alternative to the
shell and tube.
Shell and Tube

Mechanically simple in design and relatively unchanged for more
than 60 years, the shell and tube offers a low-cost method of
heat exchange. The shell and tube heat exchanger has the following advantages:
1.
2.
3.
4.
The greatest flexibility of design and configuration.

A large choice of shell and tube materials.
High temperature and pressure characteristics.
Ability to handle large amounts of particulate material.
U-tube, removable bundle

The U-tube heat exchanger is made by bending straight tubes
into the shape of a U, hence the name. The U-shaped tubes are
then mechanically rolled into a common header or tubesheet.
Depending on the fluid outside the tubes, this bundle is fitted
with either tube supports or flow baffles along its length. The
tubesheet, tubes, and tube supports/flow baffles make up the
bundle assembly. The bundle assembly is then placed in a shell
(a length of pipe that contains inlet and outlet connections and a
pipe sized flange at one end for insertion of the tube bundle; and
a cap at the other end), which will contain the fluid heating medium outside the tube bundle. A head assembly (usually a casting
that contains inlet and outlet connections for directing a fluid
into the tube bundle) is then bolted to the shell flange to complete the heat exchanger.
The head assembly contains one or more pass partitions for
controlling tube velocity, hence the tube side heat transfer coefficient and pressure drop.
If a condensing vapor (such as steam) is to be the heating
medium, the tube bundle will have supports designed to support
the tubes along their length and provide for the proper flow and
drainage of the condensate from the shell. If a liquid is to be
circulated outside the tube bundle, flow baffles will be used to
support the tubes and direct the flow across the bundle. In such
a case, the number and spacing of the flow baffles will control
the shell side heat transfer coefficient and its pressure drop.
Heat Exchangers
283
The U-tube heat exchanger is well suited for large domestic

water heating applications that use either boiler water or steam
as the heating medium. It is in the nature of the U-tube construction to allow for large temperature differences between the
tube side and shell side fluids because the U-tubes expand and
contract independently of the shell assembly. In addition, the
tube bundle assembly is removable, allowing for easy and economical replacement of the heat transfer surface should a failure
or leak develop in the bundle.
The U-tube design does, however, have its limitations. First,
because of the U-bends, the tube side fluid must make multiple
passes down the length of the unit. This makes it less economical
to use the U-tube for close temperature approaches and eliminates the possibility of its use (i.e., a single U-tube unit) for
temperature-cross applications such as those found in energy reclamation projects. Also, because of the U-bend, the unit cannot be
completely cleaned by mechanical means, which could be a problem if the tube side fluid is dirty or prone to scaling/fouling.
The basic U-tube design can be modified to meet a number
of special applications.
Tank heater
Replacing the shell assembly of a U-tube heat exchanger with a
tank mounting collar will allow the exchanger to function as a
storage heater for large domestic water systems. In such an application, the tank heater uses hot water as a heating medium.
The hot water is pumped through the tubes, thus maintaining
the tank system water at a set temperature. Steam can also be
used as the heating medium if a special head assembly that allows for proper condensate drainage of the unit is installed.
The tank heater uses natural convection as the means for
transferring heat to the tank side system. Most heat exchangers
use forced convection. This is a significant difference in that natural convection produces much lower rates of heat transfer.
Consequently, for a given capacity, tank heaters require more
heat transfer surface area than heat exchangers utilizing forced
convection. In addition, it is very important for proper natural
convection that the relationship between the size of the tank heater
and the size of the tank be within specific limits. The guideline
for this relationship is to have the tube bundle extend into the
tank for a distance of from 50 to 75% of the tube bundles length
for a horizontal tank and a distance nearly equal to its full diameter for a tank that is to be installed vertically.
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A steel tank for a domestic water system requires a lining.

Consequently, the manufacturer of the tank heater must take
care to ensure that the tube bundle fits inside the tank mounting
collar. Finally, every tank heater should have adequate support
inside the tank to eliminate stress on the tube-tubesheet rolled
joint. Inadequate support can lead to leaks of the tube bundle in
this area.
Double-wall heat exchanger
The purpose of double-wall protection is to warn of a tube failure
before cross-contamination between the tube-side and shell-side
fluids can occur. Such cross-contamination could occur, for instance, where treated water from a boiler in a closed loop system
is utilized to produce heat. A number of manufacturers now produce double-wall units in a U-tube design. Although some of the
design features of these units may differ, the basic design is fairly
common among double-wall manufacturers.
The double-wall U-tube unit has a tube-within-a-tube design.
Fins or grooves are used on one of the tubes to create a leak path
between the tubes when they are mechanically bonded to enhance
heat transfer. The outside tube is machined back at each end,
bent into the U-tube, and either mechanically rolled or brazed into
a double-tubesheet arrangement. Should either of the tubes fail,
its fluid would be channeled through the leak path between the
tubes to the space between the tubesheets. The appearance of
fluid between the tubesheets is evidence of tube failure.
While the double-wall design is very expensive compared to
the single-wall unit, its use is increasing, due in large part to
revisions to local plumbing codes. Double-wall exchangers are
used for applications where a failed tube bundle would result in
a health hazard.
A disadvantage of the double-wall design is the loss of efficiency in transferring heat from the heating medium to the water.
Plate Type Heat Exchanger

In recent years, the plate type heat exchanger has emerged as an
alternative to the shell and tube. With its ability to optimize thermal performance, the plate type exchanger has made possible a
number of close approach and temperature-cross applications that
would not have been economical or practical with a shell and tube
exchanger. A plate type unit is efficient, easy to maintain, and less
susceptible to fouling, and it takes up little space.
Heat Exchangers
285
A plate type heat exchanger is characterized by having heat

transfer occur via metal, plastic, glass, or ceramic barriers between fluids. One stream heats the other by means of conduction
(or radiation) through the barrier. Inside the heat exchanger, the
fluids are heated by convection.
There are two types of plate type unit: prime surface and
plate and frame.
In general, the prime surface units are best suited to small
heat loads and batch operations and the plate and frame are most
efficient when used for large heat loads and continuous duty.
Prime surface heat exchanger
A prime surface heat exchanger is fabricated from two die-formed
sheets, which are welded together. One or both of the sheets are
die or pressure formed (cold formed) to create a series of welldefined passages through which the heating medium flows. Any
common metal that can be cold worked and resistance welded
could be used, the most typically used being carbon steel, stainless steel, monel, titanium, and hastelloy. A prime surface heat
exchanger has a single circuit design and can be used as a shelf
or immersed, clamped on, or built into a tank or used otherwise
where a plate and frame exchanger would not be suitableeven
given the same media. Maximum operating parameters are generally a temperature of 650F (343C) and a pressure of 500 psig
(3450 kPa).
Plate and frame heat exchanger
A plate and frame unit is fabricated from a series of channel
plates, which are pressed together to form a plate pack, with the
holes at the corners of the plates forming a continuous passage
or manifold. This manifold distributes the heat transfer media
from the inlet of the heat exchanger into the plate pack for each
fluid. The media are then distributed into the narrow channels
formed by the plates. The gasket arrangement on each plate distributes the hot and cold media into alternating flow channels
throughout the plate pack. In all cases, hot and cold media flow
countercurrent to each other.
The most common plate and frame type heat exchanger is the
gasketed plate unit, in which a series of channel plates are mounted
on a frame and clamped together. Each plate is made from pressable
materials, such as stainless steel, and is corrugated. The most
common pattern of corrugation is the herringbone or chevron. In-
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cluded with each plate is an elastomer gasket. This gasket is used

for sealing purposes and for the proper distribution of fluids in
the plate heat exchanger. The spaces between adjacent plates form
flow channels for the hot and cold fluids.
A corrugated herringbone or chevron pattern is pressed into
each plate to produce highly turbulent fluid flows. The high degree of turbulence results in high heat transfer coefficients and
keeps fouling to a minimum. In addition, the corrugations add
rigidity to each channel plate. This allows the use of thinner plate
material and improves heat transfer.
The basic design of the gasketed plate exchanger allows for
the opening of the frame to add or remove channel plates to optimize heat exchanger performance or to service and maintain the
channel plates, all with a minimum of downtime.
The benefits of a plate and frame heat exchanger (100% countercurrent flow, high turbulence, and thin plate material) make
it a highly efficient device that typically yields heat transfer rates
three to five times greater than those of other types of heat exchanger. Because of these high heat transfer rates, it is possible
to use a plate and frame exchanger that is compact relative to
other types of heat exchanger for a given application. Ideal operating conditions include temperature crosses and close approach
temperatures for the hot and cold media.
While a gasketed plate and frame heat exchanger can be used
in almost any application, it has limitations, which must be considered. These limitations have to do primarily with the units
design pressures and temperatures. Practical design pressures
are limited to 800 psig (5516 kPa), while design temperatures
are a function of the gasket material used in the exchanger. The
most popular and widely used gasket material is nitrile rubber
(NR), which has a temperature limit of 280F (138C). NR is followed in popularity by ethylene propylene diene monomer (EPDM),
which has a temperature limit of 820F (438C). EPDM gaskets
can be used to substitute for NR gaskets (for higher temperature
ratings) on all applications except those involving oil heating or
cooling, since EPDM swells in the presence of most oils. Other
gasket materials, such as hypalon and viton, are also available.
These gasket materials are more prevalent in industrial applications.
Gasketed exchangers have benefited from improvements in
the quality and diversity of elastomer materials and gasket designs. The use of exchangers with welded connections, rather
than gaskets, reduces the likelihood of process fluid escape.
Heat Exchangers
287
Other limitations of the gasketed plate and frame exchanger

are due to the narrow channels between adjacent plates. If a
fluid that will enter the plate heat exchanger has suspended solids or is likely to deposit large amounts of scale on the plate
surfaces, careful consideration should be given to the free channel space between the plates. Also, the narrow channels and
resultant high turbulence of the fluid flows produce high pressure drops, making the plate exchanger incompatible with
low-pressure applications.
Until recently, a major limitation to the gasketed plate and
frame heat exchanger was caused by the method of attaching the
gaskets to the channel plates. In the past, gaskets were glued to
the channel plates. Since gaskets are a replaceable part, this
made removing old gaskets and installing new ones a very timeconsuming and labor-intensive procedure. Most manufacturers
now use a glueless gasket design. Clip and snap are the two most
common types of glueless gasket. Both simplify the re-gasketing
procedure, making on-site service possible and thus reducing
downtime.
Recent advances in plate design and technology have produced two variations to gasketed plate and frame heat exchangers:
double-wall and welded plate.
Double-wall plate and frame exchanger
In a double-wall plate and frame exchanger, two standard channel plates are welded together at the four corner ports to form
one assembly. An air space or leak path is created between the
plates for the passage of a fluid should a plate fail. The appearance of this fluid is evidence of plate failure.
The purpose of the double-wall plate and frame exchanger,
like that of the double-wall shell and tube heat exchanger (discussed earlier in this chapter), is to warn of a plate failure before
cross-contamination can occur between the heating medium and
potable water.
Welded plate and frame exchanger
In welded plate and frame exchangers, two standard channel
plates are welded together at their peripheries. These welded plates
(usually called a cassette) form a flow channel where the elastomer gasket has been replaced by the welded joint. This
configuration may be necessary if there is no elastomer gasket
compatible with the fluid or if more positive containment is re-
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quired. Typical applications include refrigerant evaporators/condensers, ammonia refrigeration, and cases where aggressive or
corrosive fluids are present.
SELECTING HEAT EXCHANGERS

When it comes to selecting a type of heat exchanger for a particular application, one of the questions asked most frequently is,
Which is bestshell and tube or plate type? Assuming that the
application is within the pressure and temperature limits of both
designs, the issues come down to initial cost, maintenance costs,
and future operating conditions.
The initial cost is usually dictated by the approach temperatures of the application. Close approach temperatures and
temperature crosses favor the plate heat exchanger while wide
temperature approaches favor the shell and tube. Construction
materials can influence initial cost too, especially if the application requires the use of stainless steel. With the computerized
selection programs now used extensively, little effort is required
to obtain prices for each type of unit for the quick comparison of
initial costs.
With respect to maintenance costs, much depends on the
properties of the fluids involved. If the fluids have a tendency to
foul, the plate heat exchanger may be a better choice, since it
offers somewhat easier and more direct access to the heat transfer surface for the purpose of cleaning. In addition, because of
the high turbulence in plate units, they tend to scale or foul less
than shell and tube exchangers.
If the plate and frame heat exchanger has a weakness compared to the shell and tube, it is the amount of gasketing in the
unit. Compared to the shell and tube, the plate and frame has a
much greater amount of gasketing, and therefore a much higher
potential for leakage. In addition, since the gaskets are elastomers,
they have a service life. On average, the life of a gasket on a plate
and frame heat exchanger is approximately 6 to 7 years, with
operating temperatures having a significant effect on actual performance. Units operating close to the temperature limit of the
gasket will experience shorter gasket life. There is one other aspect of an elastomer gasket that must be considered: the
phenomenon of cold leakage. Cold leakage is caused by the cooling down of a plate heat exchanger from high operating
temperatures when there is a pressure differential between the
Heat Exchangers
289
hot and cold media in the unit. The plate and frame unit has a
tendency to weep through the gasket interface. The weeping normally stops after the gaskets reset or the unit is brought back up
to operating temperatures. Basically, if the application requires
a low probability of leakage, the better choice is a prime surface
or shell and tube design rather than a plate and frame.
While gaskets may be a weakness in a plate and frame unit,
being able to expand its thermal capacity merely by adding channel plates to an existing unit is one of its major strengths. If it is
known that a particular application will be expanded in the future, a plate unit is by far the easiest and most economical design
to use.
Indirect Fired W
ater Heaters
Water
17
291
INDIRECT FIRED
WATER HEATERS
INTRODUCTION
An indirect water heater is a fluid-to-fluid heat exchanger that
uses one hot fluid to heat a second colder fluid. The hot fluid can
be anything, such as freon or ammonia from an air conditioning
compressor, but most often is water heated by a boiler or a direct
fired unit. In homes and offices, the liquid heated is usually potable domestic cold water, but indirect water heaters can also be
used to heat pool water or melt snow. Since they do not contain
a firebox or electrical element for heating, they have no need of a
separate flue or fuel line, which reduces related installation and
construction costs.
PRODUCT DESCRIPTION
There are two basic types of indirect water heater on the market
today, which are distinguished primarily by the location of the
boiler water.
Storage Tank Type Indirect Water Heaters

The first kind of indirect water heater to appear in the marketplace, the storage tank type is very similar to its direct fired cousins
in that its tank contains potable domestic water to be heated by
boiler water flowing through a single coil. (See Figure 17.1.)
The advantage of this type of indirect water heater is its ability
to deliver a large amount of heated water. However, as hot water is
delivered, the tank must constantly be refilled with incoming cold
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Figure 17.1 Indirect Water Heater Designs.

Source: Courtesy of Group Thermo, Inc.
water, which reduces the temperature of the remaining stored

water. This type of indirect water heater needs sufficient time to
recover (reheat) its contents once they are cooled. Therefore, its
capacity to deliver hot water during short intervals of high demand may be limited. In such instances as a residential application
requiring large amounts of hot water within 5 to 10 min, for the
purposes of filling a large spa or a whirlpool bathtub or the concurrent operation of several appliances needing hot water,
installation of a commercial size storage indirect water heater tank
of at least 80 to 100 gal (303 to 379 L) would be necessary. This
tactic would meet the demand for the availability of more hot water but would significantly increase the cost to the consumer.
Another kind of storage tank type indirect water heater is the
double-tank or tank-within-a-tank design. The potable domestic water is held in an inner tank while the boiler water circulates
around it.
Indirect Fired W
ater Heaters
Water
293
This design innovation has led to considerably improved performance and faster recovery due to the larger heat transfer
surface. However, the same dump limitation applies. Early models of this type of water heater were prone to corrosion at the top
of the tank due to oxygen accumulation, but current versions
are vented to prevent this problem. Nevertheless, the constant
refilling of the tank with fresh water makes all storage indirect
water heaters susceptible to two other major causes of tank failurethermal stress and scaling.
Thermal stress results because the 90 to 100F (32 to 38C)
temperature fluctuations that occur on a daily basis cause tank
linings and dissimilar metals to expand and contract at different
rates. This expansion and contraction eventually leads to cracking. Over time, oxygen contained in the fresh water attacks these
cracks and corrodes the tank. Fresh water also contains mineral
salts, which precipitate out as the water is heated and attach
themselves to the hottest surface available. Regardless of whether
the hottest surface is the coil containing the boiler water or a portion of the tank wall, scale buildup steadily erodes heat transfer
efficiency.
The chart in Figure 17.2 illustrates how dramatically the rate
of scale formation increases as temperatures rise above 140F
(60C). At this temperature in residential use, their average
lifespan ranges anywhere from 7 to 12 years, depending on water conditions. For water heaters in commercial use, the life
expectancy is considerably shorter.
In summary, while both of these storage tank designs are
capable of delivering water at high temperatures, their consistent operation at temperatures above 140F (60C) will result in
significantly faster scale formation, rapidly deteriorating heat
transfer efficiency, and much shorter life expectancies.
Instantaneous Indirect Water Heaters

The second type is the instantaneous indirect water heater. Its
tank is filled with boiler water that heats potable domestic water
that passes through multiple, small diameter coils as it is needed.
Provided that the boiler continues to produce enough heat, the
instantaneous indirect water heater will provide an unending
supply of hot water for as long as it is needed. This type of water
heater needs no recovery time.
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The instantaneous indirect water heater is a descendant of the

well-known instantaneous coil in a boiler water heater. Several
simple design innovations make the modern version better.
Figure 17.2 Purdue Bulletin 74 Chart, Showing the Relationship

Between Lime Deposits and Water Temperature.
Source: Chart developed by Purdue University. Reprinted courtesy of Group Thermo, Inc.
Notes:
1. Chart is based on 10 grains of hardness. For any other hardness, multiply the
pounds of lime deposited per year data by the new grain hardness converted by a
multiple of 10. For example, 20 grain hardness = 2 times the data. (1 grain hardness =
17.1 ppm hardness.)
2. A very important fact demonstrated by this figure is that almost 7 times more lime is
deposited when the water temperature is 180F (82C) as opposed to 140F (60C). The
factor of 7 translates into a very short life expectancy for tank type heaters in services
that require sanitizing (180F [82C]) water temperatures.
Indirect Fired W
ater Heaters
Water
295
First, the potential for scaling and corrosion in the boiler water tank has been virtually eliminated because it is filled with
dead boiler water circulating in a closed loop. Once the loop is
filled, the small amount of makeup water added over time is not
enough to cause problems, provided the loop is properly vented.
Scaling inside the coils is prevented by the accelerated flow of the
potable water whenever hot water is drawn. By using several
coils of relatively small diameter, high output levels are possible
with little pressure drop. Since this type of indirect water heater
does not develop scale, even at higher temperatures, it is often
used in applications where 180F (82C) water is needed for sanitizing (e.g., automatic dishwashers, hospital laundries, and food
processing equipment).
Second, a tankless coil typically used a single, finned coil
immersed in the boiler water. Since both sides of each fin or rib
on the coil were considered part of the available heat transfer
surface, efficiency was expected to be high. In reality, the fins
and ribs trapped pockets of static water which acted like a layer
of insulation and hindered the heat transfer process. Scale collected in the valleys, compounding the problem. Wherever coils
were tightly wrapped or touching, heat transfer surfaces were
either unavailable or starved of boiler water. In comparison, the
new instantaneous water heater design makes use of multiple
smooth coils in loosely overlapping bundles to maximize the
amount of available heat transfer surface. The addition of turbulent flows inside and outside the coil boosts the heat transfer
efficiency into the high 90% range and raises the overall operating efficiency to new levels. The turbulence also scrubs the coils
clean of any scale buildup. As a result, instantaneous indirect
water heaters are projected to last 20 or more years.
WATER CONDITIONS
Obviously, the quality and condition of the potable water supply
will affect the performance of a water heater, direct or indirect. In
general, if the water supply has a pH value close to 7, neither
highly acidic nor heavily alkaline, any indirect water heater will
function properly. However, when high acidity is encountered and
cannot be modified using water treatment equipment, indirect water
heaters with copper coils may be adversely affected. Conversely,
very alkaline water will cause storage tank type indirect water heaters to accumulate scale much more rapidly. Particulate matter in
suspension or otherwise contained in the potable water supply
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should be filtered out before the water enters either type of indirect water heater. Sediment will quickly accumulate in and clog
up the storage tank type or sandblast the coils of the instantaneous indirect water heater, causing damage.
Electri
ater Heaters
Storage and Booster
Electricc W
Water
Heaters
18
297
ELECTRIC WATER
HEATERS
STORAGE AND
BOOSTER
INTRODUCTION
An electric water heater is an appliance for heating water that is
to be used for purposes other than space or central heating (for
instance, cooking, dish and cooking utensil washing, clothes
washing, lavatories, baths, and showers).
PRINCIPAL TYPES OF ELECTRIC WATER HEATER

Water heaters are classified as residential or commercial, based
on their size as well as their intended use.
Residential water heaters that meet UL Standard 174 generally include those with inputs of 600 volts (V) or fewer, no more
than 12 kW, and with tanks at capacities of between 1 and 120
gal (3.79 and 454 L).
Commercial storage tank water heaters and electric booster
water heaters that meet UL Standard 1453 are those that have
inputs of 600 V or fewer and satisfy at least one of the following
conditions:
1. Have a capacity of more than 120 gal (454 L).
2. Are rated over 12 kW.
3. Are equipped with one or more temperature regulating controls permitting a water temperature higher than 185F (85C).
For medium and heavy-duty commercial applications, hot
water with temperatures of 180F (82C) and above generally must
be available to meet the dish and utensil washing requirements
of restaurant installations. For equipment to be classified as a
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water heater instead of a boiler, it must have provisions that

guard against water temperatures exceeding 210F (99C).
COMPONENTS
Other than controls, the following are the principal components
of an electric water heater.
The Tank
In electric tank type water heaters, the tank serves the purpose
of hot water storage.
Linings are generally used in steel tanks to protect the steel
and to prolong tank life. (Tank materials other than steel are also
available.) An additional means of protecting a tank against corrosion is the use of a sacrificial anode. With the insertion of a
sacrificial anode, such as an aluminum or magnesium rod in the
tank, the primary electrolytic reaction occurs between the anode
and the other exposed dissimilar metals within the tank. The
anode is consumed first, thereby protecting the tank. The anode
should be replaced as it approaches decomposition to ensure
continued protection of the tank.
Tank Fittings
Tanks require fittings for cold water inlet and hot water outlet
connections. These connections normally are threaded nipples
welded to openings in the tank to provide for the water pipe
inlet and outlet connections. A fitting that enables the replacement of the sacrificial anode also is usually provided. In addition
to the inlet and outlet fittings, there are threaded nipples for
the insertion of immersion type elements, thermostats, temperature-pressure relief valves, and high limits. Residential and
light-duty commercial tanks have brackets on the outside for
surface-mounted thermostats and high limits.
A fitting for the insertion of a drain cock is required on all
domestic and commercial water heater tanks to allow easy drainage of the tank and removal of foreign matter that may accumulate
on the tank bottom.
Figure 18.1 illustrates a typical residential or commercial
electric water heater and shows the location of some of
the fittings on the tank.
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Figure 18.1 A Typical Electric Water Heater.

Source: Courtesy of A.O. Smith Water Products.
Note: Cover of electric water heater shown removed to reveal fittings at tank top.
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Dip Tube
A dip tube is used with all tank water heaters that have the cold
water inlet located at the top of the tank. The dip tube directs the
cold water toward the bottom of the tank to prevent excessive
mixing of cold and hot water as the hot water is used. The relationship between the length of the dip tube and the height of the
tank determines the amount of usable hot water that can be
drawn from the tank at any one time (the tank draw efficiency). A
dip tube that is too short will cause excessive mixing of cold
water at the top of the tank, which can cause the hot water to be
delivered at a lower than desired temperature. In the past, dip
tubes were made of metal, but presently most dip tubes are made
of high-temperature-resistant, nontoxic, high-density plastic.
A dip tube has a small hole, located near the top of the tank,
that expels a small amount of cold water into the top of the tank
under operating conditions. This anti-siphoning feature prevents the tank from being siphoned in case the cold water supply
is cut off. In such a situation, the tank would be siphoned only to
the level of the anti-siphon hole, where the siphoning action would
be stopped.
Elements
Electric water heating technology has been through only minor
changes since its inception. That is because immersion elements
are considered 100% efficient. Only the wattage of the elements
has been increased over the years to shorten recovery times.
Two types of elementwraparound and immersionhave been
used, with immersion type elements representing the overwhelming majority. Wraparound elements, as their name implies, wrap
around the outside of the tank in a channel. This type of element
heats from the outside and is used primarily in high lime areas to
prevent scaling and premature element failure. Immersion elements, as their names implies, are immersed in the water and are
made in several styles: blade, single-loop, and multi-loop. (Figure
18.2 shows the types of electric water heater element.)
Element construction
Element construction is essentially the same, regardless of wattage or sheath surface area. As Figure 18.3 illustrates, the principle
components of an element are the electrical terminals, flanges,
sheath, magnesium oxide, and resistance wire.
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Figure 18.2 Electric Water Heater Element Types.

Figure 18.3 Electric Water Heater Element Construction.

The magnesium oxide is used as an electrical insulator between the resistance wire and sheath as well as a conductor of heat.
The resistance wire is made of nichrome (nickle chrome) and
is of an appropriate length and diameter (ohm rating) to draw a
certain wattage (producing a predictable amount of heat) at a
given voltage. (Table 18.1 charts the relationship among the watt-
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age, voltage, and resistance of an element.)
Table 18.1 Resistance of Element (in ohms) ( 7.5%)

Rated Wattage
Rated
Voltage
600
750
1000
1250
1500
2000
2500
120
208
240
277
23.2
72.1
92.8
128
18.6
57.7
74.3
102
13.9
43.3
55.7
76.7
11.1
34.6
44.6
61.4
9.28
28.6
37.1
51.2
6.96
21.6
27.8
38.4
5.57
17.3
22.3
30.7
Rated Wattage
Rated
Voltage
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
120
208
240
277
480
4.64
14.4
18.6
25.6
76.8
12.4
15.9
21.9
65.7
10.8
13.9
19.2
57.5
9.61
12.4
17.1
51.1
8.65
11.1
15.3
45.7
7.85
10.1
14.0
41.8
7.2
9.28
12.8
38.4
Element operation
In an electric element, thermal energy is produced when voltage
is applied to the nichrome wire. The heat energy produced is
conducted through the magnesium oxide and copper or incoloy
sheath into the water. Once the thermal energy enters the water,
it is distributed throughout the tank by convection.
Residential electric water heaters are normally furnished with
dual elements that are wired for non-simultaneous operation (only
one element operates at a time; the upper element operates first
on a cold start). Electric water heaters may be specified with the
elements wired for simultaneous operation (both elements operate at the same time). The designer should be sure to check the
total connected load with the electrical engineer.
Most electric water heaters currently produced use immersion type electric elements, which are considered 100% efficient.
There are two kinds of such element, distinguished by the material used in their sheathing.
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Copper sheathed element

This consists of a nichrome resistance wire surrounded by
magnesium oxide and sleeved in a copper sheath. Standard
equipment on residential models, this element features:
1. High to medium watt density.
2. UL listing.
3. Zinc plating for corrosion protection.
Note: Copper sheathed elements must be immersed in
water when energized or they will dry fire (melt down). The
dry firing of water heaters usually occurs during initial installation when the heaters are not completely filled with water
and the power is switched on.
Incoloy sheathed element
This consists of a nichrome resistance wire surrounded by
magnesium oxide and sleeved in an incoloy iron-based super
alloy sheath. Standard equipment on top-of-the-line residential models, this element features:
1. Low to medium watt density.
2. UL listing.
CONTROLS FOR RESIDENTIAL AND LIGHT-DUTY,

COMMERCIAL ELECTRIC WATER HEATERS
Thermostat
This regulates the temperature of the water in the tank. Usually
one snap-action, surface-mounted thermostat is used per element. Temperatures are adjustable from 110 to 170F, 10F
(43 to 77C, 6C). (See Figure 18.4 for location.)
High Limit
This safety device limits the maximum water temperature in the
tank. Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted high limit safety
device is used. It is set to open at 190F, 5F (88C, 3C).
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Figure 18.4 Location of ControlsResidential and

Light-Duty, Commercial Electric Water Heaters.
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CONTROLS FOR MEDIUM-DUTY, COMMERCIAL

ELECTRIC WATER HEATERS
Surface-Mounted Controls
Thermostat
This regulates the temperature of the water in the tank.
Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted thermostat is used
per element. Temperatures generally are adjustable from
approximately 120 to 180F (49 to 82C). Surface-mounted thermostats have a differential of between 8 and 15F (4 and 7C).
High limit
tank. Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted high limit safety
device is used. It is set to open at 200F (93C) but can be manually adjusted to open.
Wiring circuits
Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many
of the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing.
Immersion Controls
Thermostat
An immersion well, remote bulb thermostat is used to regulate
the temperature of the water in the tank. Temperatures
generally are adjustable from approximately 120 to 180F (49 to
82C). Immersion thermostats have a differential of 5F (3C)
and are excellent units to use when precise temperatures are
important. Multiple thermostats may be used.
High limit
tank. Usually an immersion well, remote bulb high limit is used.
It is set to open at 200F (93C) but can be manually adjusted to
open.
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Wiring circuits
Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many
of the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors
to link control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).
CONTROLS FOR HEAVY-DUTY, COMMERCIAL

Immersion Thermostat
A direct immersion bulb thermostat is used to regulate the temperature of the water in the tank. Temperatures generally are
adjustable from approximately 95 to 180F (35 to 82C). Immersion thermostats have a differential of 5F (3C) and are excellent
units to use when precise temperatures are important. The control
of groups of elements is done by the use of multiple thermostats,
time-delay sequencers, or a solid-state progressive sequencer.
(See Figure 18.5.)
Immersion High Limit

tank. Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted high limit is used
per thermostat. An immersion well, remote bulb high limit may
be used. It is set to open at 200F (93C) but can be manually
reset to open at 180F (82C).
Wiring Circuits
Voltages commonly available are 208, 240, 277, and 480. Many of
the circuits are field convertible between single and three-phase
voltages. Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors
to link control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).
Options
There are many options available with this category of heater.
CONTROLS FOR BOOSTER TYPE, COMMERCIAL

These heaters typically are low storage type heaters, with capacities generally ranging from 6 to 20 gal (23 to 76 L).
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Figure 18.5 Location of ControlsCommercial Electric

Water Heaters.
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Immersion Thermostat
A direct immersion bulb thermostat is used to regulate the
temperature of the water in the tank. Temperatures generally are
adjustable from approximately 140 to 185F (60 to 85C). Immersion thermostats have a differential of 2F (1C) and are
excellent units to use when precise temperatures are important.
(See Figure 18.6.)
Immersion High Limit

tank. Usually one snap-action, surface-mounted high limit is used
per thermostat. An immersion well, remote bulb high limit may
be used. It is set to open at 200F (93C) but can be manually
reset to open at 180F (82C).
Wiring Circuits
Circuits are convertible between single and three-phase voltages.
Also, these heaters have internal fusing and contactors to link
control (120 V) and power circuits (line voltage).
Ratings
All heaters shall be rated according to the following standards:
1. Underwriters Laboratories, Inc.
2. American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Options
There are many options available with this category of heater.
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Figure 18.6 Location of ControlsBooster Type, Commercial

Electric Water Heaters.
Ga
ater Heater
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ank
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19
311
GAS WATER
HEATERS
INSTANTANEOUS
WITH
SEPARATE TANK
The direct or indirect, instantaneous water heater coupled with a

separate hot water storage tank, which can be of various volumes, is a water heating system that is well suited for many
applications. (For the purposes of this chapter, an instantaneous
water heater will be defined as a gas fired heating device with no
storage.) Because of its ability to handle a high peak water heating load, this type of system is used in a variety of applications. It
is frequently found in such facilities as hotels, motels, restaurants, food processing plants, laundries, garment manufacturing
and dye houses, and chemical processing facilities.
In this type of system, a gas fired water heater is used to heat
the domestic water, and a pump moves this water through the
water heater and transfers it to the storage tank. The pump circulates the water between the tank and the heater when there is
a demand for heat, thereby keeping the tank at a relatively uniform temperature. With some systems this pump can be turned
off during periods of no demand. The storage tank is sized to
meet the demands of a particular application.
The criteria that need to be evaluated in order to select the
size of the heater, the circulating pump, and the storage tank
vary from application to application. Please refer to Section I of
this manual for information on sizing domestic water heating
systems. The more that is known about the exact operation of a
facility, the more intelligently the designer can match the input
of the heater (Btu [W]) to the storage tank volume.
In this type of system, cold water is introduced to the system per the manufacturers recommendations, and hot water is
drawn from the storage tank. This type of system has the flex-
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ibility to allow the designer to balance the heater recovery with

the storage tank.
The size, flow rate (gpm [L/sec]), and head of the pump to be
utilized depend upon the total dynamic head of the system loop.
It is important that the designer consult the manufacturer to
select a pump that will maintain the proper velocity in the heater
tubes, which will reduce the effects of scaling and overheating
the water as it is routed through the heater. When this type of
water heater is used in areas with hard water, softening the water or
selecting a heat exchanger material other than copper (such as
cupro-nickel) will increase the longevity of the heater and system components.
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GAS WATER
HEATERS
STORAGE
TYPES OF GAS WATER HEATERS

Water heaters are classified as residential (domestic) or commercial based on their size as well as their intended use. Residential
water heaters are generally considered to include those with input rates up to and including 75,000 Btu/h (21 975 W), and
commercial water heaters are those with input rates over
75,000 Btu/h (21 975 W).
The most common type of gas water heater is the storage
(tank) type heater in which a single tank is used for both heating
and storing the water. The heaters most commonly used for residential purposes are those with 30, 40, and 50-gal (115, 150,
and 190-L) tanks. Large heaters have capacities ranging from
120 up to as many as several thousand gallons (455 up to as
many as several thousand liters).
FLUES AND HEAT EXCHANGERS

Storage type heaters are classified according to the placement of
the gas flue. With respect to this classification, types include the
internal (center) flue, the external channel flue, the floating tank
external flue, and the multiple flue. (See Figure 20.1.)
The internal (center) flue type has the most economical construction. The external channel flue increases the bottom heating
surface and tends to promote heating from the bottom, which
improves efficiency. The floater has the greatest heat transfer
area of the three types, with the whole bottom and the full surface
of the tank available for heat transfer.
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The internal (center) flue tends to be smaller in diameter than

the external and floating type flues for the same capacity tank.
Flues serve as the primary means for disposing of the products
of combustion and also as heat exchangers. Because commercial
water heaters have higher gas inputs and need even greater heat
transfer areas than residential heaters, many are constructed
with multiple flues to both increase the heat transfer area and
provide a cross-sectional flue area sufficient for properly disposing of the products of combustion. (Figure 20.1 illustrates a
multiple flue commercial water heater.)
TANKS
As previously explained, the tank in a tank type water heater serves
the dual purposes of heat exchange and hot water storage. Also, it
must be able to withstand water pressure in compliance with the
codes and regulations of whatever authority has jurisdiction.
The storage of hot water in the tank accelerates corrosion.
Linings are generally used with steel tanks to protect the steel
and to prolong tank life. Tank materials other than steel are also
available.
A second method of protecting the tank is the sacrificial anode.
When a sacrificial anode such as a magnesium rod is inserted in
the tank, corrosive action occurs between the anode and
any exposed metals in the tank. The anode, being higher on the
galvanic scale, is consumed first, thereby protecting the tank. In
some instances, anode rods are not installed because they have
a detrimental effect on the tank lining. Figure 20.2 illustrates a
residential gas water heater containing one type of sacrificial
anode. An anode such as this should be replaced as it approaches
decomposition to ensure continued protection of the tank.
One disadvantage of the underfired tank is its propensity for
depositing sediment on the bottom of the tank. The harder the
water, the greater the potential for this problem.
TANK FITTINGS
Tanks require fittings for cold water inlet and hot water outlet
connections. These connections are normally threaded nipples
welded to openings in the tank to provide for the water pipe inlet
and outlet connections. A fitting enabling the replacement of the
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315
sacrificial anode is also normally provided. In addition, most tanks

are provided with one or more threaded nipples for the insertion
of immersion type thermostats, temperature-pressure relief valves,
and automatic gas shut-off devices.
A fitting for the insertion of a drain cock is found on most
residential and commercial water heater tanks to allow easy drainage of the tank and removal of foreign matter that may accumulate
on the tank bottom. Although infrequently done in practice, the
periodic draining of tanks is highly recommended (the frequency
depending on water conditions in the area) because the removal
of foreign matter improves heat transfer, provides for cleaner hot
water, and eliminates any noises caused by the accumulated foreign matter. Commercial tanks have, or can be fitted
with, a handhole cleanout. ASME rated tanks over a certain size
require a manhole.
See Figure 20.3 for possible locations of some of the residential and commercial water heater fittings described. These are
examples only; many variations of location and gas water heater
are encountered.
DIP TUBES
A dip tube is used on all tank water heaters in which the cold
water inlet is at the top of the tank. The dip tube directs the
incoming cold water toward the bottom of the tank to prevent the
mixing of cold and hot water. In all tank water heaters, the water
at the top of the tank, under cycling and intermittent standby
conditions, attains a higher temperature than water at the bottom of the tank. The variation between the two temperatures
depends on heater design and dip tube length. A dip tube that is
too short will cause excessive mixing of the cold and hot water,
which will reduce the tank draw efficiency.
In the past, dip tubes were made of metal, but presently most
dip tubes are made of high-temperature-resistant, nontoxic, highdensity plastic.
A dip tube has a small hole, located near the top of the tank,
that expels a small amount of cold water into the top of the tank
under operating conditions. This anti-siphoning feature prevents the tank from being siphoned. Figure 20.4 shows the
operation of the dip tube under normal operating conditions and
under conditionssuch as occur when the cold water supply is
shut off or a line breaksnecessitating anti-siphoning action.
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(A)
(B)
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ater Heate
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317
(C)
(D)
Figure 20.1 Location and Types of Flue:
(A) Internal Flue Tank, (B) External Channel Flue Tank,
(C) Floating TankExternal Flue, (D) Multiple Flue
Multiple Burner, Commercial Water Heater.
Source: Courtesy of Uni-Line North America, Robertshaw.
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Figure 20.2 Sacrificial Anode Installation in a Residential

Gas Water Heater Tank.
Figure 20.3 Example of Water Heater Fittings.

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Figure 20.4 The Principle of Operation of the Dip Tube.

BURNERS
Burner assemblies are designed to ensure that gas and air are
properly mixed for combustion. Burners vary greatly in design
and construction, but all have:
1. An inlet air orifice. Varies with the type of gas and the normal
range of gas pressure.
2. A means of controlling air intake. For primary air burners, air
intake control may be fixed or variable (air shutter).
3. A mixing tube or mixing area. Allows gas and air to mix before
or during burning.
4. Ports. Control the gas flame pattern to improve burning characteristics and distribute the flame in relation to the tank
and/or heat exchanger area.
A few of the more common types of burner found in gas water
heaters are illustrated in Figure 20.5.
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Figure 20.5 Types of Gas Burner.

Issues to consider when selecting a burner design include

the overall physical dimensions of the burner, type of burner
head and port, and flame pattern.
A burners gas input rating governs its orifice and total port
areas. Ports that are too large encourage flashback of the flame
to the burner orifice. Ports that are too small encourage the blowing of flames. The number and size of the ports necessary to give
the proper flame characteristics can be calculated. Ports must be
properly spaced for good flame travel and ignition. Flame characteristics are affected by:
1. The form of the ports (slotted, drilled, ribbon, raised, or
flush).
2. Port size, depth, and spacing.
3. Type of burner head.
4. Air-gas mixture temperatures.
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Air inlets must cover a range wide enough to allow the airgas mixture to be properly adjusted for different gas, pressure,
and altitude conditions. Note: Designers should be sure to consult the manufacturers recommendations for derating burners
as necessitated by high altitudes.
VENTING SYSTEMS
A venting system is required to transfer the products of combustion to
the outside. The venting system of a water heater consists of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Water heater flues.

A draft diverter or draft regulator.
Vent pipe connections to the outside or chimney.
Vent caps.
Proper venting generally is covered by local codes. Improper

venting results from a lack of understanding of how and why a
venting system functions. The basic principle behind venting
appliances is that flue gases rise because they are lighter than
the surrounding ambient air. It is the heat content of the gases
that lightens them and causes them to rise. A venting system
that uses the natural tendency of hot gases to rise could be
essentially a vertical path.
Other considerations include using:
1. Vents of a diameter sufficient to carry the gases.
2. Controlled mixtures of flue gases with dilution air from the
draft diverter to prevent excessive cooling of the gases.
3. Insulation on the vent pipe to maintain sufficient flue gas
temperatures in excessively long or high vents (to avoid condensation and maintain draft).
4. Mechanical draft inducers with a double-acting barometric
damper.
Draft Hoods
A draft hood is used with almost every water heater not equipped
with a draft regulator or power vent (positive pressure) system.
The draft hood is designed to minimize the effects of:
1. Updrafts. It prevents excessive updrafts through the burner
compartment.
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2. Downdrafts. It prevents a downdraft from blowing out the

pilot flame or causing it to flash back.
3. Blocked flues. If the vent becomes blocked, it minimizes the
concentration of carbon monoxide by diluting the spilling flue
gases.
4. Spillage. It ensures that flue gases do not spill from the
bottom of the diverter if the water heater is installed with a
minimum amount of venting.
Some of the draft hoods commonly used on gas water heaters
are shown in Figure 20.6.
Figure 20.6 Commonly Used Draft Hoods.

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323
The operation of a vertical draft hood under downdraft conditions is illustrated in Figure 20.7.
Vent Connections
The ideal venting system has vent pipe connections that rise
vertically from the draft hood through the roof to the outside and
terminate in a vent cap, which protects the vent from stoppage
and minimizes the effects of downdraft.
Figure 20.7 Downdraft Conditions in a Vertical Draft Hood.

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Where lateral runs are required to connect with chimney installations, the lateral runs should be kept to the minimum
required length. They should slant upward, at a minimum of
in./linear ft (a 2% angle), in the direction of normal flue gas flow.
The connection of a vent to a chimney should be smooth on the
interior surface. The vent pipe should not project into the chimney interior. Consult local codes or National Fuel Gas Code NFPA
54 for details. (See Figure 20.8.)
Figure 20.8 Vent Connection to a Chimney.

Source: Courtesy of UniLine North America, Robertshaw.
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HEAT PUMP
WATER HEATERS
INTRODUCTION
The heat pump water heater uses modern refrigeration technology. In both residential and commercial applications, this type of
water heater can heat water more efficiently and thus is more
cost-effective than an electrical resistance heater. In the right
commercial applications, the energy savings can be significant. A
residential heat pump water heater has a refrigeration system
much like that of a refrigerator. The heat pump water heater
uses this system to transfer heat from a warm airstream to water. A typical residential heat pump water heater can heat water
to a temperature of 130F (54C). A typical commercial heat pump
water heater can heat water to a temperature of 160F (71C).
Heat pump water heaters operate on the principle of recovering
heat from an air source. For this type of water heater to operate,
there must be a warm air source (35F [1.7C] or higher). The
heat pump water heater consists of two heat exchangers and a
refrigeration compressor. The first heat exchanger is usually located in the airstream with the waste heat and acts to recover
this wasted heat. The compressor pumps the recovered heat from
the airstream to the other heat exchanger, which is associated
with a storage tank, for the heating or preheating of domestic hot
water. This is where the heater gets its nameheat is pumped
from one location to another. The refrigeration compressor uses
the refrigeration systems hot gas for pumping. In the right locations, a heat pump system can provide simultaneous water
heating and space cooling or refrigeration.
Heat pump water heaters use a vapor compression cycle
similar to that of a refrigerator to remove heat from an airstream
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flowing through the evaporator and transfer it to water. Hot, highpressure refrigerant gas is routed from the compressor to the
heat exchanger associated with the storage tank. This exchanger
is either one that the entering cold water flows through (remote
type) or one at the water storage tank to which entering cold
water is piped (integral type).
The temperature of the hot gas in commercial refrigeration
systems is usually around 200F (93C) or higher and is ideal for
heating domestic water. There are several combined heat exchanger and tank designs. Some have less of a pressure drop
through the heat exchanger than others. Some have coils immersed in the tank while others have coils that wrap around the
tank, and one has a heat exchanger plate that surrounds the
water storage tank.
The refrigerant is cooled and condensed when it heats the
water. The refrigerant liquid then passes through capillary tubing (an expansion device), which causes the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant to drop. The refrigerant gas then
enters the evaporator coil where it absorbs heat from the air passing through the coil and evaporates. The compressor evacuates
the cool, evaporated refrigerant gas and compresses it to a high
pressure and temperature to repeat the process.
TYPES OF HEAT PUMP WATER HEATER

There are two main types of heat pump water heater. In the integral type, the heat pump and water storage tank are assembled
together. In the remote type, the heat pump is located at a distance from the water storage tank and connected by tubes or
piping. Integral type heat pump water heaters are available in
residential and small commercial sizes (approximately 8000 to
60,000 Btu/h [2345 to 17 580 W]) with storage tank sizes ranging from 50 to 120 gal (190 to 455 L). Remote type heat pump
water heaters are available in these same sizes, as well as in
much larger sizes for commercial and industrial applications (approximately 8000 to 180,000 Btu/h [2345 to 52 740 W]). With a
remote type heat pump water heater a separate storage tank must
be added to complete the water heating system.
Integral Heat Pump Water Heaters

Integral heat pump water heaters are assembled with the main
refrigeration components attached to the hot water storage tank.
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ater Heaters
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327
The water storage tank of this type of water heater is essentially

an electric resistance hot water heater. It has electric resistance
heating elements to provide additional heating capability for periods of peak hot water usage. Some integral heat pump water
heaters are available with remote evaporators, which can be located near specific heat sources to provide spot cooling. Remote
evaporators are often used in areas such as a hot kitchen and
the space above an ice machine to remove heat directly.
Remote Heat Pump Water Heaters

Remote type heat pump water heaters are separate from water
storage tanks and can be located at a distance from them. In
most residential and small commercial remote heat pump water
heater installations, an electric resistance water heater is used
for the storage tank. In large commercial remote heat pump water heater installations, a heat pump water heater is used in
combination with a gas or electric resistance water heater to provide enough heating capability for periods of peak hot water usage,
and all the water heaters are connected to a large storage tank.
Remote heat pump water heaters are located inside or outside a
structure depending on available space and whether or not there
is an application for the heat pumps space cooling ability.
ENERGY SOURCES
Electricity is the primary source of energy for the refrigeration
system components of a heat pump water heater, for instance,
the compressor, pumps, and fans. Air is the heat source for the
heat pump water heater. All integral type and most remote type
heat pump water heaters use a water storage tank equipped with
backup electric resistance elements to meet peak hot water demand. If electricity rates are excessive, the tank can be ahead of
a gas fired water heater.
Heat pump water heaters remove heat from an airstream and
put it, along with heat from the electrical power they consume,
into water. A heat pump water heater can produce the same
amount of hot water as an electric resistance water heater using
only one quarter to one half the electrical power. The heat pump
water heater also provides space cooling and dehumidification
as a result of the water heating, a result that is often beneficial to
the customer.
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BENEFITS OF THE HEAT PUMP WATER HEATER

The main benefit of the heat pump water heater is its efficiency.
It is much more efficient than an electric resistance water heater
and may be cheaper to operate than a gas water heater, depending on local costs for gas and electricity.
Also the heat pump water heater provides cool, dehumidified
air as a byproduct of water heating. If there is a need for space
cooling or the existing air conditioning system is inefficient, the
space cooling effect of the heat pump water heater should be
taken into account in an economics analysis.
Another benefit of the heat pump water heater is that it allows
the user to reduce the peak water heating load by spreading it
over a long period of time. With adequate storage, a heat pump
water heater with electric backup enables a large part of the water
heating load to be shifted to off-peak hours for electricity usage,
thereby providing additional savings. Because of this, heat pump
water heaters may qualify users for utility rebates or tax credits.
Heat pump water heaters have lower instantaneous electricity demands than electric resistance water heaters do. If a heat pump
water heater cannot meet peak hot water demand, the backup
electric resistance elements in the storage tank will be energized
until the demand is met. When the backup electric resistance elements are energized, the heat pump water heater has a higher
rate of recovery, but it also has the high electric power demand of
an electric resistance water heater. The combination of a heat pump
water heater and electric resistance heating elements offers redundancy so that hot water heating ability will be maintained in
the case of partial equipment failure.
DRAWBACKS OF THE HEAT PUMP WATER

HEATER
The heat pump water heater may be more expensive than a conventional water heater. A heat pump water heater has a slower
rate of recovery than a conventional water heater. It may require
the engineering and field installation of additional plumbing or
refrigeration piping. If the space cooling is to be distributed,
ductwork may need to be field installed. An air source heat pump
water heater will not operate if the temperature of the evaporator
falls below freezing. Also if the evaporator temperature falls below freezing, the airstream can become blocked as ice forms on
the evaporator coil.
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If a heat pump is used for supplemental cooling, the building

must be able to handle the space cooling year-round. The engineer should not have to supply additional ambient heat during
the cold season in order for the heat pump water heater to continue operatingunless it can be supplied in a cost-efficient
manner.
Heat pump water heaters are not as widely available as conventional electric or gas water heaters. Also, heat pump water
heaters are available in only a limited number of capacities and
sizes, so the designer may have to compromise or manifold units
when sizing a heat pump water heater for a particular application. Heat pump water heaters require maintenance and service
technicians who have an understanding of heating, ventilation,
and air-conditioning systems as well as the conventional plumbing systems associated with water heaters.
HEAT RECOVERY SYSTEMS

Some engineers use heat pump water heater technology in an
engineered system referred to as a heat recovery system. Basically this type of system is similar to a heat pump water heater
system except that its refrigeration compressor is usually part of
the refrigeration system and is used to pump hot gas to the heat
exchangers in the storage tanks. Heat recovery systems may or
may not have electric heating elements. Sometimes a separate
gas water heater is provided downstream of the heat recovery
water heaters.
Heat recovery systems are used in supermarkets, restaurants,
convenience stores, dairy farms, and indoor ice rinks. Such buildings have large demands for warm water for washing down food
preparation, meat processing, dairy, and other areas from hot
and cold hose stations. They also have large refrigeration rooms
full of compressors to keep refrigerator/freezer systems cold. The
waste heat produced by such applications is ideal for a heat recovery water heater. In a study done in a supermarket in Michigan,
the waste heat from the refrigeration equipment heated the domestic water stored in three 120-gal (455-L) storage tanks, then
the preheated water passed through a gas fired water heater before being distributed to the domestic hot water system. A meter
on the gas line serving the water heater showed that over an
extended period of time the water heater burner was never turned
on.
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For supermarket applications, engineers sometimes use a

large single-circuit heat recovery unit that can accommodate high
refrigerant flow rates with low pressure drops. Sometimes multiple heat recovery units are installed in parallel or in series (a
two-stage system) for a single application.
Note: Caution should be used when working with heat recovery units. A separate condenser still must be installed with the
refrigeration system. When manifolding heat recovery units for
large refrigeration systems, the designer must take care to lay
out the piping for the units in such a way that, during periods of
low refrigeration demand, condensed liquid refrigerant is prevented from forming a trap and blocking the flow of refrigerant
gas through the units. Some manufacturers have designed special refrigerant drain tubes on their units to prevent this from
happening.
APPLICATIONS
The heat pump is an excellent choice for a water heater when
certain conditions are met. The building should have a use for
simultaneous water heating and space cooling or refrigeration.
The concurrence of the water heating and space cooling loads is
important. In a good heat pump water heater application, the
water heating load occurs over a long period of time, giving the
heat pump water heater an extended run time. There should be
a use for the space cooling or refrigeration load throughout the
year, and the temperature of the heat pump water heaters evaporator must be maintained above freezing.
If natural gas is expensive or unavailable locally, the heat
pump water heater may be the most cost-efficient choice for heating water. A heat pump water heater makes the most economic
sense when natural gas, liquid petroleum gas (LPG), oil, and electric resistance heat are expensive.
A poor heat pump water heater application is one in which
all or some of the above conditions are not met. The customer
has no use or only limited use for the space cooling byproduct.
The building has a water heating load that occurs over a short
period of time, giving the heat pump water heater a limited run
time and requiring that the backup electric elements be energized during most of the run time. When the backup electric
resistance elements are energized most of the time, the advantages of a heat pump water heater are limited. Also, if low-cost
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natural gas, LPG, oil, or electric resistance heat are readily available, the heat pump water heater loses its relative cost-efficiency.
Possible commercial heat pump/heat recovery water heater
applications are restaurants, grocery stores, and other buildings
with large refrigeration loads and high demands for hot water.
The commercial refrigeration units of such buildings usually have
condensing units, located on the roof or beside the building, that
reject the heat produced by the refrigeration process. In a commercial heat recovery application, the refrigeration hot gas line
has a bypass valve that sends the refrigeration hot gas to the
double-wall heat exchanger in the water storage tank. When the
thermostat in the water storage tank indicates that the water
has reached its set point, the bypass valve sends the hot gas to
the condenser on the roof where the excess heat is rejected.
CRITERIA FOR SELECTING HEAT PUMP

WATER HEATERS
If a natural gas or electric water heater is being replaced, the
designer should take into account the efficiency of the old water
heater or the heat pump water heater will be oversized. If space
cooling is desired, the heat pump water heater should be slightly
undersized to allow maximum run time and prevent overcooling
of the conditioned space. The designer can contact the water
heaters manufacturer or the office of the local utility for engineering assistance for a particular application.
SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS FOR HEAT PUMP

WATER HEATERS
The installation procedures for a heat pump water heater are the
same as the those for a conventional electric resistance water
heater with some additions. A drain must be provided to remove
condensate from the evaporator. Installation of ductwork for the
evaporator to direct the conditioned air may be desired. The installer must connect refrigeration or additional water lines between
the heat pump water heater and the storage tank if a remote type
heat pump water heater is being installed. Remote type heat pump
water heaters also should have unions, strainers, and isolation
valves installed on the water lines. Integral type heat pump water
heaters require a greater height clearance than conventional water heaters if the refrigeration components are mounted on top of
the storage tank.
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The maintenance procedures for a heat pump water heater

are the same as those for a conventional water heater with a few
additions. The anodes and backup electric elements of integral
type water heaters should be checked regularly. The scaling of
the heat exchanger and the accumulation of sediment are concerns and should be dealt with using the same procedures used
for a conventional water heater. The strainers on remote heat
pump water heater piping should be checked regularly.
Additionally, heat pump water heaters require regular maintenance of the refrigeration system. The pump or fan motors may
need lubrication. The air filter on the evaporator should be regularly cleaned or replaced, and the evaporator coil may need to be
cleaned for the heat pump water heater to operate at a high efficiency. The evaporator condensate drain must remain open and
should not have any biological growth in it if the conditioned air
is supplied to an inhabited space. Finally, the refrigeration system should be checked to ensure that it is operating efficiently.
INCOMING WATER QUALITY

Heat pump water heaters have the same requirements for incoming water quality as conventional residential and commercial
water heaters. Special heat exchangers can be used to accommodate extremely poor quality incoming water. Scale and sediment
have the same effect on the heat exchangers of heat pump water
heaters that they have on conventional water heaters and should
be handled with the same procedures. In hard water areas water
softeners should be installed ahead of the water heating system.
SAFETY CONTROLS AND DEVICES

Heat pump water heaters use the same safety controls as conventional electric or gas water heaters, such as temperature/
pressure relief valves and thermostats with manual reset overloads. Heat pump water heaters also use the same safety controls
as HVAC systems, such as refrigeration pressure and temperature controls. Heat pump water heaters with remote components
should have fuses or circuit breakers for remote components on
branch circuits.
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333
STEAM WATER
HEATERS
INTRODUCTION
Instantaneous Water Heaters
A steam, instantaneous water heater is a device that utilizes steam
to heat water to a specific temperature. It is able to supply this
tempered water without delay in volumes up to the water heaters
maximum capacity. Because of its ability to supply hot water
instantly, storage tanks usually are not required with this type of
water heater, providing the water heater is sized to handle the
maximum demand.
A steam, instantaneous water heater can be used for any application that requires domestic or process hot water and has steam
as an available energy source. Such applications include: shower
rooms, washrooms, dishwashing areas, laundries, and food processing plants. The types of facility these applications are found in
include: industrial plants, petrochemical plants, schools, universities, apartments, hotels, motels, and restaurants.
Generally speaking, there are two main types of steam, instantaneous water heater available today: the feedback unit and
the feed-forward unit.
Storage Water Heaters

The storage heater is a type of water heater in which heat is
transferred to water through tubes or coils. The hot water is then
held, ready to supply demand, in a tank. The heating assembly
can be either separate from or incorporated with the tank.
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A storage type water heating system requires more floor space

than an instantaneous system to accommodate the storage tank.
Also there must be adequate floor support to hold the weight of
the water stored in the tank.
Water hardness can be a problem with a storage type system.
Scale from hard water can have a degrading effect on any heater,
unless the unit is designed to remove scale buildup. Some heaters reduce scale buildup by expanding and contracting metal
parts, others by properly scouring with high water velocities. If
there is any hardness in the water, a heater that is designed to
counter scale formation and can be easily maintained should be
selected. Systems with welded plates or other similarly sealed
assemblies are best reserved for use with scale-free water.
Storage heaters can generate hot water over a period of time
and hold it, ready for use, in large volumes. Because of this,
boilers with relatively small capacities can be used and the peak
demands for fuel are reduced. Storage heaters can meet high
demands for such things as periodic showers without increasing
peak energy demands.
With a steam, storage water heating system, water is heated
either in the tank or at a remotely located heater. The tanks of
storage heating systems are large, maybe holding thousands of
gallons (liters) of water. Energy is supplied to a storage system at
a rate determined by the design of the system. In a steam, storage system, heat exchangers are used in conjunction with storage
tanks. Temperature controls located on the storage tanks maintain uniform outlet temperatures.
A steam system is operated by boiler- or district-supplied
steam. A steam boiler is operated by oil, gas, or another fuel
source. Electricity is often available for generating steam or directly heating water but is usually a costly source of energy.
District-supplied steam refers to overseas use, where steam is
created in a central location then distributed to the buildings in
a district.
FEEDBACK UNITS
A feedback unit is a water heater that controls hot water temperature by sensing hot water in either a tank or exit piping and
feeding back a signal to the steam control device. Such units are
reactive, depending on a change in water temperature for their
control. This need to react to change causes a lag in the control
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of the temperature. Lag time is greatly affected by the quality of a

units controls. Another way of thinking of the term feedback is
that control of the unit is accomplished behind or in back of the
operation of the heat exchanger.
There are generally two types of feedback system:
1. Storage tank feedback system.
2. Tankless, instantaneous feedback system.
Storage tank feedback systems are used more often than
tankless systems. The following are the main components of the
storage tank feedback system:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Bayonet type U-tube heat exchanger.

Temperature controlled steam valve.
Storage tank.
Recirculation pump.
The U-tube heat exchanger is located in the bottom portion
of the storage tank, and the steam flowing to it is controlled by
the temperature controlled steam valve. A gas or liquid-filled temperature sensing bulb is located in the midsection of the tank
and is connected via a capillary to the temperature controlled
steam valve, which modulates the flow of steam to the heat exchanger based on the temperature of the water in the tank. The
function of a recirculation pump (in a large tank) is to keep the
water in the tank turbulent to prevent stratification and to allow
for more accurate temperature readings by the sensing bulb.
A storage tank feedback system is capable of supplying a
large volume of water (the volume depending on the size of the
storage tank). It is not an instantaneous system, however, so its
recovery rate can be slow. Also because the storage tank can be
very large, it may require a large floor space. Because these units
are usually located in a basement or mechanical room, replacing
the storage tank is impossible without either making major modifications to the building or replacing the large tank with multiple
smaller tanks.
The tankless, instantaneous feedback system operates exactly the way the storage tank feedback system does. Because
there is no tank, however, the temperature sensing bulb is
mounted in the outlet water line. Because of the bulb location
and the slow response time associated with self-contained temperature regulators, inaccurate control is a characteristic of this
type of unit when hot water demand fluctuates the way it does in
a domestic hot water system. In the transition from low to heavy
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load, there is a lag time before the temperature regulator reacts,

which causes a temperature drop in the water. Conversely, when
demand changes from heavy to low load the lag time causes overheating of the outlet water.
Another shortcoming of this type of feedback system is the
thermostatic capillary system. Domestic hot water systems usually have demands from 10 to 20% of the time. The other 80 to
90% of the time they stand idle. Under no load conditions, the
water radiates heat, thus cooling down. As this happens, the
temperature regulator opens and allows steam into the heat exchanger, elevating the water temperature, which in turn causes
the temperature regulator to close. While the system is idle, this
cycling goes on continuously. Such cycling can cause the bellows of the thermostatic capillary system to fail, causing severe
overheating of the outlet water.
In summary, the storage tank feedback system offers large
volumes of constant temperature water but has storage tanks
that take up valuable floor space. Because of the size of such a
system, maintenance or replacement is very difficult and very
expensive. Also this type of unit wastes more energy than a
tankless system because it heats and maintains the temperature
of water that is not being used. On the other hand, the tankless,
instantaneous feedback system can fit into very small areas and
uses no tank that would require service or replacement. It does
not waste energy keeping unused water hot, but rather heats
water instantly on demand. Because it does not use a large stored
volume of water as a temperature heat sink, however, it is prone
to large temperature swings and temperature system failures.
Both systems, being thermostatically controlled, have modulating steam pressures within the heat exchanger. If they are not
piped and trapped properly, water hammer and corrosion can
occur in the heat exchanger, causing premature failure.
FEED-FORWARD UNITS
A feed-forward unit is a water heater that controls hot water
temperature by sensing the difference between the inlet and outlet water pressures. This differential pressure is an indication of
demand. The greater the differential pressure, the greater the
demand for hot water. Such units are proactive, rather than reactive, in terms of their control of outgoing water temperature.
There is no lag time associated with this method of control because with it a unit responds to demand rather than to something
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affected by demand, such as water temperature. Another way of

thinking of the term feed-forward is that, in such a unit, control is accomplished in front of or forward of the operation of the
heat exchanger.
Feed-forward control eliminates the need for the temperature
controlled valve associated with feedback systems. Instead a specially designed differential pressure diaphragm mixing valve is
used to regulate the flow of water in the unit and to maintain
temperature control. This valve is combined with a shell and tube
heat exchanger to complete the system. As hot water demand
downstream of the valve increases, it creates a pressure drop
that is sensed by the differential pressure diaphragm, causing it
to position a series of valves to allow flow of makeup water into
the heat exchanger as well as bypass water around the heat exchanger. The concept is to overheat the water in the heat
exchanger and then blend cold water as needed with the overheated water so the unit delivers the proper temperature water
over a broad range of flows. Because the differential pressure is
associated with and proportional to demand, a feed-forward unit
can respond immediately to demand by positioning its valves to
control output temperature. There is no lag time.
The greatest benefit of the feed-forward system is safety. First,
because it has proactive control, such a system provides much
better temperature control than its feedback instantaneous counterpart. Second, if its operator, the differential pressure
diaphragm, fails, the unit cannot pass water to the heat exchanger.
Only cold water may exit the unit. This prevents a scalding situation, such as would occur with a feedback instantaneous system,
which fails uncontrolled. The feedback unit cycles its controls on
and off under no load conditions, ultimately wearing them out.
The feed-forward unit does not operate unless there is demand,
meaning that it can sit idle for prolonged periods of time, not
cycling and wearing out its controls.
Feed-forward units operate on low-pressure steam, usually
no greater than 15 psig (103 kPa). This steam pressure remains
on the unit throughout its operation. The water in the unit does
not boil because its pressure is greater than the steams. Because the steam pressure is constant, condensate drainage from
the feed-forward unit is more assured than it is with the modulating pressure of the feedback system. If low-pressure steam is
readily available at the point of installation, the installer need
only make the connection to the steam main and include an isolation valve. If steam pressures are higher than 15 psig (103 kPa),
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a pressure reducing valve must be used and sized to supply adequate volumes of steam at delivery pressures between 2 and 15
psig (14 and 103 kPa). Steam volume requirements must be studied to determine whether the steam available at the units location
is adequate. Steam mains are sized to handle the maximum volume of steam required by any instantaneous device experiencing
substantial pressure drops due to equipment and valve restrictions. Steam volume requirements are provided in the
manufacturers feed-forward capacity charts and depend on the
sizes and condensing rates of the units used.
For all the benefits of a feed-forward unit, there also are a few
shortcomings. First, because the differential pressure control valve
on a feed-forward unit is not temperature activated, the unit requires that two things delivered to the unit remain constant. One
is steam pressure, which ensures a constant temperature in the
shell of the heat exchanger. The other is entering water temperature. A constant steam pressure is generally not difficult to
maintain, but a constant inlet water temperature may be. This
means that preheating the inlet water with a heat recovery system or energy conservation device, as is is done with a feedback
system, cannot be done. Sudden changes in inlet water temperature can affect the output water temperatures of the feed-forward
unit once it has been adjusted. Seasonal temperature changes of
the water are generally not a problem. These changes occur so
slowly that they are not noticed by the user. If, however, seasonal changes are undesirable to the user, a quick and simple
readjustment of the unit will solve the problem. With a typical
domestic hot water temperature of 120 to 140F (49 to 60C), for
every 3F (2C) inlet water temperature change, the outlet temperature change with a feed-forward unit will be 1F (1C) in the
same direction.
RECIRCULATION SYSTEM PIPING AND

OPERATION
Because a feed-forward system is relatively small and compact, it
can easily be installed close to the point of usage. This usually
eliminates the need for a recirculation system.
In applications where the unit is located in a basement or
utility room and feeds an entire building or the wing of a building, a recirculation system or loop is desirable to ensure delivery
of instantaneous hot water at all points of usage.
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The feed-forward recirculation system is composed of several

different components designed to work together to maintain the
temperature of the water in the loop during times of no or very
low demand. (See Figure 22.1.)
The recirculation pump runs continuously, regardless of the
hot water demand. Its function is to constantly recirculate the
water in the loop to maintain the temperature during times of no
or low demand. The size of the pump is determined by the maximum capacity of the feed-forward unit used. As a rule of thumb,
the pump flow rate should be approximately 10 to 15% of the
maximum capacity of the feed-forward unit. The recirculation
pump can be larger than 15%, but when a larger pump is used,
the installer must pipe a full size balancing line with globe valves
around the thermostatic capsule to balance the flow going to the
diverting valve. Failure to do this can cause overheating of the
Figure 22.1 Recirculation System Piping and Operation.

Source: Courtesy of Armstrong-Yoshitake, Inc.
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system due to the large volume of diverted water going back to

the unit for reheating.
The three-way diverting valve is a device with a nominal set
point that is roughly 15 to 20F (8 to 11C) below the set point of
the feed-forward unit or a diverting temperature that is roughly
5 to 10F (3 to 6C) below the units set point. The capsule senses
the temperature of the recirculated water and compares it with
its diverting temperature. If the temperature in the return piping
drops below the three-way valves diverting temperature because
of radiation loss from the piping and there is no hot water demand from the loop, the valve begins to divert some of the loops
flow to the inlet of the feed-forward unit (ports A to B in Figure
22.1). There it is reheated to bring the temperature of the loop
back up to its required level. Once the temperature in the loop is
above the capsules diverting temperature, all flow from the recirculation pump is directed straight through the valve (ports A
to C in Figure 22.1) and the return water is fed back out to the
hot water system.
This diverting recirculation system eliminates the need for
aquastats and electrical wiring. It is a self-contained, self-regulating system that controls the temperature of the water in the loop
during periods of no or low hot water demand. When there is a
demand for hot water, the temperature of the water introduced
into the system is instantly controlled by the feed-forward unit.
Note: Failure to install the diverting valve in the feed-forward
units recirculation system will result in the eventual overheating
of the system due to the constant elevation of inlet water temperatures.
The following are system design criteria:
The heat exchanger must be sized on gpm not gph when a
storage tank is not provided. The maximum instantaneous flow,
not the diversified flow, must be used.
The heat exchanger should have the domestic water in the
shell and the steam in the bundle. This will provide for the load/
lag flywheel required to maintain a uniform delivery temperature.
Heat exchanger selection should include local, state, and federal code provisions.
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A recirculating hot water pump should be provided.

Since most steam control valves are not good for finite control less than 30%, two steam valves should be provided for, sized
at 030% and 25100% of the load.
For other design considerations, please refer to American
Society of Plumbing Engineers, 2001, Steam and condensate systems, Chapter 8 in ASPE Data Book, Volume 3.
Example 22.1
A hot water system is required for 1110 gph (4202 L/h) of 160F
(71C) water from a 50F (10C) cold water system. The maximum fixture demand is 43 gpm (2.7 L/sec).
Gph method (with storage tank)
1110 gph 8.33 (160 50F) = 1017.5 Mbh
[4202 L/h 4.186 (71 10C) = 1 073 519 kJ/h]
Gpm method (using maximum connected flow)
43 gpm 500 (160 50F) = 2365 Mbh
[2.7 L/sec 15 071 (71 10C) = 2 495 207 kJ/h]
Expansion TTanks
anks
23
343
EXPANSION
TANKS
INTRODUCTION
The objective of this chapter is to show the designer how to size
an expansion tank for a domestic hot water system and to explain the theory behind design and the calculations. The following
discussion is based on a diaphragm or bladder type expansion
tank, which is the one most commonly used in the plumbing
industry. This type of expansion tank does not allow the water
and air to come in contact with each other.
When water is heated, it expands. If this expansion occurs in
a closed system, dangerous water pressures can be created. A
domestic hot water system can be a closed system. When hot
water fixtures are closed and the cold water supply piping has
backflow preventers or any other device that can isolate the domestic hot water system from the rest of the domestic water
supply, a closed system can be created. (See Figure 23.1[a].)
The water pressures can quickly rise to a point at which the
relief valve on the water heater will unseat, hence relieving the
pressure but also compromising the integrity of the relief valve.
(See Figure 23.1[b].) A relief valve installed on a water heater is
not a control valve but a safety valve. It is not designed or intended for continuous usage. Repeated excessive pressures can
lead to equipment and pipe failure and personal injury.
An expansion tank, when properly sized and connected to a
closed system, provides additional system volume for water expansion while ensuring a maximum desired pressure in a domestic
hot water system. It does this by utilizing a pressurized cushion
of air. (See Figure 23.2[a] and [b].)
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(a)
(b)
Figure 23.1 A Closed Hot Water System Showing the Effects as

Water and Pressure Increase from (a) P1 and T1 to (b) P2 and T2.
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345
(a)
(b)
Figure 23.2 Effects of an Expansion Tank in a Closed

System as Pressure and Temperature Increase from
(a) P1 and T1 to (b) P2 and T2.
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EXPANSION OF WATER
A pound of water at 140F (60C) has a larger volume than the
same pound of water at 40F (4.4C). To look at it another way,
the specific volume of water increases with an increase in temperature. Specific volume data show the volume of 1 lb (1 kg) of
water for a given temperature and are expressed in ft3/lb (m3/
kg). When the volume of water at each temperature condition is
known, the expansion of water can be calculated.
(23.1) Vew = Vs2 Vs1
where
Vew = expansion of water, gal (L)
Vs1 = system volume of water at temperature 1, gal (L)
Vs2 = system volume of water at temperature 2, gal (L)
Vs1 is the initial system volume and can be determined by calculating the volume of the domestic hot water system. This entails
adding the volume of the water heating equipment with the volume of piping and any other part of the hot water system.
Vs2 is the expanded system volume of water at the design hot
water temperature. Vs2 can be expressed in terms of Vs1. To do
that, we must look at the weight of water at both conditions.
The weight of water at temperature 1 (T1) equals the weight of
water at temperature 2 (T2), or W1 = W2. At T1,
W1 =
Vs1
VSP1
where
VSP = specific volume of water at a specified
temperature condition (see Table 23.1 for
specific volume data).
Similarly, at T2,
W2 =
Vs2
VSP2
Since W1 = W2, then
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Table 23.1 Thermodynamic Properties of Water

at a Saturated Liquid
Temp.,
F (C)
Specific Volume,
ft3/lb (m3/kg)
40 (4.4)
50 (10)
0.01602 (0.0010013)
0.01602 (0.0010013)
60 (15.55)
70 (22.1)
0.01604 (0.0010027)
0.01605 (0.0010032)
80 (26.7)
90 (32.2)
0.01607 (0.0010045)
0.01610 (0.0010064)
100 (37.8)
110 (43.3)
0.01613 (0.0010082)
0.01617 (0.0010107)
120 (48.9)
130 (54.4)
0.01620 (0.0010126)
0.01625 (0.0010157)
140 (60)
150 (65.6)
0.01629 (0.0010181)
0.01634 (0.0010214)
160 (71.1)
0.01639 (0.0010245)
Vs1 =
VSP1
Vs2
VSP2
Solving for Vs2:

Vs2 = Vs1
(VSP
VSP )
2
Earlier it was stated that the expansion of the water (Vew) =

Vs2 Vs1. Substituting Vs2 from above, we can now say that:
Vew = Vs2 Vs1
Since Vs2 = Vs1
, then
(VSP
VSP )
2
Vew = Vs1
V
(VSP
VSP )
2
(23.2) Vew = Vs1
VSP
1)
(VSP
2
, or
s1
348
Domestic W
Water
Example 23.1
A domestic hot water system has 1000 gal (3785.4 L) of water.
How much will the 1000 gal (3785.4 L) expand from a temperature of 40F (4.4C) to a temperature of 140F (60C)?
From Table 23.1:
VSP1 = 0.01602, at 40F (0.0009, at 4.4C)
VSP2 = 0.01629, at 140F (0.001017, at 60C)
Using Equation 23.2:
Vew = 1000
0.01629
1
( 0.01602
)
Vew = 16.9 gal

[Vew = 3785.4
0.0010181
1)
( 0.0010013
Vew = 64.0 L]
Note: This is the amount of expansion of the water and should
not be confused with the size of the expansion tank needed.
EXPANSION OF MATERIALS
Does the expansion tank receive all of the water expansion? The
answer is no because not just the water is expanding. The piping
and water heating equipment expand with increased temperature as well. So any expansion of material results in less of the
water expansion being received by the expansion tank. Another
way of looking at it is as follows:
(23.3) Venet = Vew Vemat
where
Venet = net expansion of water seen by the
expansion tank, gal (L)
Vew
= expansion of water, gal (L)
Vemat = expansion of material, gal (L)
Expansion TTanks
anks
349
To determine the amount of expansion each material will

experience per a certain change in temperature, look at the
coefficient of linear expansion for each material. For copper,
the coefficient of linear expansion is 9.5 106 in./in.F (1.7
10-5 mm/mmC); for steel, it is 6.5 106 in./in.F (1.2 105
mm/mmC). From the coefficient of linear expansion we can
determine the coefficient of volumetric expansion of material.
The coefficient of volumetric expansion is three times the
coefficient of linear expansion.
= 3
(23.4)
where
= volumetric coefficient of expansion
= linear coefficient of expansion
steel = 19.5 106 gal/galF (3.6 105 L/LC)

copper = 28.5 106 gal/galF (5.1 105 L/LC)
The material will expand proportionally with an increase in
temperature.
(23.5) Vemat = Vmat (T2 T1)
Making the above substitution and solving for Venet:
(23.6) Venet = Vew [Vmat1 1 (T2 T1) + Vmat2 2 (T2 T1)]
Example 23.2
A domestic hot water system has a water heater with a volume of
900 gal (3406.86 L) and is made of steel. It also has 100 ft (304.8
m) of 4 in. (101.6 mm) piping, 100 ft (304.8 m) of 2 in. (50.8 mm)
piping, 100 ft (304.8 m) of 1 in. (38.1 mm) piping and 300 ft
(91.44 m) of in. (12.7 mm) piping. All the piping is copper.
Assuming that the initial temperature of water is 40F (4.4C)
and the final temperature of water is 140F (60C), (A) how much
will each material expand, and (B) what is the net expansion of
water that an expansion tank would see?
A. Utilizing Equation 23.5, for the steel (material no. 1):
Vmat1 = 900 gal
350
Domestic W
Water
Vemat1 = 900 (19.5 106)(140 40) = 1.8 gal

[Vmat1 = 3406.86 L
Vemat1 = 3406.86 (3.6 105)(60 4.4) = 6.81 L]
For the copper (material no. 2) we first look at Table 23.2 to
determine the volume of each size of pipe.
4 in. (101.6 mm):
100 0.67 = 67 gal

(30.48 8.32 = 253.6 L)
2 in. (50.8 mm):
100 0.17 = 17 gal

(30.48 2.113 = 64.4 L)
1 in. (38.1 mm):
100 0.10 = 10 gal

(30.48 1.243 = 37.99 L)
in. (12.7 mm):
300 0.02 = 6 gal

(91.44 0.249 = 22.7 L)
Total volume of copper piping = 100 gal (378.69 L)

Utilizing Equation 23.5 for copper:
Vmat2
= 100 gal (378.69 L)
Table 23.2 Nominal Volume of Piping

Pipe Size,
in. (mm)
Volume of Pipe,
gal/l ft (L/m)
(12.7)
(19.1)
0.02
0.03
(0.249)
(0.472)
1
(25.4)
1 (32.5)
0.04
0.07
(0.495)
(0.869)
1 (38.1)
2
(50.3)
0.10
0.17
(1.243)
(2.113)
2 (63.5)
3
(76.2)
0.25
0.38
(3.104)
(4.718)
4 (101.6)
6 (152.4)
0.67 (8.32)
1.50 (18.629)
8 (203.2)
2.70 (33.533)
Expansion TTanks
anks
351
Vemat2 = 100 (28.5 x 106)(140 40) = 0.3 gal

[Vemat2 = 378.69 (5.1 105)(60 4.4) = 1.07 L]
B. The initial system volume of water (Vs1) equals Vmat1 + Vmat2,
or 900 gal + 100 gal (3406.86 L + 378.69 L).
From Example 23.1, we already determined that 1000 gal (3785.4
L) of water heated from 40 to 140F (4.4 to 60C) will expand 16.9
gal (64.0 L). So, utilizing Equation 23.6, we find that
Venet = 16.9 (1.8 + 0.3) = 15 gal
[Venet = 60.4 (6.81 + 1.07) = 56.12 L].
This is the net amount of water expansion that the expansion
tank will see. Again, please note that this is not the size of the
expansion tank needed.
BOYLES LAW
We have determined how much water expansion will be seen by
the expansion tank. Now it is time to look at how the cushion of
air in an expansion tank allows us to limit the system pressure.
Boyles Law states that, at a constant temperature, the volume occupied by a given weight of perfect gas (including, for
practical purposes, atmospheric air) varies inversely as the absolute pressure (gage pressure + atmospheric pressure). It is
expressed by:
P1V1 = P2V2
How does this law relate to sizing expansion tanks in domestic
hot water systems? The air cushion in the expansion tank
allows a space for the expanded water to go. The volume of air
in the tank will decrease as the water expands and enters the
tank. As the air volume decreases the air pressure increases.
Utilizing Boyles Law, we can determine what the initial volume of air (size of expansion tank) needs to be based on (A) the
initial water pressure, (B) the desired maximum water pressure,
and (C) the change in the initial volume of air. In using the above
equation, we realize that the pressure of the air equals the pressure of the water at each condition and we make the assumption
that the temperature of the air remains constant at condition 1
and condition 2. This assumption is reasonably accurate if the
352
Domestic W
Water
expansion tank is installed on the cold water side of the water

heater. Remember, to size an expansion tank you are sizing a
tank of air, not a tank of water.
Referring to Figure 23.3, you see that at condition 1 the tank
has its initial air pressure charge, P1, which equals the incoming
water pressure on the other side of the diaphragm. V1 is the
initial volume of air in the tank and is also the size of the expansion tank we are solving for. V2 is the final volume of air in the
tank, which also can be expressed as V1 less the net expansion of
water (Venet). P2 is the pressure of the air at condition 2. P2 will be
the same pressure as the maximum desired pressure of the domestic hot water system at T2. P2 should always be less than the
relief valve setting on the water heater (approximately 10% less
than the relief valve setting).
Utilizing Boyles law, P1V1 = P2V2, since V2 = V1 Venet
P1V1 = P2 (V1 Venet)
P1V1 = P2V1 P2Venet
(P2 P1) V1 = P2Venet
V1 =
P2Venet
(P2 P1)
Multiplying both sides of the equation by (1/P2)/(1/P2) or by

1 we have:
Venet
(23.8)
V1 =
(1 P1/P2)
where
V1
P1
= size of expansion tank required to maintain the

desired system pressure (P2), gal (L)
= incoming water pressure (in absolute pressure),
psia (kPa)
(Note: Absolute pressure is the gage pressure, psig, plus atmospheric pressure, e.g., 50 psig = 64.7 psi in absolute pressure
[344.5 kPa = 445.78 kPa].)
Venet = net expansion of water, gal (L)
P2
= maximum desired pressure of water (in absolute

pressure), psia (typically 10% less than the
relief valve setting)
Expansion TTanks
anks
353
Figure 23.3 Sizing the Expansion Tank.
Example 23.3
Looking further at the domestic hot water system described in
Example 23.2, if the cold water supply pressure is 50 psig (344.5
kPa) and the maximum desired water pressure is 110 psig (757.9
kPa) (the relief valve setting is 125 psig [861.25 kPa]), what size
expansion tank is required?
In example 23.2 we determined that Venet equals 15 gal (56.78
L). Converting the given pressures to absolute and utilizing Equation 23.8 we can determine the size of expansion tank needed:
V1 =
15
= 31 gal
(1 64.7/124.7)
[V
56.78
= 117.3 L
(1 445.78/859.18)
Note: When selecting the expansion tank, make sure the tanks
diaphragm or bladder can accept 15 gal (56.78 L) of water
(Venet).
354
Domestic W
Water
SUMMARY
Earlier in this chapter the following was established,
Equation 23.2:
Vew = Vs1
VSP
1)
( VSP
2
Equation 23.6:
Venet = Vew [Vmat1 1 (T2 T1) + Vmat2 2 (T2 T1)]
In Equation 23.2, Vs1 was defined as the system volume at condition 1. Vs1 can also be expressed in terms of Vmat.
Vs1 = Vmat1 + Vmat2
Making this substitution and combining the equations, we get
the following:
(23.9) Venet = (Vmat1 + Vmat2)
VSP
1) [V
( VSP
2
mat1
1 (T2 T1) +
Vmat2 2 (T2 T1)]

(23.8)
V1 =
Venet
(1 P1/P2)
where
Venet
= net expansion of water seen by the expansion

tank, gal (L)
Vmat
= volume of each material, gal (L)
VSP
= specific volume of water at each condition,

ft3/lb (m3/kg)
= volumetric coefficient of expansion of each

material, gal/galF (L/LC)
= temperature of water at each condition, F(C)
= pressure of water at each condition, psia (kPa)
V1
= size of expansion tank required, gal (L)
These two equations are required to size an expansion tank for

a domestic hot water system properly.
INDEX
Index Terms
Links
1-bedroom apartments
retirement homes
water demand
157
26
1 -compartment sinks
hospital example work-sheets
hospital sizing example
84
86
100
108
115
123
112
hospital usage factors
79
80
hourly demand
65
87
jailusage
kitchen requirements
103
183
50
87
151
142
147
149
165
168
171
175
103
nursing/intermediate care/retirement
homes
nursing/intermediate care
worksheet examples
retirement homes
water demand
157
26
central sterile supply
95
high school usage
55
hospital example
112
113
84
86
100
106
108
115
79
80
hospital utility rooms
73
This page has been reformatted by Knovel to provide easier navigation.
Index Terms
Links
2 -compartment sinks (Cont.)

hourly demand
65
87
50
87
151
142
147
149
care worksheet examples
165
168
173
sports arenas and stadiums
211
103
119
52
53
87
147
149
homes
nursing/intermediate
3-compartment sinks
booster heaters for
187
fast-food restaurants
228
high schools
hospital example
55
112
hospital worksheet examples
84
86
hospital worksheets
79
80
hourly demand
65
50
151
homes
142
168
3-way diverting valves (thermostatic capsules)

4-compartment sinks
339
340
65
5-min peak demand guideline
30
30/3 guideline
30 mA ground fault equipment
33
30
267
Index Terms
Links
32-bed hospitals
example
worksheets
93
100
48-bed nursing/intermediate
care/retirement home
example
158
gathering information
161
worksheet example totals
176
worksheets
164
100-ft length criterion
234
300-bed hospital example
111
A
absolute pressures
equations
352
gases
351
access to equipment
281
ACEEE (American Council for

Energy Efficient Economy)
xxi
acidity of water, indirect fired

water heaters and
295
activity rooms in religious

facilities
ADA (Americans with Disabilities Act)
226
xxi
192
additions to buildings, heat

trace systems and
272
adjustable orifice flow control

valves
248
Index Terms
Links
administration areas
hospitals
77
82
83
157
163
99
care facilities
138
religious facilities
226
retirement homes
140
204
advanced high-efficiency water

heating systems
considerations
17
multifamily buildings
and
30
after-hours at schools
47
after-work crowd at spas and

health clubs
130
afternoon peak demand

21
spas and health clubs
130
AGA. See American Gas

Association (AGA)
aggressive fluids, heat ex-changers and
288
air
air intake control in burners
319
321
343
351
cushions in expansion
tanks
entrapped in recirculating
systems
259
as heat source in heat

pumps
327
93
Index Terms
Links
air filters in heat pump systems
332
alkalinity of water
heat pump systems and
332
indirect fired water heaters and
295
steam storage water heaters
334
altitudes
DSH systems and
gas burners and
4
321
ambient heat, heat pumps

and
329
American Council for Energy

Efficient Economy (ACEEE)
xxi
American Gas Association

(AGA)
xxi
15
16
American Society of Heating,

Refrigerating, and
Air-Conditioning Engineers
(ASHRAE)
xxi
Energy Conservation in
New Building Design
261
Energy Efficient Design of

New Low Rise
Residential Buildings
IEW 90.1 standard
261
16
New Information on
Service Water Heating
261
Pipe Sizing
261
261
Thermal and Water Vapor

Transmission Data
261
Index Terms
Links
American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
15
code for fired and unfired

pressure vessels
16
code for relief valves
16
Plumbing Fixture Fittings
261
American Society of Plumbing

Engineers (ASPE)
xxi
Cold Water Systems
261
Plumbing Systems
262
Insulation
262
Piping Systems
261
Position Paper on Hot

Water Temperature
Limitations
261
Pumps
262
Service Hot Water Systems
57
261
Steam and Condensate

Systems
341
American Water Works Association

Internal Corrosion of
Water Distribution Systems
262
Americans with Disabilities

Act (ADA)
xxi
192
ammonia
in indirect fired water
heaters
291
refrigeration
288
anchor department stores
228
Index Terms
Links
Anding, Craig
xix
Andrews, Steven M.
xix
animal facilities in pharmaceutical plants
195
anodes. See also sacrificial

anodes
heat pump systems
332
anti-siphoning features
300
antibacterial cleaners
195
315
319
apartment buildings. See

apartments in retirement
homes. See retirement
homes
appliance flow rates table
236
approach temperature
defined
280
heat exchangers
281
plate-type heat exchangers and
284
U-tube removable bundles and
283
aquastat controls
288
258
340
arms/hips/leg/back tubs
94
112
art rooms
46
arenas. See sports arenas

159
ASHRAE. See American Society of

Heating, Refrigerating,
and Air-Conditioning
Engineers (ASHRAE)
ASME. See American Society
of Mechanical Engineers
(ASME)
214
Index Terms
Links
ASPE. See American Society

of Plumbing Engineers
(ASPE)
assisted bathing
73
athletic centers
calculating demand
130
127
hot water requirements
128
laundry and food service

demand
130
shower rooms
129
athletic teams. See sports

teams
atmospheric pressures
equations
352
gases
351
attachment tape in heat trace

systems
269
automatic flow control valves
247
automatic gas shut-off valves
315
318
77
91
autopsy rooms
considerations
93
99
user group totals work-sheets
82
83
average demand
calculating for apartment
building example
32
vs. peak demand
26
average occupancy per hotel

guest room
61
Index Terms
Links
B
backflow preventers in closed
systems
343
backup electric elements in

heat pump systems
332
bacteria
biological growth on
drains
332
Legionnaires Disease
14
pharmaceutical plants
195
baffles
gas water heaters
316
282
balancing devices. See flow

balancing devices and
valves
Balliet, James L.
xix
ballrooms in hotels
59
baptistries
225
bar sinks
demand
87
high school
55
151
209
barber shops in prisons
185
barometric dampers
321
211
bars in sports arenas and

stadiums
204
Index Terms
Links
base-mounted centrifugal
circulating pumps
258
baseball stadium example
214
batch loads, heat exchangers

and
285
bathing. See also central

bathing areas
compared to showering
37
bathroom groups
84
86
79
80
100
107
115
142
147
149

homes
173
bathtubs
delivered hot water temperatures
faucet flow rates
12
236
fill times
74
136
79
80
84
86
100
91
94
112
142
147
149
170
173
obstetrics areas
77
93
in patient rooms
73
91
107
115
hydrotherapy
homes
95
156
Index Terms
Links
bathtubs (Cont.)
therapy tubs
73
whirlpool baths. See

whirlpool baths
bayonet type U-tube heat
exchangers
335
bedpan washers
73
biological growth on drains
95
113
332
biological laboratories. See

laboratories
birthing rooms
77
93
black and white photo processing
198
bladder-type expansion
tanks
343
blade immersion elements
300
blocked flues
322
blood removal
hospital laundry example
222
on prison uniforms
188
Bloodborne Pathogen law
188
blowdown valves for fixed

orifices and venturis
body showers
245
128
boilers
combination heating/
DHW boilers
33
steam storage water

heaters
334
135
Index Terms
Links
booster heaters
controls
306
defined
297
308
dishwashers
48
64
hospital food services
74
112
care facilities
137
prison kitchens
185
recovery times and
187
67
Boyles law
351
bradley wash fountains
211
See also wash fountains

branches in heat trace systems
270
break rooms in sports arenas

and stadiums
209
Breese, James L.
xix
bronze pump fittings
258
Btu/h ratings
33
building management
systems in sports arenas
building movement
205
207
building occupants. See

populations
bundle assemblies
approach temperature
and
283
U-tube removable bundles
282
burners for water heaters
319
burns from hot pipes
259
Index Terms
Links
burns from hot water. See

scalding
business travelers hotels
60
bypass systems, considerations for
69
Byrley, Tom
14
Byron, R. C.
xix
61
C
cable end termination. See
termination
cafeterias in schools
52
calculations. See equations

can washers
grocery stores
227
92
79
80
84
86
103
119
122
123
142
147
149
168
171
hourly demand
65
homes
worksheet examples
school kitchens
48
capillary tubing for heat

pump water heaters
car washes in schools
carbon matrix heating elements
326
46
267
carbon monoxide, blocked

flues and
322
108
Index Terms
Links
carbon steel sheets in heat

exchangers
285
Carpenter, S. C.
37
cart washers
84
86
103
119
122
123
74
92
96
79
80
137
142
108
care/retirement homes
147
149
154
156
157
worksheet examples
168
171
prison kitchens
187
cassettes (welded plates)
287
CCUs (critical care units)
xxi
111
cell pods in jails
181
185
center flues
313
central bathing areas

48-bed nursing care
facility example
159
162
hospitals
73
91
137
152
care/retirement
homes
157
obstetrical use
170
176
77
Index Terms
Links
central hot water systems

central hot water temperature
207
212
206
central sterile supply areas

32 -bed hospital example
95
113
considerations
76
92
usage factors
90
82
83
106
122
worksheet examples
central systems for schools
central utility generating facilities
98
109
47
190
197
centrifugal circulating
pumps
258
ceramic barriers in plate-type

heat exchangers
channel flues
285
316
check valves
on loops
245
steam water heater piping systems
339
chemical laboratories. See

laboratories
chemical processing plants
190
196
12
187
chemical sanitizing dishwashers

chevron corrugation
285
children
locker rooms for
129
peak demand and
22
124
Index Terms
Links
chimneys
324
churches
225
circuit breakers
heat pump systems
332
heat trace systems
267
273
273
274
circuit length in heat trace

systems
circular wash stations
191
circulating pumps
baptistries
226
centrifugal circulating
pumps
258
in circulation systems
239
controls
258
flow rates
257
head capacity of
257
in-line centrifugal circulating pumps
258
lack of in heat trace systems
266
return pipes and
257
sizing
249
steam water heater systems
341
for vertical storage tanks
207
circulation rate examples
339
254
circulation systems. See

recirculating hot water
systems
Cix, J. B.
37
classrooms
schools
226
46
49
52
Index Terms
Links
clean rooms in pharmaceutical plants
195
clean utility rooms

hospitals
73
94
111
care facilities
clean work
135
191
194
74
92
cleaning
hydrotherapy tubs
therapy rooms
128
283
cleanliness of streams in heat

exchangers
cleanouts on storage tanks
281
315
cleanup activities
228
grocery stores
227
kitchen cleanup time periods

office buildings
64
66
229
clinic sinks. See flushing rim

sinks
clip gaskets
287
closed systems
dangerous water pressures
343
recirculating systems
258
clothes washers. See also

laundries
baseball team locker room
examples
214
capacity
221
high schools
215
217
54
Index Terms
Links
clothes washers (Cont.)

84
hotel laundries
68
jailusage
86
183
care facilities
schools
sport arenas and stadiums
student dormitories
138
49
209
41
club house laundries
203
coal processing plants
196
codes. See standards and

codes
coefficient of linear expansion
349
coefficient of volumetric expansion
349
Cohen, Arthur
262
coin-operated laundries
39
354
40
cold formed sheets in heat

exchangers
285
cold leakage
288
cold showers
197
cold water. See incoming cold

water supply
Cold Water Systems
261
color photo processing
198
column showers
209
combination aquastat/time
clock controls
259
combination heating/DHW
boilers
33
Index Terms
Links
combination upfeed/downfeed circulation systems
241
combustion
air requirements
thermal efficiency and
207
4
commercial dishwashers
commercial spray-type dishwashers
12
conveyor dishwashers
50
demand
65
79
80
84
142
55
65
67
86
103
119
147
149
50
55
homes
168
recovery and
67
school kitchens
48
211
commercial facilities, circulation systems for
239
commercial heat pump water

heaters
325
326
commercial laundries
221
208
211
12
206
water temperatures
commercial water heaters
defined
297
storage tank gas water

heaters
313
Index Terms
Links
Comparison of Collected and

Compiled Existing Data on
Service Hot Water Use Patterns
38
57
compatibility of heating mediums
281
compressors
electric
327
heat pump water heaters
325
concessions areas in arenas
203
concrete plants
198
205
206
concurrent usage
hospital areas
77
schools
49
condensation
dew points and
206
drains for, in heat pump

systems
331
gas-fired water heaters

and
15
282
condensors
heat pump systems
331
heat recovery systems
330
condo hotels
61
condos. See multifamily

buildings
connection points, storage
volume and
16
conservation laws
37
contaminated laundry
76
188
209
Index Terms
Links
contamination
cross-contamination in
heat exchangers
284
in nuclear power plants
197
continuous duty systems,

heat exchangers and
285
continuous flow demand
contraction
indirect fired water heaters
293
283
control circuits
306
controls
booster heaters
coverage in this manual
domestic hot water systems
306
308
1
15
electric water heaters
303
heat pump systems
332
recirculating pumps
258
convection
plate-type heat exchangers
285
tank heaters and
283
convenience stores
226
329
convention hotels and motels

average occupancy
61
considerations
70
defined
59
food service example
65
guest room example
62
conventional, iron bodied

pumps
258
Index Terms
Links
conventional water heating

systems
17
conveyor dishwashers. See

cooling functions of heat
pumps
copper coils, pH values and
327
328
329
295
Copper Development Association

Copper Tube Handbook
262
Historical Perspective of
Corrosion by Potable
Waters in Building
Systems
262
copper piping
expansion
349
hard water and
312
in heat trace systems
267
time delays and
235
water velocity and
244
copper sheaths
302
Copper Tube Handbook
262
237
303
correctional facilities. See

prisons
corrosion
293
instantaneous indirect
water heaters
295
pump fixtures
258
steam feedback systems
336
330
Index Terms
Links
corrosion (Cont.)
storage tanks
314
welded plate and frame

exchangers
corrugation in plate units
288
285
costs
delays in hot water and
238
heat exchangers
284
288
heat pumps
328
331
life-cycle costs
278
oversizing and
37
payment for hot water

and demand
25
countercurrent
281
CPVC piping
235
237
critical care units (CCUs)
xxi
111
cross-contamination in heat
exchangers
284
crossover bypass systems
69
CT scan rooms
95
cupro-nickel components
114
312
customized sizing for

multi-family buildings
28
D
daily water demand
19
peak flows and
26
dairies. See food product

facilities
Index Terms
Links
Danenhauer, Greg
xix
dark rooms
112
Daugherty, Larry
xix
198
204
day-care facilities
office buildings
229
226
dead-end hot water branches

Decioco, J.
234
245
37
decontamination
chemical processing
plants
196
nuclear power plants
197
dehumidification, heat
pumps and
327
328
delays in hot water. See also

lag time
dead-end branches and
245
heat trace systems and
266
hospital user group information

low flow fixtures and
270
275
72
235
piping types and diameters table
237

systems and
234
results of
238
steam water heaters and
333
time to tap defined
278
delivered hot water temperature recommendations
12
Index Terms
Links
demand
commercial laundries
221
238
football stadium example
211
heat trace system fixtures
270
high school systems
57
hotel guest rooms
60
monitoring in existing
systems
28
multifamily building determination
24
patterns in multifamily
buildings
19
pay-as-you-go systems
and
25
school calculations
49
special use facilities
35
demographic profiles. See

populations
density of population
23
dental clinics in office buildings
229
department stores
desk phones in hotels
228
60
dew points
condensation and
206
gas-fired water heaters

and
15
DeWerth, D. W.
38
DHW (domestic hot water)
xxi
DHW Modeling
37
57
Index Terms
Links
DHW System Sizing Criteria

for Multifamily Buildings
37
diameters of piping, time delays and
237
Diamond, R.
38
diaphragm expansion tanks
343
diaphragm mixing valves
337
352
dietary and food services

grocery stores
227
hospitals
94
112
considerations
74
92
requirements table
87
usage factors
89
worksheet examples
82
83
119
124
59
64
136
151
hotels
97
103
156
48-bed nursing care

facility example
159
162
worksheet examples
168
office buildings
229
schools
47
130
water temperatures for
75
176
50
206
109
Index Terms
Links
differential pressure
diaphragm mixing valves
337
steam feed-forward systems
336
diluting flue gases
321
dip tubes
300
direct fired water heaters

dirty work
315
316
194
196
318
4
191
dishwasher prerinse. See pre-rinse sinks

dishwashers
homes
flow rates
139
12
236
high schools
54
55
84
86
103
74
92
112
water heaters and
295
jail usage
182
manufacturers data
64
care facilities
136
156
prison kitchens
185
187
225
retirement apartments
158
school classrooms
49
school kitchens
47
small hospital example
94
209
steam water heaters
333
50
52
53
Index Terms
Links
dishwashers (Cont.)
student dormitories
disinfectors
41
95
113
122
84
86
106
79
80
disposable tableware
48
distances from water heater

to fixtures
233
distributed hot water systems
208
district-supplied steam
334
diverting valves
340
Domestic Hot Water Consumption

in Four Low Income
Apartment Buildings
domestic hot water (DSH)
38
xxi
codes and standards
16
controls
15
delivered hot water temperature
12
high altitudes and
mixed water temperatures
recovery. See recovery

periods
relief valves
15
safety and health concerns
13
specific applications. See

under names of specific applications
(i.e., hospitals, jails, hotels
and motels)
steady-state heat balance
formula
Index Terms
Links
domestic hot water (DSH) (Cont.)

storage and recovery
15
system alternative considerations
17
thermal efficiency
thermal expansion
15
Domestic Hot Water Loads,

System Sizing and Selection for Multifamily Buildings
37
Domestic Hot Water Service in

Lumley Homes
37
donut configurations, heat

trace systems and
272
door types of dishwashers
50
dormitories
heat trace system plans
277
institutional dormitories
42
student dormitories
39
double bunking in jails
181
186
double compartment sinks.

See 2-compartment sinks
double tank indirect fired
water heaters
292
double-wall heat exchangers

defined
284
double-wall plate and

frame exchangers
287
double-wall protection
279
heat pump systems
331
doughnut configurations,
272
Index Terms
Links
downdrafts
draft hoods and
323
gas venting systems and
322
downfeed hot water systems
240
draft diverters
321
draft hoods
321
draft regulators
321
drain cocks
298
draining tanks
315
drains for heat pump systems
331
241
315
332
drawdowns
laundry equipment
68
sinks
66
drawings
273
drilled port burners
320
dry firing
303
DSH. See domestic hot water

PSH)
ductwork for heat pump systems
331
dump loads
293
showers as
193
dumping water. See water

conservation
duration
shift-end wash-up
192
shower turnaround time
210
showers
Dutt, G.
62
181
185
37
Index Terms
Links
E
ease of access to equipment
281
educational laboratories. See

laboratories
The Effects of Hot Water Circulation
Systems on Hot
Water Heater Sizing and
Piping Systems
262
efficiency
heat pumps
thermal
328
4
260
286
288
75
92
327
330
booster type
297
306
components
298
elastomer gaskets
electric flash sterilizers
electric heat trace systems.
See self-regulating heat
trace systems
electric resistance hot water
heaters
continuous flow
controls
heat recovery
308
6
303
5
storage type
297
voltage and phase
207
electrical terminals on
immersion elements
300
Index Terms
Links
electricity
heat pump usage
327
heat trace systems
267
as heating medium
185
280
elementary schools
45
52
Ellis, L. Richard
xix
emergency eyewashes
204
209
emergency medical clinics in

prisons
185
emergency operations in surgical suites
75
emergency rooms (ERs)
xxi
95
111
emergency showers in sports

arenas
204
end termination
273
energy codes for sports arenas
205
energy conservation
100 ft. length criteria and
234
265
266
problems with inadequate

hot water systems
233
336
Energy Conservation in New

Building Design
261
Plumbing Systems
262
Energy Efficient Design of

New Low Rise Residential
Buildings
261
Energy Use and DHW Consumption

Research Project
37
113
Index Terms
Links
Engineering Plumbing Design
262
entrapped air in recirculating

systems
259
EPDM (ethylene propylene

diene monomer)
xxi
286
equations
absolute pressure
352
circulation rate example
254
demand
baseball team locker
room examples
elementary schools
football stadiums
215
218
53
212
high school shower

usage
55
hospital laundries
222
hotel guest rooms
62
hotel laundries
68
jail shower usage
181
prisons
186
sports arena shower

usage
student dormitories
210
41
expansion
Boyles law
351
materials expansion
349
tank materials
348
354
water expansion
346
354
heat recovery, electric

water heaters
Index Terms
Links
equations (Cont.)
heat transfer
piping heat loss
68
6
252
probable occupancy rates
31
steam water heaters
341
storage tank sizing
183
thermal efficiency (R factor)
260
equipment
297
expansion tanks
343
heat exchangers
279
325
291
instantaneous gas heaters

with separate tanks
311
manufacturers information
231
recirculating domestic
hot water systems
233
self-regulating heat trace

systems
265
steam water heaters
333
sterilization
76
93

heaters
313
washers and sterilizers
195
equipment ratings
34
erosion, velocity
244
ERs. See emergency rooms

Index Terms
Links
(ERs)
Estimating Hot Water Use in
Existing Commercial Buildings
37
ethylene propylene diene

monomer (EPDM)
evaporator coils
xxi
286
332
evening peak demand

22
130
events at sports arenas
204
examples
32-bed hospital
93
48-bed nursing/intermediate
care/retirement
home
158
300-bed hospital
111
baseball stadium
214
circulation rate
254
continuous flow for electric

water heaters
direct gas-fired heat input

rates
elementary school
5
52
expansion tanks
353
football stadium
211
foundry facility
193
high school
hospital laundry
54
222
hotel food service
65
hotel guest room
62
Index Terms
Links
examples (Cont.)
hotel laundry service
68
institutional dormitory
42
jail
181
materials expansion
349
care/retirement home
147
prison
184
shower mixed water temperatures

special use housing facility
steady state heat balance
steam water heaters
student dormitory
7
35
4
341
39
traditional multifamily
building
water expansion
31
348
expansion. See also thermal

expansion
expansion joints
of schools
206
49
expansion tanks
Boyles law
351
defined
343
examples
349
material expansion
348
types
343
use of
15
water expansion formulas
353
346
experimental laboratories.
See laboratories
Index Terms
Links
An Experimental Study of
Competing Systemsfor
Maintaining Service Water
Temperature in Residential Buildings
external channel flues
262
313
extracurricular activities
48
eyewashes, emergency
204
317
209
F
factory preset automatic flow
control valves
247
families. See also multifamily

buildings
family changing areas
129
spas and health club usage
130
heat pumps
327
refrigeration units
332
fans
228
faucets. See also fixtures and

fixture outlets
infrared faucets
205
metering faucets
205
non-metering faucets
236
FDA (Food and Drug Administration)
236
194
feed-forward units
components
336
point of usage installation
338
recirculation systems
339
steam water heaters
333
Index Terms
Links
feedback units
steam water heaters
333
types
335
Fehrm, Al
262
fertilizer storage rooms
209
334
fiberglass insulation
heat trace systems
267
275
fiberglass insulation thick-nesses
269
275
74
91
156
204
209
250
fill times for hydrotherapy

tubs
first aid rooms in sports arenas
first-degree burns
fixed orifices in flow balancing
13
245
fixtures and fixture outlets

homes
139
12
distances between heater

and
233
flow rates table
236
gathering data for requirements
47
hospital user groups
72
kitchens
64
school general purpose
49
78
spas, pools, health clubs,

and athletic centers
128
205
temperature at
usage patterns
72
130
78
Index Terms
Links
fixtures and fixture outlets (Cont.)

worksheets for
flanges on immersion elements
flash sterilizers
140
300
75
92
313
317
95
112
79
80
111
84
86
100
108
115
142
147
149
165
171
175
floating tank external flues

floor receptors
95
homes
flow baffles, U-tube removable
bundles and
282
flow balancing devices and valves

balancing systems
244
balancing valves
245
239
248
factory preset automatic

flow control valves
247
fixed orifices and venturis
245
flow regulating valves
248
friction losses and
257
memory stops
248
as not needed in heat

trace systems
272
recirculated hot water systems
244
steam water heater piping

systems
339
112
105
Index Terms
Links
flow rates
clothes washers
221
daily water patterns in

21
dormitory fixtures
40
245
fixtures and appliances

table
236
head capacity of circulating

pumps and
in heat balance formula
recirculation pumps
showers
257
3
72
339
48
51
158
210
sterilization equipment
76
93
storage volume and
16
therapeutic facilities
128
worksheets
flow restrictors in prisons
77
78
184
flue gases
condensation and
206
mixture control
321
thermal efficiency and
flues
flue routing
207

heaters
313
venting systems
321
fluid treatment facilities
190
198
93
Index Terms
Links
flush port burners
320
flushing rim sinks
73
95
113
79
80
84
86
100
108
115
121
142
147
149
165
171
93
113
homes
obstetrics area
outpatient surgery
113
surgical suites
112
flywheels in steam water

heater systems
340
fonts, baptismal
225
Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
194
food kiosks in student dormitories
39
40
food processing facilities and

activities
design issues
194
228
food product facilities
196
water heaters
295
steam water heaters
333
food product facilities

dairy heat recovery systems
329
defined
190
design issues
196
105
Index Terms
Links
food service. See dietary and

food services
Force, F.
forced convection
211
38
283
formulas. See equations

fossil fuel plants
190
fouling process in heat ex-changers
288
foundries
190
Frankel, Michael
xix
Freehill, Mina
xx
197
193
freezing
areas subject to
207
heat pump installations

and
328
heating cables for freeze

protection
267
freon in indirect fired water

heaters
291
friction loss and circulating

pumps
257
full-condensing equipment
17
full-service kitchens
48
fuses for heat pump systems
332
G
gage pressures
equations
352
gases
351
Index Terms
Links
gallons per hour (gph)

in heat recovery equations
in
5
88
laundry demand
221
worksheets
140
gallons per minute (gpm)

in heat trace system fixtures
in
270
88
hospital user group totals

worksheets
81
78
worksheets
84
86
140
gallons per pound in laundry

demand
221
gas flues. See flues

gas input ratings
320
gas shut-off valves
315
gas water heaters

burners
condensation and
319
15
dip tubes
315
flues and heat exchangers
313
318

with separate tanks
311

heaters
313
tank fittings
314
tanks
314
venting systems
321
318
Index Terms
Links
gases
flame patterns
flue gases
319
320
as heating medium
280
volume of
351
gasketed plate units
285
288
hospital examples
96
115
74
hospital laundries
75
72
hospital worksheets
78
hotel food service
64
hotel guest rooms
60
hotel laundries
67
jails
181
laundries
221
91
facilities
134
156
care facility example
obstetrics/nursery areas
161
77
prisons
185
retirement homes
157

127
204
general occupancy hotels
60
61
See also hotels and

motels
Index Terms
Links
general purpose demand in

schools
49
53
54
generation rates, capacity

and
30
generation systems in
apartment buildings
geographical variances in demand
34
25
geothermal energy as heating

medium
glass barriers in heat exchangers
glassware sanitizers
280
285
12
195
globe valves
339
glueless gasket designs
287
Goldner, Fredric S.
xix
37
95
113
grocery stores
226
331
grounds services in arenas
203
group wash fountains
192
gph. See gallons per hour

(gph)
gpm. See gallons per minute
(gpm)
gravity sterilizers
193
guest rooms
examples
62
hotel types
59
multiple systems design
69
gym classes
46
gymnasiums
226
48
55
57
Index Terms
Links
H
hand sinks
113
95
228
grocery stores
227
high demand hospital

areas
73
high schools
55
hospital food service
112
hospital utility rooms
73
kitchens
50
52
53
miscellaneous hospital
areas
77
nurses stations
89
94
135
138
care facilities
obstetrics areas
prisons
temperatures
hands/elbows/arms tubs
90
184
75
94
112
159
hard water
heat pump systems and
332

with separate tanks
312
334
hastelloy
285
HBV (hepatitis B virus)
xxi
188
head. See pressure

225
Index Terms
Links
head assemblies
282
health clinics. See medical

and health clinics
health clubs
calculating demand
130
127
128
in office buildings
229
health concerns
13
71
approach
280
288
codes and standards
279
countercurrent
281
defined
279
flues as
313
in heat pump water heaters
325
heating mediums
280
indirect fired water heaters as
291
selection factors
288
steam water heaters
334
temperature cross
281
terminology
280
types
281
heat exchangers
340
heat loss
equations
252
250
required circulation rate

example
254
storage tanks
255
256
Index Terms
Links

applications
330
benefits
328
considerations
17
criteria
331
defined
325
drawbacks
328
energy sources for
327
329
incoming water quality
332
integral heat pump water

heaters
326
maintenance
332
remote heat pump water

heaters
327
requirements
331
safety controls and devices
332
heat recovery. See recovery

periods
heat trace systems. See
systems
heat transfer
flues and
hotel laundry demand
time rates for
turbulence and
313
68
285
3
286
Index Terms
Links
heating cable systems

approved systems
267
heat trace systems
265
illustrated
268
plumbing drawing indicators
273
selecting cables
274
heating mediums
266
269
280
Henriques, V. C. Jr.
13
hepatitis B virus (HBV)
xxi
herringbone corrugation
285
188
high altitudes
DSH systems and
gas burners and
high-demand facilities
4
321
35
high-efficiency water heating

systems
considerations
17
and
30
high end hotels

high limit safety devices
70
298
303
high population density in

23
high schools
defined
45
examples
54
kitchen demand
55
shower demand
55
system selection factors
56
hip/leg tubs
94
112
159
Index Terms
Links
Historical Perspective of Corrosion

by Potable Waters in
Building Systems
262
HIV (human immune deficiency virus)
xxi
holding kitchens
48
home team locker rooms
203
horizontal draft hoods
322
188
214
horizontal mains in heat

trace systems
276
horizontal slot port case

burners
320
horizontal-to-vertical draft
hoods
322
horizontal water tanks

storage capacity
stratification
207
16
hose stations
grocery stores
227
79
80
84
86
119
122
142
147
168
171
103
homes
149
worksheet examples
hospitals
32-bed example
93
300-bed example
111
heat trace maintenance

temperature table
274
108
Index Terms
Links
hospitals (Cont.)
276
277
water heaters
kitchen hot water requirements table
laundries
295
87
222
safety and health concerns
71
user group example work-sheets
84
81
user group worksheets
78
user groups defined
72
hot tubs
295
61
Hot Water and Energy Usein

Apartment Buildings
38
hot water multiplier

in hospital worksheets
in mixed water temperatures
82
83
109
61
70
in nursing/intermediate
care worksheets
176
hotels and motels

classifications of
59
design considerations
70
food service
64
guest rooms
60

temperature table
274
276
laundry service
67
resorts
60
steam water heaters
333
124
Index Terms
Links
hotels and motels (Cont.)

system considerations
69
hourly consumption figures

hotel kitchens
65
27
hourly number of therapies
74
91
137
154
hours of operation
157
92
food service
64
hospital laundries
92
hydrotherapy units
74
91
136
156
laundries
76
138
139
158
92
222
sterile supply areas
76
surgical suites
75
therapeutic facilities
92
129
human immunodeficiency
virus (HIV)
xxi
188
HVAC ductwork, heat trace

systems in
265
hybrid systems
considerations
17
and
30
hydro showers
128
hydrotherapy
94
48-bed nursing care facility example
159
112
Index Terms
Links
hydrotherapy (Cont.)
91
hospital requirements
73
96
161
152
153
homes
school requirements
136
48
209
tub temperature
129
usage factors
79
80
89
82
83
109
124
86
102
117
147
149
176
worksheet examples
84
167
hydrotherapy tubs
212
homes
142
211
worksheet examples
167
hypalon
286
I
ice machines, heat pumps
and
327
ice rinks
329
resurfacing
205
ICVs. See intensive care units

(ICUS)
Index Terms
IEW 90.1 standard (ASHRAE)
immersion controls
Links
16
305
305
storage tank fittings
315
318
immersion elements
construction and operation
300
storage tanks
298
immersion well remote bulb

thermostats
305
Impact of Water Conservation

on Interior Plumbing
262
in-line centrifugal circulating

pumps
258
incoloy sheaths
302
303
incoming cold water supply

heat pump systems
laundries and
in mixed water temperatures
332
40
6
pressure differences in
steam feed-forward
systems
336
314
318
in storage tank indirect

water heaters
291
temperature and approach
280
temperature of
222
incoming hot water supply

in steady-state heat balance formula
supply in mixed water

temperatures
Index Terms
Links

defined
291
as heat exchangers
291
water heaters
293
storage tank types
291
water conditions
295
indoor ice rinks
329
industrial facilities. See also

specific types of facilities
areas of demand
191
circulation systems for
239
clean and dirty work
191
defined
188
190
example
193
selecting water heaters
192
showers
192
steam water heaters
333
storage tanks
194
types of
188
wash stations
191
194
194
industrial laundries
221
in prisons
188
industrial water treatment

plants
190
infrared faucets
205
198
initial costs
heat exchangers
288
Index Terms
Links
initial costs (Cont.)

heat pumps
328
initial fills for sinks
66
initial pressures in expansion

tanks
351
initial volumes
air cushions in expansion
tanks
351
initial system volume of

water
346
inlet air orifices in burners
319
inlet fittings
298
inmates
double bunking
181
186
lavatories and showers
184
186
redundancy in systems
and
185
showers for
180
inns. See hotels and motels

input energy in thermal efficiency formulas
input water. See incoming

cold water supply
insertable pressure measuring devices
248
instantaneous systems
apartment building example
baptistries
32
226
gas heaters with separate

tanks
311
193
293
Index Terms
Links
instantaneous systems (Cont.)

industrial facilities usage
192
instantaneous-coil-in-a-boiler
water heaters
294
30
point-of-use heaters
242
335
steam water heaters
333
tankless coil systems
32
295
42
institutional laundries
12
221
insulation
gas water heaters
316
heat trace systems
267
piping
250
259
269
275
275
sports arena and stadium

piping
207
vent pipes
321
Insulation
262
integral heat pump water

heaters
intensive care units (ICUs)
example
hand washing demand
326
331
xxi
111
73
intermediate care facilities

48-bed facility example
158
central bathing
137
159
Index Terms
Links
intermediate care facilities (Cont.)

defined
133
dietary and food service
136
156
161
hydrotherapy
136
159
table
151
laundries
138
miscellaneous areas
160
nurses stations
135
159
resident areas
135
158
usage factors
152
user group analysis
135
worksheet examples
140
147
worksheet totals
144
176
313
316
internal (center) flues
160
165
Internal Corrosion of Water

Distribution Systems
262
internal fusing in
wiring circuits
305
306
International Association of
Plumbing and Mechanical
Officials
262
iron bodied pumps
258
isolation rooms
73
isolation valves
feed-forward steam systems
337
heat pump systems
331
Index Terms
Links
J
jails
auxiliary equipment
182
179
examples
181
181
276
life cycle of
180
janitors closets
46
277
203
janitors receptors. See floor

receptors
Johnson, Peter J.
xix
junior high schools
45
Justin, Lawrence G.
xix
K
kitchen sinks
flow rates
40
hospital user group usage

factors
79
80
142
147
211
student dormitories
41
user group example work-sheets
84
86
103
119
worksheet examples
149
168
kitchens
cooling functions of heat
pumps
327
Index Terms
Links
kitchens (Cont.)
demand
hospital requirements
table
87
79
hotel example
65
jails and prisons
80
180
care facilities
136
151
prisons
184
187
schools
46
47
50
205
209
55
57
small hospital example
94
203
47

temperature table
274
multiple kitchens
64
69
residential
42
water temperature
Kokko, J. P.
Konen, Thomas
43
206
37
262
L
L/h. See liters per hour (L/h)
labels in heat trace systems
269
laboratories
197
defined
190
in hospitals
77
91
93
99
Index Terms
Links
laboratories (Cont.)
195
sinks
195
testing laboratories
198
82
83
lag time. See also delays in

hot water
feed-forward systems
336
instantaneous steam
feedback systems
336
steam feedback units
335
large apartment buildings
31
large hospitals
111
lateral runs in vents
324
laundries
12
demand
apartment buildings
36
coin-operated
39
40
hospital considerations
75
92
113
222
79
80
hospital worksheets
84
86
hotels and motels
67
42
hospital example
jails
98
43
180
care facilities
138
157
160
care worksheets
176
295
Index Terms
Links
laundries (Cont.)
prison industrial
laundries
188
prisons
180
184
185
188
139
155
158
164
208
209
163
221
174
schools
46
130
203
student dormitories
39
98

temperature table
274
water heaters and
295
manufacturer specifications
68
69
recover requirements
222
steam water heaters
333
storage tanks
222
wash cycles
40
75
222
baseball team locker room examples
214
215
217
flow rates
236
laundry tubs
79
80
142
147
171
174
211
homes
149
Index Terms
Links
lavatories
12
demand
87

room example
214
215
79
80
107
115
42
43
180
184
50
151
142
147
88
94
217
hospital worksheet
examples
jails and prisons
kitchens
care/retirement
homes
patient areas
149
resident areas in care

facilities
135
schools
49
52
209
211

staff toilets
73
student dormitories
41
54
user group example

worksheets
84
flow rates
40
maximum flow rates
236
steam water heaters
333
86
leaks
cold leakage
288
copper piping
244
173
Index Terms
Links
14
length of branches
234
in non-heat traced systems
270
life cycles
costs
278
water heaters
lime deposits
295
294
300
See also scaling

linear expansion
349
linings for storage tanks
284
298
liquid petroleum gas (LPG),
xxi
330
314
liters per hour (L/h)

laundry demand
221
worksheets
140
LMH factor (low, medium, and high)
xxi
32
applying
26
multifamily building demographics
23
peak and maximum demands
25
33
small, medium and large

apartment buildings
31
special use facilities
35
load calculations
alternative systems
17
32
load lag flywheels
34
340
Index Terms
Links
loads per hour

hospital laundries
75
92
care laundries
138
157
retirement home laundries
139
local plumbing codes
16
locker rooms
hospitals
96
114
industrial facilities
191
shower rooms
129
203
214
75
92
surgical suites
loops
check valves on
245
isolating portions of systems
244
lounges
160
low, medium, and high. See

LMH factor (low, medium, and high)
low-flow fixtures
265
hot water delays and
235
low-pressure steam
337
LPG (liquid petroleum gas),
xxi
271
330
M
magnesium oxide immersion
elements
300
magnetic resonance imaging

machines
114
Index Terms
Links
main lines
heat trace systems
270
276
maintenance
accessibility of heat exchangers
281
ease of access to equipment
281
245
gasketed heat exchangers
287
heat pump systems
332
systems
planning for repairs
163
40
207
storage tank draining and

cleaning
315
therapy room systems
128
maintenance areas
hospitals
77
91
93
99
care systems
138
retirement homes
140
157
makeup water for feed-for-ward

steam systems
malls
337
228
management systems for

sports arenas
205
manholes
315
manicures
128
manual pump controls
258
129
96
Index Terms
Links
manufacturing facilities
188
massage therapy
128
194
meals. See also dietary and

food services
number of
74
92
136
156
care facilities
meat processing facilities
mechanical circulation, stratification and
194
16
mechanical draft inducers
321
Meckler, Milton
262
medical and health clinics

first aid rooms in sports
arenas
204
office buildings
229
prisons
185
schools
46
shower rooms
209
129
medical patients
72
medication rooms
73
94
111
medium-sized apartment
buildings
31
meeting rooms
hotel types
59
226
melt down in immersion elements
303
memory stops on valves
245
metal barriers in heat ex-changers
285
metering faucets
205
248
236
135
Index Terms
Links
Mettelstaedt, Bernie
xix
Meyer, Randy
xix
mid-sized apartment buildings
31
middle schools
45
Miller, Julius E.
xix
Milligan, N. H.
37
mineral facilities
196
mineral salt baths
129
mining facilities
190
38
miscellaneous areas
hospitals
95
113
93
usage factors
91
99
worksheet example
totals
worksheet examples
82
83
108
123
138
157
109
124
158
164
care
48-bed nursing care
facility example
160
163
user groups
152
154
worksheet example
totals
176
worksheet examples
171
retirement homes
140
155
175
miscellaneous facilities
225
Index Terms
Links

calculating
in heat loss equations
hydrotherapy
jails
showers
tables and equations
tempering devices
56
253
74
181
51
206
6
69
mixing tubes or areas in

burners
mixing valves
319
337
Mixing Valves and Hot Water

Temperature
monel
262
285
mop sinks
41
49
morgues
77
91
considerations
93
99
82
Moritz, A. R.
83
13
morning peak demand

21
130
22
motels. See hotels and motels

movement of buildings
207
MRI machines
114
Mulder, Bernie
xix
multi-loop immersion elements
300
Index Terms
Links
centralized systems
25
circulation systems for
239
demand determination
24
demographic profiles
23
examples
31
35

temperature table
274
laundries in
36
LMH factor and
26
patterns of demand
19
peak vs. average demand
26
potential traps
36
retrofitting
28
steam water heaters
333
multifunction full-condensing
equipment
17
multilevel facilities
276
multiple flues
313
multiple game events
204
17
multiple stamped ribbon

ports
320
multiple systems
high school considerations
56
hospital user group totals

worksheets
81
hotels
69
schools
47
multiple temperature systems
272
Index Terms
Links
N
National Board of Boiler and
Pressure Vessel
Inspectors (NBBPVI)
15
National Electric Code (NEC),
xxi
17
xxi
17
National Fire Protection

Association (NFPA)
National Fuel Gas Code
324
National Sanitation Foundation (NSF)
xxi
natural convection
283
natural gas heat sources
185
16
330
NBBPVI (National Board of

Boiler and Pressure
Vessel Inspectors)
15
NEC (National Electric Code),
xxi
Neeck, James T.
xix
neonatal intensive care
113
net expansion of water
354
17
New Information on Seruice

Water Heating
261
New Methods for Analyzing

Hot Water Systems
262
NFPA (National Fire

Protection Association)
xxi
17
nichrome (nickel chrome)
301
302
NICU (neonatal intensive care)
113
nighttime peak demand
22
nitrile rubber (NR)
xxi
non-metering faucets
236
303
286
Index Terms
Links
nonambulatory patients
bathing tubs for
137
157
nonurban hotels
noon-time demand in spas
152
154
61
130
nourishment rooms
hospitals
73
care facilities
NR (nitrile rubber)
135
xxi
286
NSF (National Sanitation

Foundation)
xxi
nuclear power plants
197
nurseries. See obstetrics/

nursery areas
nurses stations
94
48-bed nursing care facility example
159
111
characteristics
73
91
89
82
96
156
161
83
101
109
152
153
156
124
care/retirement
homes
135
159
166
176
Index Terms
Links
nursing care facilities

158
central bathing
137
defined
133
dietary and food service
136
156
159
161

temperature table
274
hydrotherapy
136
159
table
151
laundries
138
miscellaneous areas
160
nurses stations
135
159
resident areas
135
158
usage factors
152
user group analysis
135
worksheet examples
147
165
worksheet totals
144
176
worksheets
140
160
O
OB (obstetrics).
See obstetrics/nursery areas
OBrien, Tim
xix
obstetrics/nursery areas
95
113
93
obstetrics (OB)
xxi
99
Index Terms
Links
obstetrics/nursery areas (Cont.)

usage factors
90
82
83
107
115
worksheet examples
109
occupancy rates
in hotels
70
in retirement homes
139
in spas and health clubs
129
occupants. See populations

off-peak generation
heat pumps
office buildings
328
28
229
OHRD (Ontario Hydro

Research Division)
xxi
heat pump applications
330
as heating medium
280
refineries
190
on-call rooms
94
Oil
on-demand controls
111
258
one bedroom apartments. See

one compartment sinks. See
Ontario Hydro Research
Division (OHRD)
open systems
xxi
258
operating conditions for heat

exchangers
281
288
124
Index Terms
Links
ore processing facilities
190
orifices in burners
320
outdoor line insulation
260
outgoing water
pressure differences in
steam feed-forward
systems
336

formula
298
temperature and approach
280
outlet fittings
outpatient surgery
output energy in formulas
314
318
298
314
318
95
113
output water. See outgoing

water
overlapping use
49
77
oversizing
avoiding in multifamily
buildings
25
costs and
37
standard methods and,
xvii
P
P. See hot water multiplier
pain threshold
13
pantries
185
pantry sinks
214
paper mills
196
215
218
Index Terms
Links
parents at spas and health

clubs
130
particulate fouling
indirect fired water heaters and
295
plate and frame heat ex-changers and
281
shell and tube devices

and
282
patient areas
hospitals
93
111
72
91
96
usage factors
88
82
83
109
100
115
worksheet example
totals
worksheet examples
nursing homes
worksheet example
totals
176
worksheet examples
165
Patterns of Domestic Hot

Water Consumptionfor a
Multifamily Building
payment for hot water, demand and
38
25
37
peak demand
alternative systems
17
33
hospital laundries
76
90
hospital worksheets
81
124
Index Terms
Links
peak demand (Cont.)

hotels
61
43
19
25
26

heaters and
327
resort hotels
60

128
sports arenas and stadium fixtures
204
student dormitories
39
surgical suites
75
time of day and
26
vs. average demand
26
Pearlman, M.
pedicures
38
128
129
peel and stick labels in heat

trace systems
269
pelvic exam rooms
114
perfect gases, volume of
351
Performance of Domestic Hot

Water Systems in Five
Apartment Buildings
37
pesticide storage rooms
209
Petes Plugs
248
petrochemical facilities
333
petroleum refineries
190
pH values
295
See also
alkalinity of water; hard
Index Terms
Links
pH values (Cont.)
water
pharmaceutical facilities
188
195
phase, electric water heaters

and
207
photographic dark rooms
112
photography labs
196
physical therapy areas
89
198
204
153
physics laboratories. See

laboratories
pilot plants
188
pinhole leaks in copper piping
244
Pipe Sizing (ASHRAE)
261
piping
expansion
259
heat loss
254
heat pump systems
328
heat trace systems
270
heating
235
348
349
331
instantaneous point of
use heaters
243
insulation
250
pipe routing in sports arenas
205
steam systems
338
surface temperature
251
time delays tables
237
untraced piping
278
vent pipes
323
volumes table
350
weight of
235
259
339
Index Terms
Links
Piping Systems
261
plastic barriers in heat ex-changers
285
plate and frame heat ex-changers
285
approach temperatures
and
281
precipitation and particulates
281

advantages
284
and
288
compared to other types
281
double-wall plate and

frame exchangers
287
plate and frame heat

exchangers
281
285
prime surface
heat ex-changers
285
welded plate and frame

exchangers
287
plumbing drawings
273
The Plumbing Engineer as a

Forensic Engineer
Plumbing Fixture Fittings
262
261
point-of-use applications
defined
242
grocery stores
227
heat trace systems
270
208
temperature
206
Index Terms
Links
pools
calculating demand
130
127
128

demand
130
226
shower rooms
129
populations
by apartment size
26
demographic profiles
23
density of population
23
hotel considerations
70
23
schools
47
48
130
working tenants in
multi-family buildings
ports in gas burners
22
319
320
Position Paper on Hot Water

Temperature Limitations
261
post-birthing rooms
77
postsurgery rooms
111
93
potable water treatment

plants
pots and pans sinks
190
198
225
pounds per square inch

gauge (PSIG)
power circuits
xxi
306
Index Terms
Links
power connection kits

269
273
power plants
190
power vent systems
321
197
precipitation, plate and frame

heat exchangers and
281
preheating
inlet water in feed-forward
systems
338
laundry water supply
222
prerinse sinks
113
demand
65
food services
92
84
87
86
103
119
122
hospitals
92
112
kitchens
50
52
53
151
147
149
156
55
187
care/retirement
homes
142
168
prisons
187
schools
50
52
53
prescrapper sinks
50
87
151
preset flow control devices

balancing systems
244
Index Terms
Links
preset flow control devices (Cont.)

preset automatic flow
control valves
247
pressure
Boyle's law
351
dangerous water pressures
343
equations
354
head capacity of circulating pumps
257
heat exchangers and
281
326
72

with separate tanks
312
water heaters and
295
kitchen usage and
137
measuring devices
248
sensing in feed-forward
steam units
sterilization equipment
336
76
93
pressure-balanced shower
valves
209
pressure-formed sheets in
heat exchangers
pressure measuring devices
285
248
pressure relief valves

heat pump systems
standards
storage tanks
Price, D. C.
332
15
298
315
37
Index Terms
Links
primary air burners
319
prime surface heat exchangers
285
principal's toilets
printing and publishing facilities
46
190
196
prisons
179
example
184
185
heat trace systems
274
kitchens
187
laundries
188
life cycle of
180
276
277
84
86
100
115
123
79
80
72
and
185
storage tank sizing
186
work-release programs
186
private lavatories and toilets

105
homes
142
147
149
165
204
209
72
91
private suites in stadiums
203
209
proactive feed-forward systems
336
private patient rooms
135
156
Index Terms
Links
probable occupancy rates

calculations
sizing and
26
process fluids
281
professional patrons at spas
130
protective suits at chemical

processing plants
psig (gage pressure)
196
352
PSIG (pounds per square inch

gauge),
public laundries
31
public lavatories and toilets

84
86
102
115
79
72
42
maximum flow rates
80
43
236
homes
142
147
171
175
public restrooms
160
149
schools
publishing facilities
49
204
209
190
196
Pumps
electric
327
head capacity
257

103
Index Terms
Links
Pumps (Cont.)
with separate tanks
311
recirculation pumps
257
refrigeration units
332
335
339
types of circulating
pumps
258
Pumps
262
Pumps and Pump Systems
262
purified water in sterilization
195
pushbutton self-closing control valves.
180
Q
quality of water. See water
quality
quarter circle wash stations
191
questions. See gathering information
R
R factor (thermal resistivity)
radiology departments
260
95
rain, insulation and
260
raised port burners
320
raw materials processing
196
re-gasketing maintenance
287
reactive feedback units
334
ready-mix concrete plants
198
rebates, utility
328
114
Index Terms
Links
recirculating hot water systems

air elimination
259
circulation systems
239
commercial, industrial,
and large residential
projects
239
controls
258
delays in hot water
234
flow balancing devices
245
head capacity of pumps
257
heat trace systems
242
insulation
259
length of systems
234
open and closed systems
258
point-of-use heaters
242
problems
233
pump types
258
238
243
required circulation rate

example
254
return piping and pumps
249
335
steam water heaters
338
storage volume and
16
stratification and
42
water delivery methods

recirculating prerinse sinks
44
238
50
87
216
219
151
recirculating pumps. See cir-culating pumps

recovery periods
examples
Index Terms
Links
recovery periods (Cont.)

equations
football stadiums
general design principles
5
63
213
15
grocery stores
227
heat pumps
328
329
hotel kitchens
67
hotels
62
immersion elements and
300

with separate tanks
laundry requirements
312
43
222
preheating laundry water

supply
222
prison laundries
188
sanitizers
194
showers and
57

128
335
storage tank indirect water heaters
292
stratification and
16
recovery rooms in hospitals
112
recovery systems
329
185
refrigerants
as heating medium
280
Index Terms
Links
refrigerants (Cont.)
refrigerant-based water
heating systems
17
refrigerant evaporators/
condensers
refrigeration heat reclaim systems
288
329
See also
considerations
17
grocery stores
227
refrigeration pressure/temperature
controls
regional plumbing codes
332
16
relationships in steady-state
heat balance formula
relief valves
standards
unseating of
15
343
225
remodeling buildings
272
28
remote bulb thermostats
305
remote evaporators
327

heaters
326
327
158
160
331
repairs. See maintenance

resident areas
48-bed nursing facility
example
Index Terms
Links
resident areas (Cont.)

161
164
135
152
156
155
157
care facilities
176
226
retirement homes
139
205
173
residential dishwashers
flow rates
12
236
79
80
hospital worksheets
84
86
117
142
147
149
homes
173
158
residential heat pump water

heaters
325
326
residential laundries
flow rates
jails and prisons
12
236
84
86
115
142
147
149
171
174
180
homes
117
Index Terms
Links
residential laundries (Cont.)

139
158
residential water heaters. See

domestic hot water (DSH);
equipment
residents. See populations
resistance of elements
302
resistance wires
300
resorts. See hotels and motels

response times in steam feedback systems
335
restaurants
fast-food
food kiosks
228
39
heat pump systems
331
329
in multifunction buildings
40
36
in shopping malls
228
steam water heaters
333
retail spaces
in multifunction buildings
36
in office buildings
229
in shopping malls
228
retired patrons at spas
130
retirement homes
48-bed example
160
defined
134
157
161
table
151
Index Terms
Links
retirement homes (Cont.)

laundries
139
155
160
miscellaneous areas
140
155
158
resident areas
139
155
160
worksheet examples
147
173
worksheet totals
144
176
worksheets
140
Retrofit of Building Energy

Systems and Processes
262
retrofitting buildings
272
28
return pipes
check valves and
245
239
entrapped air
259
head capacity
of circulating pumps
257
insulation
260
lack of in heat trace systems
266
sizing
249
ribbon port burners
320
rinse requirements
for dish-washing
rise in temperature
risers in heat trace systems
48
5
276
runout lines in heat trace

systems
270
275
160
Index Terms
Links
S
sacrificial anodes
298
314
315
safety concerns
337
hospitals
71
scalding
13
safety controls for heat pump

systems
safety equipment
332
1
Salisbury, Brian D.
xix
salt baths
129
Saltzberg, Edward
xix
262
same-day surgery
95
113
xviii
xx
Sampler, Donald L.
sanitization
food processing plants
194
grocery stores
227
hospital laundry example
222
sanitizing dishwashers
12
75
scalding
codes and
135
337
hospital codes and
73
safety concerns
13
scaling
heat exchangers
288
heat pump systems
332
293
295
318
Index Terms
Links
scaling (Cont.)
water heaters and
295
lime deposits
294
334
300
schedules. See also hours of

operation
in prisons
185
schools
calculating demand
49
elementary school example
52
expansion
49
47
general considerations
47

temperature table
274
high school example
54
kitchens and food services
47
50
population
47
48
showers
48
51
steam water heaters
333
system selection factors
56
types of
45
science rooms
Scott, J.Joe
scraping sinks
46
49
xviii
xx
112
scrub sinks
emergency rooms
95
hospital example
112
79
80
Index Terms
Links
scrub sinks (Cont.)

homes
obstetrics area
outpatient surgery
142
93
113
surgical suites
75
usage factors
90
worksheet examples
113
105
92
108
115
123
worksheets
Sealine, David A.
seasonal sports arenas
84
86
xviii
xx
262
205
seasonal temperatures of
water
338
seasonal usage of heat

pumps
330
seasonal water demand
20
secondary schools
45
security type showerheads
205
sediment
296
seismic requirements
207
self-closing valves
180
self-contained photo processors
198
self-limiting flow control car-tridges
247
48
314
332

systems
approved systems
267
circuit lengths
273
components
269
defined
242
266
272
273
121
Index Terms
Links
self-regulating heat trace (Cont.)

heating cables
266
horizontal mains and

supply risers
276
identifying pipes
270
insulation
275
maintenance temperatures
274
overview
265
performance variables to
consider
266
piping design
275
selecting cables
274
terminology
278
water and energy conservation
265
semicircular wash stations
191
semiprivate patient rooms
91
semiprivate rooms
hospital patient rooms
72
care facilities
senior high schools
sensors for steam water heaters
135
156
45
334
separate systems. See multiple systems

Service Hot Water Systems
57
261
room examples
214
215
flow rates
236
service sinks
schools
218
49
211
Index Terms
Links
261
servicing plumbing. See

maintenance
sewage treatment plants
190
sheaths on immersion elements
300
198
Sheet Metal and Air

Conditioning Contractors
National Association
(SMACNA),xxi
Retrofit of Building Energy
Systems and Processes
262
shell and tube devices

advantages
282
and
288
cleanliness of stream and
281
compared to other heat

exchangers
281
double-wall heat exchangers
284
337
steam water heater systems
340
tank heaters
283
TEMA (Tubular Exchange

Manufacturers Association)
standards
280
282
shift changes
industrial plants
190
nurses stations
89
wash-up duration
153
192
Index Terms
shop rooms in schools
shopping malls
Links
46
228
short-circuited water in
loops
244
showerheads
in calculations
51
hotel demand and
62
maximum flow rates
236
security type shower-heads
205
211
showers
calculating demand
210
compared to bathing
37
12
demand
examples
214
emergency showers
204
212
217
high schools
55
hospital locker rooms
92
112
79
80
90
100
105
107
121
123
hospital worksheets
84
86
hotels
59
61
hydrotherapy areas
74
92
191
192
42
43
jails and prisons
180
115
Index Terms
Links
showers (Cont.)
nursing/intermediate care facilities
142
147
149
156
157
care worksheets
170
171
173
obstetrics areas
77
90
93
patient rooms
73
91
94
184
185
prisons
95
resident areas in care

facilities
135
schools
46
shower rooms
48
51
206
208
130
181
129
spas, pools, health

clubs, and athletic
centers
128
sports arenas and

stadium fixtures
204
staff shower rooms in

hospitals
77
student dormitories
41
surgical suites
75
dump loads
193
duration
62
equations
181
flow rates
40
47
Legionnaires Disease
and
14
steam water heaters
333
Vichy and swiss showers
129
185
Index Terms
Links
showers (Cont.)
water temperature
winter vs. summer demand
206
20
shutoff valves
239
for fixed orifices and venturis
247
gas
315
isolating portions of systems
244
silverware washers
318
50
single bedroom apartments.

See 1-bedroom apartments
single compartment sinks.
See 1 -compartment sinks
single-loop immersion elements
300
single people at spas
130
single systems
69
sinks. See also specific types

of sinks (i.e., kitchen
sinks)
classrooms
faucet flow rates
52
236
84
86
74
92
hourly demand
65
initial fills and draw-downs
66
kitchens
48
laboratories
119
50
195
miscellaneous hospital
areas
77
Index Terms
Links
sinks (Cont.)
care facilities
136
138
156
50
54
315
319
school general purpose

usage
49
schools
48
service sinks
49
209
surgical suites
95
siphoning, preventing
300
sitz baths
77
sizing. See also names of specific systems to be sized

(i.e., laundries, hospitals)
costs and
generator size
37
238
30
heat exchangers
340
heat pump systems
331

with separate tanks
oversizing
retrofitting buildings
return piping and pumps
312
xvii
25
28
249

formula
storage tanks
183
systems
room examples
215
218
Index Terms
Links
systems (Cont.)
concrete processing water tanks
199
dormitory systems
39
hospital systems
71
hotel and motel systems
59
industrial facility systems
189
jail and prison systems
179
laundries
221
miscellaneous facilities
225
19
25
care/retirement
home systems
133
school systems
45
spas, pools, health

clubs, and athletic
center systems
127
sports arenas and

stadium systems
203
Sizing of Sewice Water Heating

Equipment in Commercial and
Institutional Buildings
skin damage
38
14
slaughter houses. See food

product facilities
sleeping quarters in nursing/
intermediate care facilities
slotted port burners
135
320
Index Terms
Links
SMACNA (Sheet Metal and Air

Conditioning Contractors
National Association)
xxi
small apartment buildings
30
small hospitals
93
small hotels
70
Smith, Jean B.
xx
snap-action surface-mounted
303
snap-action surface-mounted
thermostats
303
snap gaskets
287
social areas
160
soiled utility rooms

hospitals
73
94
111
95
113
122
79
80
84
86
care facilities
135
solar energy
as heating medium
280
solar water heaters
17
solid-state progressive sequencers

sonic cleaners
306
hospital user group usage

factors
user group example worksheets
worksheet examples
106
space cooling functions of

heat pumps
327
329
330
Index Terms
Links
spas
calculating demand
130
127
128

demand
130
shower rooms
129
special education rooms
46
special needs in therapy services

special use housing facilities
128
35
specialized tubs
nonambulatory patients
137
worksheet examples
170
specific heat of water

specific volume of water
Spielvogel, L. G.
346
354
38
spills
flue gas spillage
322
195
sponge bathing
88
sports arenas
baseball stadium example
214
commercial laundries in
208
demand assumptions
208
design traps
206
211
204
sizing systems
210
system design considerations
205
types of systems
207
Index Terms
Links
sports arenas (Cont.)

usage areas
203
water temperatures
206
sports teams
46
spot cooling
327
48
55
spray-type dishwashers. See

stadiums
baseball stadium exam-ple
214
commercial laundries in
208
demand assumptions
208
design traps
206
211
204
sizing systems
210
system design considerations
205
types of systems
207
usage areas
203
water temperatures
206
staff shower rooms

hospitals
77
care facilities
138
staff toilets
hospitals
73
111
care facilities
135
209
204
Index Terms
Links
stainless steel
in heat exchangers
285
pump fittings
258
288
stamped horizontal port

burners
stamped mono-port burners
320
320
standards and codes

heat exchangers
listing
state plumbing codes
static head in closed systems
279
16
205
16
258

formula
steam
as heating medium
185
tank heaters
283
282
Steam and Condensate Systems
341
steam generation plants
185
steam mains
338
steam sterilizers
95
280
112
113
steam water heaters

340
example
341
feed-forward units
336
feedback units
334
instantaneous water heaters
333
recirculation system piping

and operation
338
Index Terms
Links
steam water heaters (Cont.)

storage water heaters
333
types
333
steamers
48
steel mills
190
steel piping
235
steel water heaters
349
Steele, Alfred
262
237
sterile areas
hospital sterile supply
areas
76
195
sterilization
requirements for dish-washing
195
48
sterilizers
75
Stevens, Kris
xx
92
95
storage. See also storage

tanks
general design principles
15
generation rate and capacity research
30
peak vs. average demand and
26
storage rooms
209
storage steam water heaters
333
storage tank electric water heaters

commercial and residential
297
dip tubes
300
elements
300
tank fittings
298
tanks
298
197
Index Terms
Links
storage tank feedback systems
335
storage tank gas water heaters

burners
319
defined
313
dip tubes
315
flues and heat exchangers
313
tank fittings
314
tanks
314
venting systems
321
318
318
storage tank indirect water

heaters
291
295
storage tanks
applications
apartment building
example
34

room example
219
213
high school systems
57
hotel kitchens
66
hotels
62
194
43
jail example
183
laundry requirements
222
26
prison example
student dormitories
63
185
186
41
corrosion
314
dip tubes
300
Index Terms
Links
storage tanks (Cont.)

draining and cleaning
315
298
expansion formulas
348
expansion tanks
343
fittings
298
gas water heaters
314
heat loss
252
326
314
318
255
256

with separate tanks
311
linings
298
335
steam water heaters
333
stratification
16
tank draw efficiency
300
tank mounting collars
283
tank recirculation systems

vertical and horizontal tanks
314
42
44
16
207
stores
convenience stores
226
329
grocery stores
227
331
malls
228
supermarkets
226
329
330
strainers
for fixed orifices and venturis
245
heat pump systems
331
stratification in water tanks

eliminating
42
overview
16
44
Index Terms
Links
stresses
on indirect fired water
heaters
293
on pipes
259
student dormitories
39
student toilets
46
studio apartments
26
suite hotels
61
summer season water de-mand
20
supermarkets
226
329
330
supplemental water heating

systems
17
supply. See incoming cold

water supply; incoming
hot water supply
supply pipes
check valves and
245
239
insulation
260
risers in heat trace systems
276
surface-mounted high limit

safety devices
298
303
surface-mounted thermo-stats
298
303
surface temperature of piping
251
surgical patients
72
92
surgical suites
95
112
considerations
75
97
Index Terms
Links
surgical suites (Cont.)

usage factors
worksheet examples
worksheet totals
swimming pools
90
105
121
82
83
109
46
swing care wings in nursing

facilities
158
swiss showers
129
symbols in heat trace systems
273
system sizing. See names of

specific systems (i.e.,
laundries, hospitals)
system temperature range
Szydlowski, R.
278
38
T
T & P relief valves
tableware
tank draw efficiency
243
48
300
tank heaters. See gas water

heaters; indirect fired
water heaters; storage tank
tank mounting collars
283
tank-within-a-tank indirect
fired water heaters
292
tankless coil systems

32
water heaters
295
124
Index Terms
Links
tankless systems.
See instan-taneous systems
tanks. See storage tanks
tape in heat trace systems
Tarbutton, George B.
269
xx
tax credits
328
Taylor, H.
38
teachers lounges
46
teachers workrooms
46
49
tee/inline splice kits

269
273
TEMA (Tubular Exchange

Manufacturers Association)
xxi
280
temperature
condensation and
15
12
differential in heat recovery equations

equations
at fixture outlet
5
354
6
heat trace systems
266
large differences in
283
lime deposits and
294
64
78
requirements
concrete
gathering requirements
198
47
heat trace maintenance temperature

table
hospital laundries
274
76
92
Index Terms
Links
temperature (Cont.)
72
78
hospital worksheets
81
84
86
hydrotherapy
74
92
136
156
138
222
jail and prison considerations
179
kitchens
137
187
laundries
76
92
care laundries
138
prison kitchens
187
showers
210
special therapeutic
needs
128
sports arenas and

stadium fixtures
204
scalding
13
sterilization
76
206
93
system temperature
range
278
worksheets
140
temperature controlled steam

valves
335
temperature cross
defined
281
plate-type heat exchangers and
284
283
temperature differential
drops in system temperature range
278
5
Index Terms
Links
Temperature Limits in Service

Hot Water Systems
262
temperature relief valves

heat pump systems
standards
storage tanks
temperature rise
temperature sensing bulbs
332
15
298
315
5
335
tempered water. See mixed

water temperatures
tempering valves
temples
69
225
tenants. See populations

termination
cable end termination in
heat trace systems
269
electrical terminals on
immersion elements
300
end termination
273
273
terminology
heat exchangers
280

systems
278
testing laboratories.
See laboratories
thawing food
228
grocery stores
227
Index Terms
Links
therapy services
calculating demand
130
128

128
sports arenas and stadium fixtures
206
therapy tubs
73
91
Thermal and Water Vapor

Transmission Data
thermal efficiency (R factor)
261
4
260
thermal expansion
allowing for
15
293
piping
259
refrigerant liquids
326
tank materials
348
283
thermal expansion tanks. See

expansion tanks
thermal insulation.
See insulation
thermal stress in indirect
fired water heaters
293
thermodynamic properties of
water
347
thermostatic aquastat controls
258
thermostatic capillary systems
336
thermostatic capsules
339
thermostatic mixing valves
74
112
209
Index Terms
Links
thermostats
303
gas water heaters
316
heat pump systems
332
315
storage tanks
298
thirty mA ground fault equipment
317
318
267
Thrasher, W. H.
38
57
threaded nipples
298
314
339
340
ticket booths
204
209
time clock controls
259
time-delay sequencers
306
three-way thermostatic
capsules (diverting valves)
time delays. See delays in hot

water
time length. See duration
time of day, peak flows and
26
time periods for showers
48
time rates for heat transfer
time to tap. See delays in hot

water
timed-control valves
180
titanium
285
To Combine or Not to Combine
262
toilets
229
grocery stores
227
191
prisons
184
Index Terms
Links
toilets (Cont.)
public
42
226
shopping malls
228
special school facilities
46
staff toilets
73
training rooms
204
trauma rooms
113
travelers hotels
tray cleaning
60
43
209
61
227
triple compartment sinks. See

3-compartment sinks
troubleshooting
multifamily building sizing
36
problems with inadequate

hot water systems
233

systems
233
sports arena design
206
truck tanks, concrete

tub rooms
243
199
94
tube failures in heat exchangers
284
tube-in-tube heat exchangers
281
tube-on-tube heat exchangers
281
tube velocity
282
tubes, weight of
235
111
157
284
tubs. See bathtubs; hydro-therapy

tubs; laundry tubs
Tubular Exchange Manufacturers
Association (TEMA)
xxi
280
Index Terms
Links
turbulence
in heat exchangers
286
water heaters
turnaround time for showers
295
210
two bedroom apartments. See

U
U-tube bayonet-type heat
exchangers
335
U-tube double-wall heat ex-changers
284
282
UL. See Underwriters

Labo-ratories, Inc. (UL)
uncirculated hot water
branches
234
Underwriters Laboratories, Inc. (UL)
xxi
electrical components listing
16
heat trace systems
267
unheated distances in heat

trace systems
278
Uniform Plumbing Code Il-lustrated

Training Manual
262
uniforms
blood on
188
laundries and
188
uninsulated hot water

branches
unions in heat pump systems
234
331
Index Terms
units of measurement in formulas
university steam water systems
unrecirculated tanks
Links
3
333
16
untraced piping
278
updrafts, gas venting systems and
321
upfeed hot water systems
239
urban hotels
U.S. Food and Drug Administration
240
61
194
user groups
hospitals. See also under
specific groups (i.e., nurses
stations, surgical suites)
32-bed hospital
example
93
300-bed example
124
111
109
defined
72
72
91
laundries
75
92
98
total worksheets
81
109
124
usage factors
88
worksheet examples
84
worksheets
78
homes. See also under
specific groups (i.e., nurses
stations, patient areas)
158
defined
134
134
161
113
Index Terms
Links
user groups (Cont.)

total worksheets
144
usage factors
152
worksheet examples
147
worksheets
140
176
165
users. See populations

utensil sinks
utensil washers
225
227
228
50
utilities
laundries
222
rebates
328
205
utility plants
190
197
V
vapor barriers in heat trace
systems
vapor compression
269
325
vegetable sinks
demand
87
high school kitchens
55
151
prison kitchens
187
school kitchens
50
52
53
velocity
erosion
244
in recirculating systems
244
vent caps
321
vent pipe connections
321
323
Index Terms
Links
vents
gas water heaters
316
pipe connections
323
317

heaters
321
venturi flow meters
245
vertical draft hoods
322
323
vertical drilled ports case

burners
320
vertical-to-horizontal draft
hoods
322
vertical water tanks

storage capacity
stratification
Vichy showers
Vine, E.
207
16
128
129
38
visiting team locker rooms
203
viton
286
217
voltage
207
resistance of elements
302
volumes
of materials
354
of water
346
volumetric expansion
354
349
W
waiting for hot water. See
delays in hot water
Ward, John R.
xx
Index Terms
wards in hospitals
warehouses
Links
72
190
197
warm air sources for heat

pumps
warming kitchens
325
48
wash cycles
averages
222
dormitory laundries
40
loads per hour
75
number per hour
222
wash down activities
227
wash fountains
examples
214
example
193
211
215
218
wash rooms. See lavatories

wash stations
192
191
193
washing disinfectors. See

disinfectors
wasting energy. See energy
conservation
wasting water. See water conservation
water
expansion formulas
348
as heating medium
280
volume of
346
wastage. See water con-servation

Index Terms
Links
water (Cont.)
weight of
346
266
270
217
218
water conservation
238
energy conservation
234
265
laws
wastage tables
37
271
water expansion formulas
346
water hammer
336
water heaters
applications
room examples
215
212
192
43
jail example
183
distances to fixtures
233
expansion
348
types
297
heat exchangers
279
heat pump water

heaters
325
indirect fired water

heaters
291
instantaneous gas
heaters with
separate tanks
311
Index Terms
Links
water heaters (Cont.)

instantaneous point
of use heaters
242
recirculating domestic
hot water systems
233
residential and commercial
297
self-regulating heat
trace systems
265
steam water heaters
333

heaters
313
water lines. See piping

water paths (ankle therapy)
129
water quality
hospital sterilization
93

with separate tanks
for sterilization equipment
water treatment plants
312
76
190
198
water velocities in
244
wattage, resistance of elements and
302
weapons, hot water as
180
weather, insulation and
260
weekday water demand

flow patterns
21
19
weekend water demand

flow patterns
21
monitoring demand
28
Index Terms
Links
weekend water demand (Cont.)

19
seasonal demand
20
weeping in plate and frame

units
289
weight
of heated water
of piping or tubes
346
235
welded connections in heat

exchangers
286
welded plates in steam

storage water heaters
Wen-Yung, W. Chan
334
262
Wentz, Thomas A.
xx
Werden, R. G.
38
wet vacuum equipment
195
whirlpool baths
examples
214
212
hotel demand
Whitworth, Patrick L.
217
61
209
211
xx
Wilcox, Greg
262
Windsor, Tod
262
winter season
monitoring demand during
28
water demand
20
wiring circuits for

305
Index Terms
Links
work-release programs in
prisons
186
work shifts. See shift changes

workforce clients at spas
working tenants in multifamily buildings
130
22
worksheets
hospitals
32-bed hospital examples
100
109
300-bed examples
115
124
user group examples
84
user group work-sheets
78
worksheet totals
81
homes
48-bed examples
164
user group examples
147
worksheet totals
144
worksheets
140
retirement home examples
173
wraparound elements
300
Y
year-round sports arenas
205
Z
Zamboni machines
205
zinc plating
303

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American Society of Plumbing Engineers

Copyright 2003 by American Society of Plumbing Engineers

Figure 15.5 Typical Layout for 2 to 4-Story

Table 1.3 Time/Water Temperature Combinations

Table 14.3 Approximate Time Required to Get

ACEEE American Council for Energy Efficient Economy

FUNDAMENTALS OF DOMESTIC WATER

Demand Flow Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ELEMENTARY AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

HOTELS AND MOTELS

Hotel and Motel Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

SPAS, POOLS, HEALTH CLUBS, AND

NURSING/INTERMEDIATE CARE AND

JAIL AND PRISON HOUSING UNITS

10. INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES

11. SPORTS ARENAS AND STADIUMS

13. MISCELLANEOUS FACILITIES

SECTION II EQUIPMENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

Results of Delays in Delivering Hot Water

15. SELF-REGULATING HEAT TRACE SYSTEMS

16. HEAT EXCHANGERS

17. INDIRECT FIRED WATER HEATERS

18. ELECTRIC WATER HEATERSSTORAGE

Controls for Residential and Light-Duty,

19. GAS WATER HEATERSINSTANTANEOUS

21. HEAT PUMP WATER HEATERS

Drawbacks of the Heat Pump Water Heater .

22. STEAM WATER HEATERS

23. EXPANSION TANKS

BASIC RELATIONSHIPS AND UNITS

time rate of heat transfer, Btu/h (kJ/h)

For the purposes of this manual, the specific heat of water

Example 1.1 Calculate the heat output rate required to heat

= heat loss of the water heater, Btu/h (kJ/h)

Refer to Equations 1.1 and 1.2 to determine q. Many water

= 594 217.5 kJ/h

HEAT RECOVERYELECTRIC WATER HEATERS

Temperature Rise, T, F (C)

Gal (L) of Water per kWh

Using Equation 1.6 and the above table, we find

MIXED WATER TEMPERATURE

P is a hot water multiplier and can be used to determine the

Table 1.1 Hot Water Multiplier, P

T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)

Th = 120F Hot Water System Temperature

T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)

(Table 1.1 continued)

T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)

Th = 140F Hot Water System Temperature

T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)

Th = 150F Hot Water System Temperature

T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)

(Table 1.1 continued)

T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)

Th = 180F Hot Water System Temperature

T m, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (F)

Table 1.1 (M) Hot Water Multiplier, P

Th = 49C Hot Water System Temperature

Th = 54C Hot Water System Temperature

Tm, Water Temperature at Fixture Outlet (C)

[Table 1.1 (M) continued]